WEEK 1:The concert of Europe: 1

WEEK 3: Failure of the League of Nations 6

WEEK 4: The Bipolar Cold War 9
Week 5: Decolonization and the Third World 14
Week 6: Detente and the “End of the Cold War W 21
Week 3: Discuss the successes and failures of the league of nations 39
Week 7: The International System after the End of the Cold War 54
Week 8: European Integration 58
Week 9: Rise of Asia 62
Week 10: The divisions in Africa and the Middle East 66
WEEK 1:The concert of Europe:
The Concert of Europe refers to a system of diplomatic cooperation among major European
powers in the early 19th century. It was established after the Napoleonic Wars with the aim of
maintaining stability and preventing major conflicts on the continent. The key participants in
the Concert of Europe were Austria, Russia, Prussia, and the United Kingdom, with France
also being involved on occasion.
The Concert of Europe was based on the principles of collective security and balance of
power. The major powers agreed to hold regular conferences to discuss and resolve issues
that could potentially lead to conflicts. These conferences provided a platform for negotiation
and diplomatic engagement, allowing the powers to address territorial disputes, political
unrest, and other sources of tension.
One of the notable achievements of the Concert of Europe was the settlement of the Greek
War of Independence in 1830. The major powers came together to mediate a resolution that
allowed Greece to gain independence from the Ottoman Empire, while ensuring the stability
of the region. This demonstrated the effectiveness of the Concert of Europe in managing
conflicts and preserving the status quo.
However, the Concert of Europe was not without its limitations. It primarily served the
interests of the major powers, often neglecting the aspirations of smaller nations and regions.
Additionally, the system became increasingly strained as the 19th century progressed,
particularly with the rise of nationalism and the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Eventually,
the Concert of Europe was unable to prevent the outbreak of major conflicts, such as the
Crimean War and the Franco-Prussian War.
Despite its shortcomings, the Concert of Europe represented an important early attempt at
international cooperation and diplomacy. It laid the groundwork for future multilateral
organizations and agreements, and its principles of collective security and balance of power
continue to influence international relations today.

A group of countries, and also a system of balance of power that existed for most of the 19th
century
Compromised of five “great powers” - those states with the greatest capacity for war
Emerged after 1815. A system of collective Great Power supremacy and security designed to
contain international violence and to prevent another hegemonic threat.
First phase: 1815-1848
Austria
Britain
France
Prussia
Russia
Second phase: 1871-19XX
Austria
Britain
France
Germany
Italy
Russia

Not a formal or codified system, but an agreement to solve territorial and other disputes in
Europe, by calling congresses/conferences between the great powers to solve problems.
In practical terms the Concert of Europe could successfully allocate territory from one small
or weak state to another. It could also provide the framework for the settlement of crisis in
which the powers were anxious to reach agreement. But it could not satisfy the territorial
ambitions of great powers when these were in conflict with each other.

The successful operation of the Concert depended in fact upon a self-denying ordinance,
from each of the great powers. When two or more powers sought either treaty revision or
territorial expansion and were prepared to bargain with each other on this basis, the Conert
could not control them. This did not mean that it ceased to exit, merely that it failed to
operate in particular circumstances. It was quite frequently revived if the great powers were
confronted by new issues on which they were disposed to compromise.

CONCERT OF EUROPE
· The Concert of Europe pre-WW1 (1815-1914) was established to plan further the territorial
expansion in Europe and colonies. It was an unwritten agreement which first begun after the
congress of Vienna (1815) to mitigate or control any disputes between powers. It can also be
seen or referred to as an alliance of major European powers with benefits and responsibilities
that surrounded the idea of “what Europe should look like.”
· Recall that during this period of time (1815-1914) the established great powers were
GREAT BRITAIN, PRUSSIA, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, RUSSIA, AND FRANCE.
· In this unwritten agreement there were a set of rules mutually agreed upon to be followed.
They were DIPLOMACY BY CONFERENCE, GREAT POWER SANCTION, EXCESSIVE
WEAKNESS, OR POWER SHOULD BE AVOIDED, AND GREAT POWERS MUST NOT BE
HUMILIATED.

Failure/Decline of the Concert of Europe

1) The Crimean War (1853-1856) can be seen as the beginning of the End of the Concert of
Europe. It was the conflict over the Easter Question and resulted in Russia losing to the Alliance
System of France, Great Britain, The ottoman Empire, and Sardinia Under the catholic Church.
2) The world was changing, and this made the system less useful over time:
In North Africa there were two Moroccan Crises, and interest in
colonization by the French British and German
In Asia, Japan invaded the Republic of Korea, and Russia was
preoccupied with her interests as a world power far east
In the Balkans, the Ottoman empire was collapsing, and new states
were forming (Balkan wars)
3) The European Entente was Collapsing – Alliances were falling apart
Anglo-German (Great Britain and Germany)
Anglo-French (Great Britain and France)
Austro-Russian (Austria-Hungary, and Russia)
All in all, the concert of Europe was a good concept on paper, however in reality, it seemed
to deal with the symptoms of disputes rather than the causes of the international conflict to
prevent them from happening again. At the end of the concert of Europe, it was not able to
solve pressing issues.
WEEK 2: Concert of Europe to Paris Peace System
Nationalism: “identification with one’s own nation and support for its interests”.
We can see evidence of nationalism in the art and literature of time.
Self determination - the idea that each national group has the right to establish its own
national state.

Colonialism and imperialism:

New entrants into the scramble for colonies:
Italy
Italo-Turkish war (1911-1912)
Italians gain control of “Italian Libya” (and prove the Ottoman empire can’t adequately defend
its territory)
Germany
“Scramble for Africa” results in colonial holdings in the pacific, as well as German East Africa,
German South-West Africa, Cameroon

World War 1
Wars and crises in the Balkans
Crises in North Africa
Complex alliance system
Arms race
And
Industrialisation
Emergence of new world powers
Colonialism

Arms races:
Naval arms race between Britain and Germany
Begun by Germany in 1897/1898 at the urging of Von Tripitz ‘thanks to our geographic
position, our military system of military service, mobilization, torpedo boats, tactical training,
organizational structure (and) our uniform leadership by the Monarch we shall no doubt have
(a) good chance against England. Germany goes from the 6th largest navy at the time, to the
2nd, by 1914.
British begin building from - 1905 in response
‘Every new ship added to our battle-fleet means an increase in risk risk for England if she
attacks us’

Alliance system:
Starting in the late 19th century the great powers began forming complex alliances. It is
important to remember that alliances and treaties weren’t always honored and so didn’t
necessarily have to lead to war.
Germany and Austria-Hungary (Central Powers bounded by Dual Alliance in 1879, Italy
joined in 1882 to form the Triple Alliance)
Entente Powers - France, Britain, Russia
Entente Cordiale - Anglo-French relationship

World War I had two main factions: the Central Powers, which included Germany, Austria-
Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire; and the Allies, which included France, Great
Britain, Russia, Italy, Japan and later, the United States

End of peace:
This can be seen as a ‘cumulative’ process in which the Great Powers steadily rejected co-
operating and moderation in the pursuit of national interests and turned towards armed
diplomacy and violent solutions.

Cries in North Africa:

First Moroccan Crisis (1905)
German Kaiser Wilhelm II arrives in Morocco March 31 and declares support for the Sultan's
rule over an independent nation. The move is intended to thwart French and British colonial
interests in the region.
Tensions result in military reinforcement on the French side.
Powers agreed to a negotiation in 1906 that eventually awarded France controlling interest in
Morocco.
Second Moroccan Crisis (1911)
French send in troops to quell unrest in May
Germans dispatch a gunboat to protect their own commercial interests in the country (mainly
mining)
Britain and Russia back France in the ensuing negotiations, and again, France is granted
concessions in Morocco.

The Balkans:
Like the tensions in Africa and Asia, the problems presented by the Balkans fall outside the
previous conception of European equilibrium.
These are ‘new’ states. Formed by a receding Ottoman Empire.
Treaty of Berlin (1878) after the Russo-Turkish War declared the independence of Serbia,
Montenegro, and Rumania, the independent rule of Bulgaria, and designates Bosnia and
Herzegovina an Austrian protectorate.
The Balkans ‘up for grabs’ between Russia, Austria, and its own nationalist movements.
Austria annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina formally in 1908.
Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro, with tacit approval from Russia, fight a war against
the Ottoman empire in 1912, and gain significant territory. (And then amongst themselves,
initiated by Bulgaria, over that same territory in 1913).

The text highlights the situation in the Balkans during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The Balkan region, comprised of countries such as Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, Bulgaria,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and others, had experienced significant changes due to the decline
of the Ottoman Empire.
Following the Russo-Turkish War in 1878, the Treaty of Berlin was signed, which declared the
independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania. Bulgaria gained its own independent
rule, while Bosnia and Herzegovina became an Austrian protectorate. This led to a power
struggle between Russia, Austria, and nationalist movements within the Balkans.
In 1908, Austria formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, further exacerbating tensions in
the region. In 1912, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro, with tacit approval from
Russia, united to fight against the Ottoman Empire in the First Balkan War. They were
successful in gaining significant territorial gains.
However, conflicts arose among these Balkan states over the newly acquired territories, with
Bulgaria initiating a war in 1913 against its former allies. This conflict, known as the Second
Balkan War, resulted in further changes to the territorial boundaries in the region.
Overall, the text highlights the complex dynamics and power struggles that characterized the
Balkans during this period, as well as the shifting alliances and conflicts that arose as a result.

