Solution to Assignment 3 FM : 53

Diode circuits

1. a) i) Explain the operation of a bridge rectifier circuit. ii) How can you reduce the ripple
voltage? iii) Why bridge rectifiers are preferred over centre-tapped full wave rectifiers?
[5 + 1 + 2]

i) The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using a process called full-
wave rectification. The most familiar network for performing such a function appears in Fig. 2.53
with its four diodes in a bridge configuration.

During the period t = 0 to T/2 the polarity of the input is as shown in Fig. 2.54. The resulting polarities
across the ideal diodes are also shown in Fig. 2.54 to reveal that D2 and D3 are conducting, whereas D1
and D4 are in the “off” state. The net result is the configuration of Fig. 2.55, with its indicated current and
polarity across R. Since the diodes are ideal, the load voltage is vo = vi, as shown in the same figure.

For the negative region of the input the conducting diodes are D1 and D4, resulting in the configuration
of Fig. 2.56. The important result is that the polarity across the load resistor R is the same as in Fig. 2.54,
establishing a second positive pulse, as shown in Fig. 2.56.
Over one full cycle the input and output voltages will appear as shown in Fig. 2.57.

ii) The ripple voltage can be reduced by connecting a (storage) capacitor across the load.

iii) Preference of bridge rectifiers over centre-tapped full wave rectifiers

1) In case of a bridge rectifier the PIV across either of the non-conducting diodes is equal to the peak
value of the transformer secondary voltage, Vm, whereas the PIV of each diode in a centre tapped
full wave rectifier (FWR) is 2Vm. Hence, diodes of higher rating are to be used in centre-tapped
FWR.
2) Transformers used in centre-tapped FWR are bulky, consume more space and eventually costlier
than the two extra diodes used in bridge rectifiers.
3) Transformer utilization factor (TUF) is considerably higher in case of bridge rectifier. Since the
current flowing in the transformer secondary is purely alternating, the TUF increases from 0.693
to 0.812, which is the main reason for the popularity of a bridge rectifier.
 4) The bridge rectifiers are used in applications allowing floating output terminals, i.e., no output
terminal is grounded.

Note (not part of the answer) : The following parameters are same for both
 Efficiency = 81.2%
 Ripple factor = 0.48
 Form factor = 1.11
 Vdc (no load) = 2Vm / π
 Average current = Idc / 2

b) Draw the output voltage waveform of the clipper circuit shown in following Figure 1.
VB1=1 V, VB2= 2 V, cut-in voltage (V0) = 0.5 V. [7]

Figure 1

For time t --> 0 to T/2

 The diode, D2 is reverse biased by both Vin (20 V(p-p)), VB2 (2 V) and D2 cut-in voltage,
V0 (0.5 V) for the full positive half cycle, t -> 0 to T/2.
 The diode, D1 is forward biased by Vin and reverse biased by VB1 (1 V) and D1 cut-
in voltage, V0 (0.5 V).

Replacing the diode, D1 by its equivalent circuit and applying Kirchoff’s Voltage
Law (KVL) (clockwise direction), in loop 1, we get

- Vin + VR + VB1 + V0 = 0.

Neglecting VR, till Vin ≤ VB1 + Vo, i.e. Vin ≤ 1 V + 0.5 V (= 1.5 V), the diode, D1 is reverse
biased and no current flows in the loop 1. The output voltage, Vout = Vin.

For Vin > VB1 + Vo, i.e. Vin > 1 V + 0.5 V (= 1.5 V), the diode, D1 path is short circuit
and Vout = 0.
For time t --> T/2 to T

 The diode, D1 is reverse biased by both Vin (20 V(p-p)), VB1 (1 V) and D1 cut-in voltage,
V0 (0.5 V) for the full negative half cycle, t -> T/2 to T.
 The diode, D2 is forward biased by Vin and reverse biased by VB2 (2 V) and D2 cut-
in voltage, V0 (0.5 V).

Replacing the diode, D2 by its equivalent circuit and applying KVL (anti-clockwise
direction), in loop 2, we get

- Vin + V0 + VB2 + VR = 0.

Neglecting VR, till Vin ≤ VB2 + Vo, i.e. Vin ≤ 2 V + 0.5 V (= 2.5 V), the diode, D2 is reverse
biased and no current flows in the loop 2. The output voltage, Vout = Vin.

For Vin > VB2 + Vo, i.e. Vin > 2 V + 0.5 V (= 2.5 V), the diode, D2 path is short circuit
and Vout = 0.
 The resulting input and output waveforms are shown in the figure below.

2. The circuit given below (Figure 2) has an input voltage Vin = 200V, R = 10KΩ and the load
having resistance 5KΩ. If the Zener voltage VZ = 40V and Zener impedance ZZ = 2Ω. Find the
current through R (I), Zener current (IZ) and load current (IL). [5]

Figure 2
Applying KVL, in the loop in the left part of the circuit, we have
Vin = (I x R) + (IZ x RZ) + VZ
or, 200 = (I x 10,000) + (IZ x 2) + 40
or, 10,000 I + 2 IZ = 160 -------------- (1)

Now, considering potential drop across the Zener and RL to be the same, we have
(IZ x RZ) + VZ = IL x RL = (I – IZ) x RL
 or, (IZ x 2) + 40 = (I – IZ) x 5000
or, 2 IZ + 40 = 5000 I – 5000 IZ
or, 5000 I - 5002 IZ = 40 -------------- (2)
Multiplying eq (2) by 2, we get
10000 I – 10004 IZ = 80 -------------- (3)
eq (1) – eq (3) gives
10006 IZ = 80,
or, IZ = 80 / 10006 = 7.995 mA.