Schlieffen Plan : The German pre-1914 plan for a pre-emptive military offensive against
France, which would involve troops passing through neutral Belgium. Named after General
Alfred von Schlieffen. → this idea of a short war illusion vanished as the First World War
ended up lasting 4 years

The USA and the world:

The Monroe Doctrine:
The American continents “by the free and independent conditions which they have assumed
and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects of colonizations by any
European power”.
And America, will not interfere with “internal affairs” of Europe
America does not go abroad in search of monsters to destroy.

The American economy was both more powerful and more volatile than its European
counterparts.

America emerges a world power:

1893 - the great powers of Europe upgrade their diplomatic staff in Washington to
ambassadors
During the 1890s the USA overhauls its foreign service
In a sense it was simply too big and successful to *not* affect the rest of the world

Foreign policy, american style:

“Modern diplomacy is commercial”
“the creation of a prosperity which will be preferred to predatory strife. It means availing of
capitalism’s self-interest in peace. It means taking advantage of the interest in peace of those
who benefit by the investment of capital. It recognizes that financial soundness is a potent
factor in political stability; that prosperity means contentment and contentment means
repose.”

America in WW1:
America found the war incredibly profitable. It struggled to uphold neutrality, meaning good
relations with Germany, in order to maintain commerce. In October 1915 President Wilson
allows loans to be made to WW1 belligerents. Over the next 6 months, American firms lend
80 million. By 1916 U.S. bankers were lending Britain $10 million a day. Britain alone bought
more than $83 million of U.S. goods per week. Eventually the USA would lend $2.7bn

Commits the USA to entering World War 1 April 6, 1917 after the “Zimmerman Telegram”
During the months the USA is fighting, Wilson gives several addresses outlining plans for a
new and peaceful world order, based on what would come to be known as “collective
security”. The “14 Points” speech.
WEEK 3: Failure of the League of Nations
Woodrow Wilson - An American-inspired world order that would voluntarily join a covenant
to prevent future wars.

Setting the USA as the arbiter of peace:

●Wilson and his commanders resist pressure to integrate US forces with allied troops
● USA doesn’t enter a formal alliance with Allied powers, Wilson insists on being an
“associated power”
● USA doesn’t recognise any secret treaties within allied coalition for territorial or monetary
settlements after the war
● American leadership has a sense that Europe will have to ‘owe them’ as the guarantor of
victory
● Over 1.5 million American servicemen stationed in Europe by 1918
● October 20th 1918. Germany agrees to an armistice with Wilson that accepts the 14 points

● Remainder of the allies don’t commit to a 14-point based armistice.

● Wilson, a democrat, loses control of both houses of congress in 1918
● Enters the Paris 1919 negotiations with diminished political power

The crisis of capitalism:

● European economies were incredibly unstable after the war.
● In Poland there were four official currencies used simultaneously
● By the summer of 1922 the Austrian crown stood at 83,600 to the US dollar
● Greek government cut banknotes in half
● In 1923 the German mark was 4,000,000,000,000 to the US dollar

Most of these problems stemmed from the devastation of the war. Many countries left the
gold standard during the war, re-entry was slow, and countries with gold supplies hoarded
them, causing highly uneven prices. Countries like Weimar Germany remain off the gold
standard, and enter hyper-inflationary spirals.

Rebuilding Europe, and industry, was slow. By 1929 production in Germany and Britain is still
below pre-1914 levels Britain was unable to resume its traditional place as the world’s lender
and financial center From 1918 USA is the world’s largest lender. Between 1924 and 1931
USA makes over 60% of all international loans. In addition to holding ~40% of the war debt.
(Money also flows out of Europe to be invested in USA)
The great depression:
October 24th 1929, the American stock market crashes.
$30bn wiped out in 48 hours
Immediate effect is that credit in Europe dries up
Protectionism: the practice of regulating imports through high tariffs with the purpose of
shielding domestic industries from foreign competition.
The gold standard began to fall apart.

Economic Nationalism:
In 1929, Joseph Stalin was firmly in control of the communist party in the USSR. This begins
the “second revolution” of forced industrialisation based on five-year plans.

German Nazi party comes to power 1933 -Hitler becomes Chancellor in January, Enabling
Act bypassing Reichstag passes in March.

Italian National Fascist Party comes to power 1922 -Mussolini begins dismantling state
restraints on his power.

Here all action must be governed by one law: the people does not live for business and
business does not exist for capital, but capital serves business and business serves the
people. 1933

Failure of Diplomacy before WW2:

In 1936 Germany began a ‘Four Year Plan’ for industrial self-sufficiency, and in 1935
reinstated the draft.
During the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) Germany and Italy supplied equipment, financing,
training, and air and artillery support to the nationalist side.
Spanish Civil war.
18 July 1936 led by General Francisco Franco
The coup was launched with elite troops from Spanish Marocco to topple the recently
elected socialist and anti-clerical Popular Front government.
Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy intervened on the side of the Nationalists while the Soviet
Union sent aid to the Republicans.
France provided covert economic support, and use of the Franco-Spanish border. Britain
attempted to remain neutral.
British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain pressed for an agreement with Italy to remove its
troops from Spain. Part of a larger strategy of appeasement supported by the British
Parliament.
Britain was prepared to offer colonial concessions in Africa, and economic incentives, to
obtain a general agreement with Germany
March 1938, Germany Annexes Austria.
What was behind appeasement?
● Both British and French leadership convinced their militaries were not ready for war -
fixated on economic capability which hadn’t recovered after WW1
● Both were more diplomatically isolated after the failures of the League of Nations, the Great
Depression, and the general unsettled nature of European politics
● British were fixated on colonial issues: the possibility of conflict with Japan over Asia
(China/India) and USSR over Afghanistan
● Both were unclear on the degree to which they could count on American support

Japan:
1904-05, defeated Russia in a war over control of Korea and South Manchuria

The Russian revolution and its effects:

The conditions of the late 19th century industrial revolution concentrated labor power in
cities and resulted in cities and resulted in widespread labor organizing against poor
conditions and labor
Socialism:
Public ownership of the means of production
An end to exploitation
The dictatorship of the proletariat
Why was it so popular?
Besides industrialization and the oppression of workers, socialism also offered a strong and
coherent critique of militarism and imperialism

1917 Russian revolution:

On october 24th, the liberal government sent troops to shut down Bolshevik newspapers
In response Bolshevik forces seized key bridges and buildings and declared the overthrow of
the provisional government

Rapid transformation:
1917-1920 : radical transformations
Expand workers rights and access to education
Secularised marriage and divorce
Grant equal legal status to women (universal suffrage of 1917)
Legalise abortion
Created council to direct the economy
Begin widespread nationalism of industry and transportation
Interwar period
Treaties (Treaty of Versailles, Saint-Germain, Neuilly, Trianon) - legal agreements between
specific states on territory, payments, limitations
The League of Nations - framework for resolving disputes based on liberal principles of
diplomacy, national equality.
1923: France and Belgium invade and occupy German industrial region

Successes
Promoted disarmament efforts to ptrvent
WEEK 4: The Bipolar Cold War
Historical background:
Despite fighting on the same side in WWI, the USA and the USSR became increasingly
opposed to one another after the defeat of Nazi Germany.
Bipolarity: an international system dominated by 2 Great Powers (1945-1991)

The Cold War International System alliance blocs:

North Atlantic Treaty Alliance (Nato) founded in 1949
USA, UK, France, Italy, West Germany, Turkey
Warsaw Pact founded in 1955
USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania

Origins of the Cold War:

Bolshevik Revolution, 1917 → this establishes a communist regime with a vision of a new,
global order
Marx, Lenin & Trotsky all believed in the necessity of global communist revolution
However, when the German Revolution of 1918 failed, this vision faced significant
challenged, and Stalin advocated ‘Socialism in One Country’
Nevertheless, the 1917 Revolution leaves a legacy of ideological and geopolitical
competition

Marxism:
“In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have an
association, in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development
of all.”
“Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistic revolution. The proletarians have nothing to
lose but their chains. They have a world to win.”

Capitalism vs Communism
2 different social, economic and ideological systems
American ‘Empire of Liberty’ vs Soviet ‘Empire of Justice’
Free market vs Centrally Planned economy
Individualism vs collectivism
Origins of the Cold War:
WWII created the foundations of the Cold War in 4 main ways
The return of war to Europe forced the United States to become the central actor in the
Western capitalist sphere
Western countries needed American economic aid
By defeating Nazi Germany, Stalin’s ‘Red Army’ was able to march across easter Europe
WWII severely weakened the European empires, setting the stage for decolonization and
“proxy-wars”

What does Post-WW2 look like?

US global dominance
US power in 1945: its navy was larger than all others combines; it owned 60% of the world’s
heavy aircraft; held two-third of both the world’s manufacturing capacity and total global
financial reserves; and produced the currency in which all global trade was denominated.
Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe & global appeal
The Soviet Union makes puppet states out of the land conquered in Eastern Europe.
Globally, the Soviet Union is seen as model, particularly in countries still under colonial rule
The British, French, Dutch and Portuguese Empires still exist
Britain had survived the war in large part due to its empire. The French and Dutch had lost
colonies to the Japanese, but sought to regain them, and Portugal remained neutral.

Soviet Dominance in Eastern Europe:

After its victory in the Battle of Stalingrad (1942-43) the Red Army marches across Europe and
into Germany
Stalin wanted a system of buffer states, and believed this meant the USSR would need pro-
communist allies in Eastern Europe
However, in the largely agrarian states of Eastern Europe, Communism had few allies; liberal
and social democratic parties triumphed in the immediate postwar elections
Communist and pro-Soviet groups therefore turn to more repressive tactics, ultimately
leading to the takeover of Yugoslavia, Albania, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and
Romania (1944-48).

Third World movements for decolonization and emancipation played key roles in an
international system that was still made up of empires.

The turn to the cold war: three conferences

Tehran, November/December 1943
Yalta, February 1945
Postdam, July 1945
Tehran Conference:
Moment of transition
Diplomatic achievements: allies agree to open a second front in Western Europe, and
Churchill offers to move Poland West to Stalin
However, very little agreement over postwar borders, and signs of tension emerge.

Yalta - February 1945:

Establishment of United Nations Organization
The division of Germany into occupation spheres for each power
Berlin (in the Russian spheres) split into 4 zones
Free elections to be held in the states of Eastern Europe
Bessarabia and the Baltic States of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia (seized by Stalin in 1939)
would become part of the USSR

Potsdam - July 1945:

After Germany surrender, the Big Three met again in Potsdam
For the time being, Germany was to be run by a Control Council made up of 4 military
commanders of the 4 zones
Germany was to be given the “chance to rebuild its life on a democratic and peaceful basis”
including elections at some time in the future
Nazi leaders were to be put on trial
Reparations: each power could take what it wanted from its own zone, in addition, Russia
could take 25% of the industrial equipment in other zones

The origins of US-Soviet Rivalry:

Despite signs of cooperation at Tehran. Yalta and Potsdam, the USA and USSR had entered a
Cold War by 1947.
Focus:
American foreign policy
Soviet foreign policy

Conventional narratives of Stalinist aggression need to be balanced against an objective

understanding of US military and geopolitical expansion

From Roosevelt to Truman: The Rise of US Anti-Soviet Policy

President Roosevelt’s death on April 12 1945 brought Harry [Link] - a hardline anti-
communist - to the White House
As the Republicans dominated the US congress after 1946, Trumans Democrats used the
threat of global communist revolution to win Republican support for the continued military
spending
Soviet expansion during the Iran Crisis (1945-46), the Turkish Straits Crisis (1946-53), and the
Greek Civil War (1946-49) were perceived as signs of Stalinist imperialism and aggression.
March 1947, a Truman announces the ‘Truman Doctorine’, a foreign policy strategy based on
the global containment of communism and increased military spending.
“At the present moment in world history nearly every nation must choose between alternative
ways of life. The choice is too often not a free one. One way of life is based upon the will of
the majority, and is distinguished by free institutions, representative government, free
elections, guarantees of individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion, and freedom from
political oppression. The second way of life is based upon the will of a minority forcibly
imposed upon the majority. It relies upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and
radio,
fixed elections, and the suppression of personal freedoms.

US Containment Policy:
Destiny,’ the ‘Open Door’
Inspired by the ‘Long telegram’ of George F. Kennan, a foreign policy guru in the US.
“Soviet power, unlike that of Hitlerite Germany, is neither schematic nor adventuristic. It does
not work by fixed plans. It does not take unnecessary risks. Impervious to logic or reason, it is
highly sensitive to the logic of force. For this reason it can easily withdraw—and usually does
when strong resistance is encountered at any point.”

The Marshall Plan:

Originally known as the European Recovery Programme, the Marshall Plan gave more than
$12 in America aid to Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Greece, Iceland, Italy,
Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland
US-government aid saved Europe from economic collapse, enabling the transaction to social
democracy
However, because the USSR saw the Marshall Plan as an attempt to expand American
influence, Stalin increasingly moved to consolidate Soviet control over the areas of Eastern
and Central Europe occupied by the Red Army.
Stalin’s Postwar Foreign Policy:
Contrary to the Truman Doctorine, Stalin’s goal was to establish a sphere of influence in
Eastern Europe - not a global communist revolution
To avoid confrontation with the USA, Stalin withdrew support for the Greek communists;
ordered Soviet troops out of Iran in 1946; and backed out of the Turkish Straits Crisis
allowing Turkey to join NATO
Before 1946, Soviet ambassadors and generals explored cooperation with the West
However, when Soviet-sponsored parties did badly in elections in Austria, Hungary, Poland
and Germany (1945-6) Stalin supported a more aggressive take-over of Eastern Europe
Sovietization of Eastern Europe:
“This war is not as in the past; whoever occupies a territory also imposes on it his own social
system. Everyone imposes his own system as far as his army can reach. It cannot be
otherwise. If now there is not a communist government in Paris, this is only because Russia
has no army which can reach Paris in 1945.”
Formation of the Eastern Bloc:
Poland - liberal government replaced by communist rule at Yalta (1944)
Ukraine - reincorporated into the USSR following defeat of Nazi Germany
Yugoslavia - independent
Romania - communist rule established after forced abdication of King Micheal I and
suppression of the National Peasent’s Party
Hungary - liberal and social democratic parties removed
Czechoslovakia - only country where communist party won democratic elections
East Germany - one party communist rule established in Soviet-occupied territory
Although there was nothing inevitable about the rise of a bipolar system after WWII, the Cold
War had deep ideological and geopolitical roots
The official declarations of the Cold War came in 1947, when President Truman began to
provide economic and military support to anti-Soviet forces in Greece and Turkey, laying the
foundations for the ‘Containment Doctrine

Long term and short terms causes of the war:

Ideological differences - communism vs capitalism long term
Long - term economic and security rivalries in Europe, Middle East and Asia
Decolonization and proxy conflicts - long run
Anti-communist turn in US politics under Harry Truman - short run
Soviet reaction the the Marshall Plan and Atomic Bomb - short run
American response to Stalin’s takeover of Eastern Europe - short run

Establishment of the United Nations:

Whereas the League of Nations lacked official US support, President Franklin Roosevelt was
determined to establish a more durable system of international order and diplomacy, coining
the phrase the ‘United Nations’ in 1942
UN organization revived the League’s project of world governance and international peace,
but the ’Security Council’ system allowed the five major powers — USA, USSR, China, UK &
France — to effectively control legislation through the veto power
When the UN Charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by the representatives of 50 countries,
one of its most important effects was to strengthen the principle that national self-
determination — rather than empire — should be the defining feature of the postwar order,
paving the way for decolonization
The German question:
At Potsdam, Stalin officially pushed for a united independent Germany, but the Western
powers rejects the so-called ‘Stalin Note,’ which they saw a covert attempt to impose Soviet
influence
Following the unification of the French, British and US zones of Allied-controlled Germany
(‘Trizonia’), the USSR moved to close its own German zone, leading to Berlin Airlift in 1948
By 1949, this deterioration of relations leads to the division of Germany between the
(communist) German Democratic Republic and the (capitalist) Federal Republic of Germany
The Korean War:
Although the Cold War did not result in any ‘hot wars’ in Europe, it saw a series of armed
conflicts in Asia, especially in China, Vietnam and Korea
These wars were influenced by the struggle between European empires and national
liberation movements
Korea had been occupied by Japan since 1910, and was divided after WW2 between Soviet
and US zones
Communist North invaded US-backed south in 1950. Both US and UN, and eventually China
sent troops. Ends in stalemate 1953
Truman argued US intervention was essential to the goal of global containment outlined in
NSC-68
Arms race:
General MacArthur had wanted to use ‘tactical’ nuclear weapons against Korea:
“I could have won the war in Korea in a maximum of 10 days.... I would have dropped
between 30 and 50 atomic bombs on his air bases and other depots strung across the neck
of Manchuria.... It was my plan as our amphibious forces moved south to spread behind us—
from the Sea of Japan to the Yellow Sea—a belt of radioactive cobalt. It could have been
spread from wagons, carts, trucks and planes.... For at least 60 years there could have been
no land invasion of Korea from the north.”
Cuban missile crisis, 1962:
Fidel Castro and Che Guevara overthrew the American-friendly Batista regime in 1959
Bay of Pigs invasion, April 1961; Cuban communists believe second US invasion imminent
American missiles stationed in Italy and Turkey
Soviets agree to Castro’s request to station missiles on Cuba
After the US discover them, a tense 13-day stand off occurs, where the world stands on the
brink of nuclear war
Ends with the withdrawal of Soviet nuclear missiles
Week 5: Decolonization and the Third World
Decolonization - national self - determination
The dismantling of colonialism
Liberation from imperial rule
Development → political and economic autonomy