From eq (1),
I = {160 – (2 x 7.995 x 10-3)} / 10000 = 15.998 mA.
IL = I – IZ = 15.998 – 7.995 = 8.003 mA.

3. a) Define and derive the ripple factor of a rectifier circuit. Determine the ripple factor for a
half wave rectifier. [2+3+5]

Ripple factor of a rectifier circuit determines the amount of ripple in the output voltage of
the rectifier. Lower the ripple factor, truer is the dc voltage.

Ripple factor is given by

γ = [(I2rms / I2dc) - 1]½

Mathematically,
rms value of ac part of the voltage
Ripple factor, γ = dc value of the voltage

rms value of ac part of the current

or, γ = dc value of the current

Again,

Ripple factor, γ = [(Form factor)2 - 1]½

Where, Form factor, FF = Vrms / Vavg

For a half wave rectifier,

Vrms = Vm /2, and

Vavg = Vm / π.

So, FF = π / 2.
Therefore, Ripple factor, γ = [(Form factor)2 - 1]½

or, γ = [(π / 2)2 - 1] ½ = 1.2113

in percentage, γ =121.13 %

b) Draw the output voltage waveform of the clipper circuit shown in following Figure 3.
VB1=3 V and cut-in voltage (V0) = 0.5 V. [5]

Figure 3

Replacing the diode with its equivalent circuit, we have the following :-

from time t --> 0 to T/2, for Vin = 0 to 3.5V, and from 3.5V to 0, the diode is reverse biased
and can be replaced by an o.c. the output voltage Vout follows the input voltage, Vin. For
Vin = 3.5V to 10V, the diode is forward biased and can be replaced by a s.c. the output
voltage Vout is clipped at 3.5V, as shown.

from time t --> T/2 to T, the diode is reverse biased and can be replaced by an o.c. the
output voltage Vout follows the input voltage, Vin, ignoring any voltage drop across the
resistance, R.
4. a) Write the name of the circuit shown in Figure 4. Explain its operation and draw the output
voltage across the load for a sinusoidal input. Assume the diode is ideal. VP = 5V. [1+4+2]

Figure 4
Note the corrected convention of representing a polarized electrolytic capacitor.

For t --> T/2 to T

The diode is forward biased, and can be replaced by a s.c. The equivalent circuit is as
shown in the middle of the figure below.
The current passes through the s.c. and no current passes through the resistance RL.
Therefore, Vo = 0.

For t --> 0 to T/2

The diode is reverse biased, and can be replaced by an o.c. The equivalent circuit is as
shown in the left of the figure below.
Applying KVL, in the loop (clockwise direction) we get,
-Vi - VC + Vo = 0
or, Vo = Vi + VC = 2 Vi.

The output waveform is as shown superimposed on the input waveform. Note that for
ease of understanding, t --> T/2 to T is explained first, then t --> 0 to T/2. But for a periodic
waveform it does not matter.

The circuit is that of a positive unbiased clamper.

b) Draw and explain the operation of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier circuit. Why bridge rectifiers
are preferred over centre-tapped full wave rectifiers? [5 + 2]
The centre-tapped full wave rectifier requires two diodes and a centre-tapped transformer to
establish the input signal across each section of the secondary of the transformer.

During the positive portion of vi applied to the primary of the transformer, the network will appear as
shown below with a positive pulse across each section of the secondary coil. D1 assumes the short-
circuit equivalent, and D2 the open-circuit equivalent, as determined by the secondary voltages and
the resulting current direction. The output voltage appears as shown to the right of the circuit.
 During the negative portion of the input, the network appears as shown below, reversing the roles of
the diodes but maintaining the same polarity for the voltage across the load resistor, R. The net effect
is the same output as that appearing in the upper figure with the same dc levels.

5. a) Draw a positive clipper circuit using a diode. Sketch the output waveform for a square wave
input. [3]

b) Draw and explain the operation of a half-wave rectifier circuit. Considering the ideal
diode model obtain the expression for ripple factor. [3 + 4]

During the interval t = 0 to T/2 in Fig. 2.44 the polarity of the applied voltage vi is such as to establish “pressure” in
the direction indicated and turn on the diode with the polarity appearing above the diode. Substituting the short-
circuit equivalence for the ideal diode will result in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.45, where it is fairly obvious that
the output signal is an exact replica of the applied signal. The two terminals defining the output voltage are
connected directly to the applied signal via the short-circuit equivalence of the diode.

For the period T/2 to T, the polarity of the input vi is as shown in Fig. 2.46, and the resulting polarity across the ideal
diode produces an “off” state with an open-circuit equivalent. The result is the absence of a path for charge to flow,
and vo = iR = (0)R = 0 V for the period T/2 to T.

The input vi and the output vo are sketched together in Fig. 2.47, for comparison purposes.
References
1. Electronic devices and Circuit Theory – Boylestad & Nashelsky, 11th edition
2. Electronic devices and Circuits – Salivahanan, Suresh Kumar, Mc Graw Hill @ 2018

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