Colonialism - drive to control natural resources

In some cases (e.g., China, Vietnam, North Korea) these ideals were supported by communist
ideology and Soviet aid
In other cases (e.g., Pakistan, Taiwan, the Philippines), they proved compatible with
capitalism and American partnership
Other countries (e.g., India & Indonesia) remained neutral, playing the two superpowers off
against each other

In all these cases, the US deployed its military and economic resources due to the perceived
threat of communist influence
Truman’s “Containment Doctrine” = war and intervention in the Third World

“The Thirld World” - struggle from emancipation

→ generate new kinds of social systems

The Asian Cold War was violent and destructive and it let to the emergence of “proxy
conflicts”

Main figures:
Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969) - communist revolutionary and first president of Vietnam
Mao Zedong (1893-1976) - founder of the People’s Republic of China
Sukarno (1901-1970) - anti-colonial revolutionary and first president of Indonesia
Fidel Castro (1926-2016) - Cuban revolutionary and president
Funmilayo Ransome Juti (1900-1978) - Nigerian feminist and socialist
Kamaladevi (1903-1988) Indian anti-colonial activist
Zhang Qinqiu (1904-1968) Chinese communist revolutionary, military commander and
politician

Global imperialism:
Between 1850 and 1920, over 450 million people in Africa and Asia came under direct
colonial rule
By 1914, the Western empires had colonized 84.4% of the world’s land surface
Empires exploited colonies economically; imperial rule was justified by ideas of the ‘civilizing
mission’
By 1945, the main empires in Asia were:
Britain: India (1947), Malaysia (1957 Myanmar (1948), Sri Lanka (1948), Palestine (1948), Hong
Kong (1997)
Japan: Korea (1945), Manchuria (1945), Tawian (1952)
France: Vietnam (1949), Cambodia (1953), Laos (1953), Syria (1946)
Dutch: Indonesia (1949)

Origins of anti-colonial politics:

Why did so many risk their lives to resist colonialism?
Colonial rule brought intense violence and suffering
800,000 Indians killed during Britain’s suppression of the Indian Mutiny (1857);
French Pacification of Tonkin in Vietnam (1886-1896);
Millions of Congolese died under Belgian rule (1885-1908);
Famines across colonial India, Vietnam & Korea killed tens of millions.
Colonialism also entailed economic and material exploitation
1870-1913, British empire extracted some £50- £ 90 million in taxes from India — much more
than Britain ever invested
During WWI and WWII, European empires often relied heavily on colonial soldiers and
workers
From opposition to colonial rule, nationalist, socialist and communist movements emerge
across the Third World; these movements sought liberation and equality

Decolonisation
After 1945, European empires faced growing pressures for decolonization
Popular opposition to colonial oppression
Famine, violence & economic exploitation ideals of the “civilizing mission”
WW2 weakened EU empires
European empires relied on soldiers from their colonies, but were forced to offer political
autonomy in return for military service
Japanese victories in WW2 undermined the British, French and Dutch empires in Asia
US & Soviet challenge to EU imperialism - cold war
The emerging superpowers sometimes offered material and ideological support to anti-
colonial movements
EXAMPLE INDONESIA: dutch empire is trying to re establish itself but because US believes
that the Dutch are trying to re assert their rule
They threat to withdraw Marshall Plan aid as a way to get the Dutch to recognize Indonesia
independence
US threatens to withdraw Marshall Plan aid from the Netherlands unless Indonesia is granted
independence
In the 1920s, the Comintern became an important forum for anti-colonial leaders across Asia,
Africa and the Middle East; however Stalin lost faith in Thirld Wolrd Socialism
By the 1970s only the Portuguese Empire continued to hold most of its colonies, but this also
collapsed in 1975.

Decline of the British Empire:

India (1757/1858 - 1947)
Malaysia (1824-1957)

The British had made promises of independence throughout WW2, when many Indian troops
fought for the UK
Britain granted independence in 1947, but the two key parties - The Indian National
Congress and the Muslim League- couldn’t agree on what a successor state should look like
The result was a bloody partition between Hindu- dominated India and Muslim dominated
Pakistan
Independent India:
•Led by charismatic exponent of neutralism, Jawaharlal Nehru.
•India was an important force in global politics because it symbolised opposition to Cold War
binaries.
•Both sides invested great energy and resources to win India to their side, but failed.
•Nehru was inspired by socialism if not a socialist: initiated land reform and the
nationalization of major industries and the banking sector.

The Malayan “Emergency” : 1948-1960

While Britain accepted Indian demands for independence in the 1940s, it fought to hold on
to Malaysia
The country was a key source of rubber and tin, commodities that could be exchanged for
the dollars that UK governments needed to repay their war-debts

Unlike India, the national liberation movement in Malaysia had strong communist influence
This led to violent British retaliations, which saw 500,000 Malaysians placed in concentration
camps, the use of scorched earth policies, and the massacre of 24 unarmed villagers at
Batang Kali (1948)
Around 9,000 Malaysians died in a war lasting from 1948-1960
Lee Meng - leader of communist party, soldier and military figure
COMMUNIST INFLUENCE IN MALAYSIA - imperial war

Decolonization in Africa:
Main figures
Kwame Nkrumah 1902-1972 Theorist of Pan Africanism and Prime Minister of Ghana
Nelson Mandela - anti-partheid leader and first president
Patrice Lumumba - independence leader and first prime minister

Post 1945 Africa

One of the most important sites of the Cold War and international politics
Many postcolonial African leaders and governments were inspired by socialism, anti-colonial
nationalism, and Pan-Africanism
Causes of Africa decolonization:
Like Asia, Africa’s decolonization was shaped by WWII
While sub-Saharan Africa largely escaped the fighting during WWII, African colonies were
exploited for primary resources & troops
European empires began to rely on African colonies more as they lost possessions in Asia
Rubber and tin production was intensified
However, Europeans were forced to promise local autonomy in exchange for material
support — and the spectacle of European catastrophe weakened

Postwar reform in colonial africa

The end of WWII saw British and French empires attempt social and economic reforms
Typically, partial democracy was offered as part of an attempt to ‘modernize’ British colonies
France announced its plan for a new a constitution in Brazzaville (Congo) in 1944
Reform not minded at improving African conditions or leading to independence, but at
making more efficient extractive economies
In short, a drive for development, but within a colonial framework.

Varieties of African decolonization:

Semi-peaceful transitions, where local movements forced the colonial powers into
concessions
Ghana, Malawi, Zambia
Violent transitions & colonial wars
French Algeria & British Kenya, Portuguese Mozambique
Anti-apartheid struggles
South Africa, Namibia

Ghanian independence, 1957:

instead of creating a compliant working class, development accelerated the emergence of
urban social movements and trade unions
As in Europe, troops returning from war demanded political reform
This process first erupted in the British colony of the Gold Coast (Ghana)
Riots and unrest among local population, alongside a well organised trade union movement,
forced the British into concessions
Eventually the Gold Coast gains independence, as Ghana, in 1957.
Non-peaceful transition: Algeria 1954-62
France wages a war against the Algerian Front de Libération Nationale (FLN)
Perhaps 1 million Algerians and 30,000 French soldiers killed in the conflict
Having just lost French Indochina (Vietnam) War, French leaders were determined to
maintain Algeria
Algeria contained French settlers, pied noir, and was constitutionally part of France, meaning
that French governments were reluctant to grant independence, unlike Morocco or Tunisia
France tries repression, but this creates huge political problems leading to the fall of the
Fourth Republic in May 1958
Algeria gains independence in 1962, FLN emerged victorious
How did decolonization affect the cold war?
Decolonization would eventually create 50+ “new” states
They typically joined the UN, and became subject to the attention of both sides of the Cold
War
USA & USSR struggle to export their different social and ideological systems to the Third
World → newly independent states become an important part of the Cold War
The Cold War beyond Europe:

Iron curtain: east and west

Following the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, the European dimension of the Cold
War became more settled
The building of the Berlin Wall had mixed effects. In the short term, it diffused the crisis by
removing its source, for East Germans now found it virtually impossible to move to the West
via Berlin. The Western Powers, including the United States protested but they did not
attempt to remove the wall, realizing it would cause a risk of war. The Berlin wall symbolized
the acceptance of the status quo in Europe by both sides. To the West, Berlin was not a cause
for going to war. To the Soviets, West’s Berlin existence was ok as long as it no longer
drained the best and brightest from the GDR.
In the long run, the symbolic value of the wall was the clarification of the differences between
the 2 political systems it separated.
Wall → symbol of Cold War endurance and the ultimate unanswerable indictment of
communism
While the Cold War in Europe never transformed itself into a hot war, it effectively became a
total war.
“…the most important aspects of the Cold War were neither military nor strategic, nor
Europe-centered, but connected to political and social development in the Third World”
US - Soviet competition & Proxy Wars:
Proxy wars, where nominally independent movements and countries represented the
interests of the superpowers, were a major feature of the Cold War
Chinese Civil War (1927-1949) - nationalists backed by US and Chinese communist party
(Mao Zedong) backed by Soviets
Korean War (1950-1953)
Vietnam War (1955-1975)
Ethiopian Civil War (1974-1991)
Communist insurgencies in Malaysia (1948-1960/1968–1989)
Similarly, if one superpower became involved in a war, the other would often support its
adversary
US funds the Mujahadeen after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979-1991)

China, the Thirld World and the Cold War:

The rise of the Chinese Communist Party was strongly influenced by Western and Japanese
imperialism in East Asia:
During the First and Second Opium Wars (1839-49;1856-60), Britain established an “informal
empire” in China without directly colonizing it
In the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), Japan then invaded the new Republic of
China (est.1911), occupying the large parts of the country
In late July, the Japanese government decided to punish Jiang’s intransigence by launching
a full-scale offensive in north China.
The Japanese believed they could inflict a rapid defeat upon China, but they pursued peace
talks while fighting but the Chinese refused to make peace on Japan’s terms.
Jiang’s regime signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union which led the Russians to
start providing large-scale military aid and assistance to China in the hope that its resistance
would prevent any Japanese offensive against Siberia.
In both government and public circles there was a talk of introducing economic sanctions
against Japan.
The Japanese called off the peace talks and announced that they no longer recognized the
GMD government. They now concentrated on achieving a military victory and building a
‘national defence state’ through such measures as the General Mobilization Law of April
1938.
Japan found itself far from victory. It blamed this on Western support for China. In the war
Japan had engaged in a number of atrocities against Chinese civilians.
Japan sought to apply pressure on the Western Powers. It began a policy of harassment
towards their territorial concessions. It expanded its influence over South China. Another
weapon was to strenghten its ties with the Axis Powers in Europe.
Roosvelt in July 1939, announced the abolition of its commercial treaty with Japan.
Despite its efforts to use coercion to bring about the end of the Western support for China,
Japan found itself no nearer a successful conclusion to the war and faced new threats to the
economic foundations of its war effort.
In the Chinese Civil War (1927-1949), Mao’s Chinese Communist Party (CCP) defeats the
American-sponsored Kuomintang, the Chinese Nationalist Party
Chinese Third-World Policy in 1960s:
Due to the legacies of imperialism in East Asia, the CCP’s version of communism has been
strongly influenced by “Third World” and anti-colonial nationalism
From 1960-1966, China took an increasingly active role in the development of countries such
as Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt and Ghana, becoming a close ally of many Third World states
However, the onset of the Cultural Revolution in 1966 brought this period of “Third
Worldism” to an end

While the Cold War remained ‘cold’ in Europe, it turned ‘hot’ in Asia and Africa
Proxy conflicts defined relations between the USSR, the USA and the PRC

Week 6: Detente and the “End of the Cold War W

Detente:
A phase of the Cold War defined by the relaxation in the tensions between the United States
and the Soviet Union .. especially in the sphere of nuclear strategy

The era of detente also involved:

An improvement in East-West relations in Europe (ostpolitik)
A growing rapprochement between the United States and Communist China following the
Sino-Soviet split

Main protagonists who were the leaders of US-Soviet Detente: Richard Nixon and Leonid
Brezhnev

Timeline 1: US-Soviet Relations During the Cold War 1945-1991:

Phase 1: 1945/47 - 1968 Phase 2: 1968-1979 Phase 3: 1979-1991

The “First” Cold War The Era of Detente The “Last” Cold War
Superpower dynamic Superpower dynamic: Superpower dynamic:
Rise of US-Soviet rivalry Relaxation in US-Soviet Return to US-Soviet hostility
This phase covers the rise of relations This phase begins with the
the bipolar system after The phase covers the Soviet invasion of
WWII. It begins with the emergence of superpower Afghanistan in 1979 and
Truman Doctrine (1947), the détente after 1962-68. On ends with the collapse of the
creation of NATO (1949), the US side, this process was USSR and the breakup of the
and the formation of led by the Republican Eastern Bloc in 1989-1991.
COMECON (1949) and the administrations of Nixon This was an era defined by
Warsaw Pact (1955). It (1969-1974) and Ford (1974- the end of détente, the
 concludes with the 1977), while on the Soviet decline of Soviet power, and
construction of the Berlin side it was led primarily by the return to an aggressive
Wall (1961), the Cuban Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet US foreign policy under
Missile Crisis (1962) and US General Secretary from 1964 Ronald Reagan (1981-1989).
growing interventions in to 1982. Both superpowers
Vietnam (1964-65). now aimed to decrease Cold
War tension.

Why did the Cold War change in the 1960’s and 1970’s
The transition to detente reflected numerous social, economic and international changes, but
its two immediate causes were military and political
The effects of the nuclear arms race
Leadership changes in the US & USSR

Nuclear arms race

Following the Cuban Missile Crisis (oct.1962) US and Soviet leaders became increasingly
concerned about the prospect of nuclear war.
The arms race required huge levels of government expenditure, and by the late 1960’s these
were a major economic burden.
After detonating its first atomic bomb in 1949, the Soviet Union achieved nuclear parity with
the USA in 1969

Threats of Nuclear War:

1948: Truman dispatched B-29 bombers to Europe during the Berlin Crisis, when the Soviets
blockaded West Berlin
1949: USSR test its first atomic bomb
1950: General MacArthur, head of US army, makes plans for 34 nuclear strikes in Korea,
Manchuria and China during Korean War
1951: Truman authorizes deployment of nuclear weapons to Guam during Korean War
1953: Eisenhower’s “New Look” policy emphasized “massive retaliation” promising nuclear
strikes in response to any Soviet or Chinese military offensive
1958; Taiwan Straits Crisis
1962: Cuban Missile Crisis

Between 1950 and 1962, the US nuclear stockpile grew from 369 weapons to over 27,000,
while the Soviet stockpile grew from a handful of bombs to about 3,300.
There was no “taboo” against nuclear weapons!

Towards Detente
Following the Cuban Missle Crisis (oct 1962) US and Soviet leaders sought to stabilize the
nuclear arms race:
Partial Test Ban Treaty 1963
Prohibited all test detonations of nuclear weapons except those underground
Outer space treaty 1967
Prohibited the use of nuclear weapons in space, limiting space exploration to peaceful
purposes only
[Link] treaty 1968
Aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons

Achievements of Detente:
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) 1972
Froze the number of strategic ballistic missile launchers and limited ICBMs
However, it did not reduce number of nukes
Biological weapons convention and anti-ballistic missile treaty, 1972
Bans biological weapons, limits anti ballistic missiles
Agreement on prevention of nuclear war, 1973
Agreement for nuclear peace and restraint
SALT II 1972-74/79
1974: Vladivostok Summit sees Brezhnez and Ford agree to reduce nuclear arsenals

Helsinki Accords, 1975

Soviet’s receive guarantee of the inviolability of Europe’s post 1945 borders
Respect for territorial integrity
Non-interference in internal affairs
The highpoint of detente, effectively confirming US recognition of Soviet sphere of influence
in Eastern Europe
A major turn away from the spirit of containment doctrine
•Divided into three major ‘baskets’, the Helsinki Accords were a remarkable series of
documents that dealt with virtually all aspects related to pan-European security issues. Basket
I, for example, included provisions about the ‘inviolability of borders’, while Baskets II and III
dealt with such issues as economic and cultural relations and human rights. In short, the
CSCE extended far beyond the ‘traditional’ security issues of borders into economic and
human security. In part because of this, it was also bound to become a very controversial
document.”

Achievements of Detente:
The detente of the 1970s was built on improved diplomatic relationships
1969, Nixon “after a period of confrontation, we are entering an era of negotiations” with the
Soviet Union
1969: Nixon told Soviet foreign minister that, that in the United States “whenever elections
approached, political leaders were tempted to take a belligerent anti-Communist line,” but
that Nixon himself “did not consider such an approach to be in the interests of world peace or
of Soviet–American relations.”

Causes of Detente:
MAD - Mutual Assured Destruction
Changes in US and Soviet leadership
Relative decline in US power
Brezhnev’s search for European stability
Sino-Soviet split

MAD: Mutually assured destruction

The Korean War (1950-1953), the Taiwan Straits Crisis (1958) and the Cuban Missile Crisis
(1962) showed the potential for nuclear war
Once both sides of the Cold War possessed enough warheads to destroy each other multiple
times over, nuclear power lost its strategic function — MAD

Leadership changes: the rise of Nixon and Brezhnev:

Khrushchev’s decision to place nuclear weapons in Cuba alienated the Soviet Politburo,
leading to his replacement by Leonid Brezhnev in 1964 — a leader who would serve as
General Secretary of the Communist Party until 1984.
On the US side, military failures in Vietnam undermined faith in the Containment policy — in
1969, Richard Nixon was elected president after promising to end the Vietnam War
US Power in decline? The Nixon-Kissinger “Grand Design”
Nixon’s foreign and economic policy agenda:
Limit US commitments to Western Europe and East Asia - hence Helsinki Accords and
Vietnam withdrawal
Dollar devaluation and stability - hence abandonment of Bretton Woods
Stabilize US-Soviet relations - hence detente

Brezhnev and Detente:

Brezhnev foreign policy agenda built on Khrushchev’s notion of “peaceful coexistence”
Maintain control over eastern bloc - hence the invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968)
Stabilize Soviet positions in Europe - hence Helsinki Accords
Manage diplomatic isolation following Sino-Soviet split - hence growing rapprochement with
US

Sino-Soviet split:
Maoist vs Soviet Communism:
Great Leap Forward: the movement initiated by the CCP in 1958 to achieve rapid
modernization in China through the construction of communes and utilization of the masses
for large-scale infrastructure projects.
By 1958, Mao had serious doubts about Soviet policy towards the West, which he felt focused
too much on the desire to establish peaceful co-existance and upholding the post-1945
settlement in Europe.

Competition for influence in Third World

Border conflicts e.g. Ussuri River, Zhenbao Island
Soviet fears of international isolation led Brezhnev to contemplate better relations with the
USA, while the split between the two communist powers allowed US leads to play “triangular
diplomacy”
The process whereby China and the Soviet Union became alienated from each other in the
late 1950s and early 1960s

Limits of Detente:
US continued to practice containment in Latin America (Bolivia 1971, Chile, 1973)
USSR continued to use military force in support of pro-soviet forces in Eastern European and
Third World countries (Czechoslovakia 1968, Angola 1975-1991, Afghanistan 1979-1991)
Neither side dismantled its nuclear arsenal

Collapse of Detente:
1977: Election of Jimmy Carter
Carter opposed Helsinki Accords because they legitimized “Soviet Domination of Eastern
Europe”
1979: Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
Destroyed US-Soviet rapprochement while US funds the anti-Soviet Mujahideen
1981: Election of Ronald Reagan
A new Cold war warrior, Reagan was committed to an aggressive version of containment and
roll-back

Brezhnev & Detente:

Security
Reduce nuclear tension
Consolidate soviet power in eastern europe
Avoid international isolation
Economic:
Develop trade deals with capitalist countries - Italy, US, Japan etc.

Nixon was also concerned about economic decline:

Germany % Japan had emerged as economic competitors
Bretton Woods monetary system created a dollar surplus, making the US economy
vulnerable to financial speculation

Liberalism vs Realism:

Realism:
Trust no one, rely only on themselves and accumulate power to ensure their security - more
emphasized on military power
States pursue their self-interest (survival) by trying to gain power (power can mean many
things: money, military strength, influence) States are in competition for survival with other
states Because there is no authority above a state, they can use any means at their disposal to
do so (morality isn’t important to the state) (all of the above make conflict likely/inevitable)
Realism is a line of thinking that flows down through Machiavelli (1469-1527), the idea the
ends justify the means. As he wrote, “virtue” (things people like to see in leaders, compassion,
generosity, etc) may be detrimental to the state interest. More important is “vertu” (power or
ability, what you are able to do). And owes much to Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) who
described a “state of nature”, in which, without authority, people would naturally be enemies,
asocial, amoral and self-centered. “The state has no higher duty then to maintain itself” - Hege
States compete to survive on a global scale
Selfish behavior guarantees success for themselves, thus guaranteeing survival
No global regulation/law leads to them putting their self-interest first, no morality
The ends justify the means - Machiavelli
Virtue vs vertu (compassion and generosity vs power and ability)
Generally pessimistic about ability to eliminate conflict (constant power struggle)
Explains war, alliances, imperialism and obstacles to cooperation

“Classical realists”
Hans Morgenthau
Rheinhold Niebuhr
They believe that human nature causes states to have natural desire to dominate which leads
to conflict and wars

“Neorealist”
They ignore human nature and focus on the effect of the international system.
Many great powers who all seek to survive (the international system is anarchic, each state
must survive on its own).

6 principles on political realism

Objective laws
National interest
Objective categories
Aware of moral significance and political actions
Prevent moral excess as well as political foolishness
Maintain autonomy of political sphere

Liberalism:
State cooperation for mutual benefit
Avoiding pure power politics can be mutually beneficial to states States (like individuals) can
consent to give up some aspects of their power (notably military, but others as well) in
exchange for peace, stability, and mutual benefit--defined by international agreements or
laws International organizations and international trade can tie states together in ways that
mutually benefit and make conflict unlikely
International liberalism is a more recent theory, but it comes down from older theories of
liberalism. John Locke (1632–1704) says individuals can consent to be governed, creating a
power above them (liberalism assumes states can do the same). And Immanuel Kant 1724-
1804 wrote about a “Perpetual Peace” between liberal societies because of interconnected
trade and popular influence on government.

States avoid conflict because it benefits them and their cooperation

May result in less power but greater benefits in terms of peace and stability
International trade, Globalization, International Organizations
Economic interdependence assures that states want to be peaceful with each other because
warfare threatens each side’s wealth and prosperity
Newer theory, challenges Realism
Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) agrees that democracy is key to world peace
More recent, international institutions can help overcome selfish state behavior by
encouraging states to forgo immediate gains for the greater benefits of enduring
cooperation (wait and you will be rewarded)
Roots of Liberalism in Kant’s essay “Perpetual Peace” from 1795
Provides three definitive conditions for peace
3 definitive article
Status naturalis is war NOT PEACE
State of peace must be established ( civil constitution of every states should be republican/
law of nations shall be founded on a federation of free states/ law of world citizen shall be
limited to conditions of universal hospitality) Those conditions would lead to achieve
perpetual peace.
Frameworks of Liberalism:
European Union, World Trade Organization
International institutions can increase cooperation
Helps states find a platform to encourage peace and feel degree of interdependence which
encourages peaceful behavior
Avoid/prevent realist behavior through liberalist framework

How did the rise of new Great Powers alter the international system before WW1?
Great Power: a state that makes use of its military and economic influence to maintain
international organization
The new great powers = GERMANY/ THE USA/ JAPAN
How did they become so powerful ?

US Germany Japan

Rich on agricultural land Mining and steel production Quitting feudal system
Raw materials (gold rush) Military forces ( great man → Westernization under Meji
Great technological advance power and industrial Gov. (fukoken hyohei)
Strong military advances) Entry in international trade
Support of own goods High level education market (silk,textiles)
More export than import Great agriculture Boost in population
(though increase in both) Social provision + tariff for Development of land for
farmers farming
Railroad revolution Installation of railroad
 => high quantity and quality
of population

Similarities differences

Geography : (US,Jap) = isolation from Geography ( ger) : heart of europe

europe (west and east) Government (us) : democracy ( president)
Government ( Jap, Ger) = constitutional
monarchy (emperor)
Weltpolitik ( US,Ger,Jap) = race of arms and
technological progress/ competition in
global trade and politics

=> over the 19th century they all started to

develop their international relations
Alteration from a peaceful century to very
competitive one

Who do they interact with:

US
1900 army in China to help restore order
Known for car production (motorized vehicles)
Prefers staying in isolation on western hemisphere

Germany
Huge dye supplier worldwide
German-Austo-Hungarian-Italian agreement (Triple Alliance)
German work forces were highely requested due to high level educations

Japan:
Great Britain and Germany (help with military restructing)
Anglo-Japanese Alliance to prevent russian expansionism towards China
Who was affected?
By US:
1895: Britain, Venezuelan border dispute
1898 Spain, over Cuban issue

By Germany:
1904: Colonization
Triple Entente

By Japan:
Great East Asia
1904 Russo-Japanese War
1907 Battle of Namdaemun-Korea

Concert of Europe:
What is it exactly ?
It’s an unwritten agreement to solve territorial and other disputes. Functioning an dpromising
system of international relations. Alliance of major European powers with benefits and
responsibilities. Common agreement on “what Europe should look like”. Time of relative
peace and small changes in European territory.

Who were the first rate powers included in the Concert of Europe
Great Britain - extensive professional influence and interest outside of Europe
Prussia and Austria → European territory and interests
Russia - extensive professional influence and interest outside of Europe
France - colonial power

Two categories of european nations

First rate powers Secondary states

Claimed for themselves special rights and Protection from external aggression
responsibilities Military assistance to suppress revolution
Guardians of the peace in europe => advantageous to be dependent on their
Assumed responsibility for the maintenance great-power patrons
of order within their neighboring states
=> expected a degree of obedience from
them

What were the unwritten rules of concert diplomacy?

Diplomacy by conference
Great power sanction
Excessive weakness or power should be avoided
Great powers must not be humiliated

Analysis: Concert diplomacy

Strength Weakness

Diplomatic entente Failure to address embarrassing topics

The Concert of Europe could allocate Could not satisfy the territorial ambitions of
territory from one small or weak state to great powers when these were in conflict
another with each other
Provided the framework for the settlement Failure to operate and loss of control when
of crises in which the powers were anxious two powers were ready to bargain for
to reach agreement territory
Depended upon self-discipline

Decline of the concert :

1853-1856 => crimean war : conflict over the eastern question -> russia loses to the alliance
of France, Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire and Sardinia under the Catholic church
Eastern question:
Russia was trying to encourage the Slavs independence to ensure it had secure access on the
Mediterranean
Austria-hungary was trying to stop these Slav countries being set up
Britain and France wanted to keep Russia out of the Mediterranean to protect their own trade
The Ottomans were trying to keep their Empire in Europe
Bosnian crisis:
Revolution in turkey
Austria hungary annexed Bosnia Herzegovina
Tensions with Russia and Serbia
Germany supports Austria-Hungary
Results: greater nationalism in Serbia, Russia modernizes armed forces

1st Balkan war:

Balkan leagues
Expel Turks
Austria Hungary interfered in peace talks

2nd Balkan war:

Bulgaria demanded more land
War on Serbia and Greece
Serbia: dominant power → Austria-Hungary = main obstacle to the dream of a united Slavic
nation

And how was the world changing that made the system less useful over time?
North Africa, 2 Maroccan crisis: French, British and German colonial interest
Asia: Japan invades Republic of Korea in May 1894. Russia’s preoccupied with her interests
as a world power in the Far East
The Balkans: receding Ottoman Empire and formation of new states

Collapse of european center :

End of anglo german collaboration
End of anglo french frictio
End of austro russia entente$evolution towards WW1

Conclusion:
For a long period of time, European statesmen showed remarkable restraint
The Concert perhaps never achieved its potential, but neither were its accomplishments
insignificant
The Concert dealt with the symptoms rather than the causes of international conflict
At its worst, the Concert was an impotent assembly, unable to resolve pressing issues
As its best, it embodied a solution to keep stability and European entente while considering
their constant desire of expansion and change.

What was the eastern question before WW1 ?

“The question of how to satisfy competing Balkan nationalisms and the imperialist ambitions
of the great powers without causing the destruction of the Ottoman Empire, or, if this
destruction was inevitable (about which the majority of European statesmen were convinced),
to dismember it without upsetting the balance of power in Europe and causing a general
war”

Interests in the balkans of the different powers

Russia
Why ? fro expansions and warm water ports
How ? protecting christians and promote slav nationalism
Austria Hungary
Why ? large empire that rules over slavs
How ? stop nationalism and maintain stability
Great Britain
Why ? economic interest
How ? more industrialized and secure shipping lanes
France
Why ? economic interest
How : Marseilles, France’s busiest port, relied heavily on trade

★ Russia was trying to encourage the Slavs independence to ensure it had a secure access to
the Mediterranean. ★ Austria-Hungary was trying to stop these Slav countries being set up. ★
Britain and France wanted to keep Russia out of the Mediterranean to protect their own
trade. ★ The Ottomans were trying to keep their empire in Europe.

Main crisis and wars leading to WW1

Great eastern crisis 1875 -1878 :
Balkan discontent
Uprisings -> war between ottoman empire and serbia & montenegro
Russo-turkish war 1877-78, ottoman defeat : treaty of stefano + congress of berlin

Bosnian crisis 1908

Revolution in Turkey
Austria Hungary annexed Bosnia Herzegovina
Tensions with Russia and Serbia
Germany supports Austria Hungary

Results:
Greater nationalism in Serbia
Russia modernizes armed forces

1 st balkan war 2nd Balkan war

Balkan league Bulgaria demanded more land

Expel turks War on serbia & greece
Austria hungary interfered in peace talks Serbia : dominant power -> austria hungary
= main obstacle to the dream of a united
slavic nation

Why were the great powers unable to solve the crisis of 1914?

Moroccan Crisis 1905/1911

Bosnian crisis 1908 - Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia
Balkan wars
1914: The assassination of Franz Ferdinand and the ultimatum

Moroccan Crisis:
First Moroccan Crisis 1905
Entente Cordiale (1904)
France + Britain
Granted freedom to act in Morocco (Fra) and Egypt (GB)
Germany wants to disrupt union / test union
Declares support to the sultan of Morocco → independent
No interest in Morocco further than trade
Algeciras Conference (1906)
Limit French penetration
Independence and economic equality
Moroccan police force controlled by Fra/Spain
Brings France and GB closer
Germany humiliated
Austria Hungary → Germany
GB, Russia, Spain → France
Solved peacefully

Bosnian Crisis
Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina
Young Turk revolution 1908
Chaos in Turkish politics
Opportunity for Austria-Hungary
Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina
Serbia and Russia mobilize
Russia is weakened by Russo - Japanese war
A-H backed up by Germany (did not agree with A-H decisions)
Russia had to retreat/capitulate
International conference
Agreed for A-H to annex Bosnia
Russia and Serbia humiliated

Moroccan crisis:
Second Moroccon Crisis (1911)
Rebellion against Sultan
France sends troops to “restore order”
No intentions of leaving after
France breaks terms set in first crisis
Germany sees France intentions
Sends “Panther” warship
Want compensation = colonial gains
Threatned Britain is forced to help France
Russian backs up France as revenge for Bosnian crisis
Germany has to retreat
Conference
Negotiate [Link] over Marocco
Germany humiliated and defeated again / solved peacefully

Balkan wars: 1912-13

Italo-turkish war 1911
Ottomans easily defeated
Example for other powers in eastern europe
Balkan league
Created by Russia
Avoid A-H advance towards Ottoman empire
1st Balkan war
Ottoman defeat
British propose conference → division of territories
Discussion of division
Serbia, russia vs, A.H, Italy over Albania → control vs independence
Serbs had to retreat
Bulgaria remained unhappy
Launched an attack on Bulgarian League allies
Failed, attacked by Rumania and Ottoman empire
Treaty of Bucharest 1913
Bulgaria loses territories
Consequences:
French could not play such a limited role next time (loose Russian ally)
Russians let the Serbs down → act stronger next time
Balkan league destroyed, choose Serbia or Bulgaria
Can’t afford to lose ally
Serbia and A+H remain in conflict
A-H was tempted to attack Serbia while distracted (no backup from Germ)
Assassination of Franz Fedinand

1914: assassination of Franz Ferdinand and the ultimatum

Archduke Franz Ferdinand killed 28 june 1914
Caused by the conflicts that arose between A-H and Serbia
Bosnian crisis + Balkan Wars
Austria’s ultimatum → Serbia
“Blank Check” from Germany
A-H felt strong (backed up by Germany)
Austria declares war on Serbia
Russia declares war on A-H
Germany declares war on Russia
France and Britain join Russia

Why was 1914 so special?

No time to negotiate
Serbia’s ultimatum only 48 hours
Full backup from Germany “blank check”
Victory in Bosnian crisis could repeat
Previous conflicts
Serbia vs Austria-Hungary
Divided Europe
Angry/humiliated Germany
Entente had to act stronger
Direct effect of the Balkan wars
Rigid alliance pulled all powers into the World War

Bosnian crisis: 1908-1909

Crucial crisis before WW1 - sets Balkan stage
Background info: From 1897 Austria and Russia have agreement to keep Balkans/Ottoman
territories “on ice” (not to compete) to prevent tension

Oct 5th 1908 - Austria Hungary annexes Bosnia

Their reasons:
To head off Serbian expansion from the north
To divide the Balkans into Austro-Hungarian and Russian zones

Russia nearly agrees to this plan - but holds off because of fear of public opinion (nationalist
sentiment - after pan-slavist movement, Russian public cares about Balkans)
Russia opposes annexation

Oct 5th 1908 - Austria Hungary annexes Bosnia

Other entente powers (Britain, France) don’t back Russia - urge a settlement
1909 Treaty of Berlin - negotiated by great powers - grants Bosnia to Austria-Hungary
Irredentism - a policy of advocating the restoration to a country of any territory formerly
belonging to it.

What were the weaknesses of the Paris Peace System?

Background info:
France, Britain and US
The countries that came out victorious from the first world war were the countries that led the
negotiations at Versailles
European countries were economically and militarily poor as they had just finished a long war
(destruction)
The US was arguably the greatest power at that time as they had a newly formed military and
strong economy, this led them to be head negotiators for the treaty of Versailles

Where was each country in terms of powers

United States:
In 1918 Wilson lost control of both houses of congress which led him to enter the treaty of
Versailles with less political capital.
The United States also suffered from high inflation and increasing unemployment which
resulted in recession.
However, they have a newly formed military which meant they experienced a high
improvement in military

United Kingdom:
Post-WW1 the United Kingdom dealt with severe economic costs due to the funding of the
war
The United Kingdom became one of the world’s biggest debtors after being one of the
world’s biggest investors
Growth in national pride

France:
The northern part of France was completely destroyed and needed to be re-built
French military was still prominent but had suffered during WW1
The French economy had been centralized in order to shift into a “war economy”

Germany:
Germany was economically devastated after WW1
The German currency lost virtually all value which meant paper became worthless
Food shortages as businesses did not have enough money to purchase goods from farmers
A rise in crime as Germans became desperate
No bargaining power in the Paris Peace agreement

What did each country want out of the negotiations

United States:
Removal of militarism and that the balance of power needed to end (collective security)
The United States wanted Europe to feel as if they owed the US the victory of the first world
war
Wilson also wanted peace in Europe by establishing the League of Nations which would
hopefully stop war in Europe
He wanted America not too pay large sums of money for the reconstruction of Europe after
the war
Wilson’s 14 points

United Kingdom:
Peace in Europe
Prime Minister David Lloyd did not want for Germany to pay heavy amounts for the
reconstruction of Europe after the war
He wanted to trade with Germany
LLoys wanted Germany to be used as a buffer zone (which is used to separate nations or
conjoin them) before the socialist Russia which the UK is highly worried about.

France:
Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau’s aim was to ensure that Germany would not seek
revenge in the following years.
Clemenceau wanted Germany to pay for their actions
He wanted to separate Germany in little states as it would not create as much of a threat.
The Prime minister also wanted reparations for all the damages done in France during the
first world war
Clemenceau proposed to form a border between France and Germany
France wanted Rhineland to become an entirely different country even though President
Wilson was against this idea
Germany:
Friedrich Ebert was not part of the negotiations
Germany believed that the US were in the best position to negotiate for collective security
and agreed to commit to the 14 points
Germany hoped that they did not pay for the entirety of the reconstruction of Europe after
the first world war
They refused to be broken up into different states as this would totally weaken their power
Germany did not want to be totally blamed for the war
What they got in the final treaties:

Germany:
Massive reduction in Germany military (Few 100 thousand troops) conscription was banned,
no airforce, submarines or armoured vehicles, they could only build 6 battleships
Territorial concessions in Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Poland
They also had to return Alsace and Lorraine to France
Germany also had to withdraw all of their overseas colonies in China, Pacific and Africa to the
Allied nations
The Rhineland also had to become a demilitarised zone
Germany was also forced to pay huge sums of reparations to France mostly and other allies
such as Great Britain
Germany also had to accept the “war guild” which forced Germany to be blamed for the war

Italy:
Did not receive their territories back (Turkey and Africa) which proved them to join the side of
Japan and Germany as they felt an injustice had been done to them

France:
They would receive large amounts of money from Germany for the damages done during the
war.
Germany would also become a lot weaker which is what France wanted.
However, France did not get all they wanted, for example, they wanted Britain and the US to
protect France in case of further militarism or invasions even though these were unrealistic

Britain:
Britain can keep trading with Germany as the country isn’t split up
They also received large sums of money from Germany to help the reconstruction

United States:
The creation of the League of Nations, even though the US never joined
Germany agreeing to Wilson’s 14 points
Able to loan out money to Germany to pay off France and Britain

Why did it fail?

The agreements were deemed to be unfair by many Americans as Britain and France got
richer and Germany’s expense and the US helped them to do this
Plus, the US never joined the League of Nations which made it a lot weaker without a
governing power
Some argue that it led to the Great Depression
The treaty was unrealistic and harsh
Germans were embarrassed and lacked national pride, they were poor, hungry and
desperate for change
Other unhappy countries allied with each other (Germany, Italy, Japan)

League of Nations:
Missing Germany, Russia and the USA as Wilson lost the congress in 1918 which meant that
Wilson had to negotiate with a Republican congress and senate which did not approve the
Treaty of Versailles which is why the US never joined the League of Nations
The League of Nations could also implement a way to organize a military campaign if one of
the nations supplied troops and the other members agree (most likely was the US as the army
was not devastated by the war but it's impossible as the US was not part of the League of
Nations)
The League of Nations almost never impose sanctions and military campaigns as it much
reach agreements amongst all parties
Subsequently, regardless of the will of the citizens for peace amongst nations, the leading
members of the League of Nations had no capacity to support collective security
What could Wilson have done?
Made it more appealing for the US to join
It creates a limitation since the founder does not join

Week 3: Discuss the successes and failures of the

league of nations
The League of Nations was established in 1919 directly after World War I to prevent such a
war from happening again. It was the idea of the US President Woodrow Wilson who outlined
his blueprint for lasting peace in Europe. His 14 points, formed the basis for the terms of the
German surrender, as negotiated at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 and documented in
the Treaty of Versailles.

14 points: statement of principles for peace that was used for peace negotiations in order to
end WW1.

Differing views on how the league should operate:

America - a world parliament where representatives would meet regularly to decide on
matter which affected all of them
France - A strong League capable of enforcing decisions with its own army
Britain - A simple organization that would meet during emergencies
An international police force made up of representatives of many countries
An organization that would allow disputes to be settled without resorting to war, based in
Geneva (neutral)

4 aims:
Encourage cooperation between the countries of the world to prevent future wars
Disarmament
Improve social conditions - cure diseases, improve working conditions
WORLD PEACE → mantain peace

World War 2 began in 1939 and many historians have condemned the league for failing to
achieve its aims. One of the main issues is that USA did not join the league of nations even
though it was the US president Woodrow Wilson’s idea. This was due to their beliefs in
isolationsm and didnt want to get involved in Europe’s affairs.

•In 1919 Wilsons party lost the elections. His opponent promised to stay out of international
affairs by following a policy of isolationism. And so america did not join the league of nations.
•Many Americans did not think the Treaty of Versailles was fair. As the League was linked with
the treaty, they did not want to be a part of it
•Americans wanted to stay out of disputes that might enter their troops into the kind of
carnage of the first world war
•Many Americans were anti-French or Anti-British. They thought the League would be run by
these countries and did not want to get involved with their affairs
•Others wanted to avoid the economic cost of joining the League

People did not like the idea of creating a league

They were scared this would cause another war due to some nations not agreeing with it
Many americans did not like the idea of the US joining european affairs as a lot of Americans
had suffered civilian casualties in the war.
They also believed the league of Nations were arrogant and thought they knew everything.

Strengths
They wanted peace
58 nations as members by the 1930s
Had some early successes
Settled some land disputes in the 1920s helped refugees, dealt with spread of disease,
fought for better conditions for people
Got some agreements
Locarno Pact (1925) and Kellog-Briand Pact
The league settled the Swedish-Finnish dispute over the Aland islands in 1920 to 1921
They guaranteed the security of Albania (1921)
They rescued Austria from economic disaster
They settled the division of Upper Silesia in 1922
They prevented the outbreak of war in the Balkans between Greece and Bulgaria in 1925
The League extended considerable aid to refugees as it helped to suppress white slave and
opium trafficking
It also did pioneer work in surveys of health; it extended financial aid to needy states; and it
furthered international cooperation in labor relations and many other fields
The League helped quite a few countries and made some changes in the world

Weaknesses:
Germany, Russia and the USA were not members
They relied on goodwill and persuasion
There was no permanent army disarmament and no realistic structure
Everyone had to agree before any actions were taken
Set up the Treaty of Versailles (every nation hates)
Aims were too ambitious
They had no army

The significant failures of the League:

Usa didn’t actually join even if it was Woodrow Wilson idea
Russia wasn’t allowed in due to Communism, and Germany wasn’t either
League didn’t have a military army
Manchuria (Japan) – expand Japan into Manchuria. Sept 1931 they claimed there was an
explosion. The Chinese appealed to the League, and Japan left the League since they had
been condemned and they didn’t have to pay for the sanctions
Too slow to react
Weak
Sanctions were not strong
Abyssinian (Ethiopia) Crisis -
Mussolini wanted Abyssinia since they were embarrassed in 1896
Mussolini negotiates with the League
Britain and France did not want a war with Italy
They wanted to make a deal with Mussolini and this was seen as a treachery against the
league
Rome - Berlin Axis
The League didn’t do anything, and Mussolini and Hitler were able to go behind the League’s
back without the League doing anything about it
In the 1930s the world economic depression encouraged nations to be more aggressive
towards each other. Fascist dictatorships took power in Germany, Italy, and Japan, which
were intent on empire building and these countries defied the League.
In 1932 Japan conquered Manchuria. The League objected, but could do nothing as they
supported China.
Japan left the League
Hitler announced Germany would leave the League in 1932
•In 1919 Wilsons party lost the elections. His opponent promised to stay out of international
affairs by following a policy of isolationism (one country avoiding foreign entanglements and
responsibilities) . And so america did not join the league of nations.
•Many Americans did not think the Treaty of Versailles was fair. As the League was linked with
the treaty, they did not want to be a part of it
•Americans wanted to stay out of disputes that might enter their troops into the kind of
carnage of the first world war
•Many Americans were anti-French or Anti-British. They thought the League would be run by
these countries and did not want to get involved with their affairs
•Others wanted to avoid the economic cost of joining the League
•It failed because The three most powerful countries in the world were not members. USA did
not want to join as most Americans were isolationist. The Russians refused to join as they
were Communists and hated Britain and France. Germany was not allowed to join until 1925.
This was not a problem in the 1920s, when the League dealt mainly with small countries like
Sweden and Finland in 1921 Turkey in 1924 and Bulgaria and Greece in 1925. But, without
the three world powers, the League was too weak to make a big country do as it wished (per
example, Italy over Corfu in 1923).The league ended on the 20th of April 1946.

•You can argue that the league of nations was unsuccessful as it had many failures, however I
believe that if the big powers joined the league it would have been much different as France
and Britain were too weak to impose peace on their own.
•The League of Nations is significant because, even though it failed, it was the first time a
bunch of sovereign nations got together and tried to combine their powers to try to keep the
peace.

Seminar:

How did the lessons of the League of Nations influence the establishment of the UN

League of Nations - founded on Jan 10th, 1920

This was the first real attempt at creating a worldwide organization which mission was to
maintain world peace
Woodrow Wilson - 14 points

Why did the League of Nations fail:

• The 1930’s brought global economic depression and fascist dictatorships, in Germany, Italy
and Japan. These encouraged nations to be more aggressive towards each other and to try
expanding their reach.
• The League failed to punish Japan after it conquered Manchuria in 1932. • Couldn’t stop the
rise of two dictators: Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini. The 3 main powers of WW1 were
missing (USA, Germany and Russia).
• When Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935, the League condemned it, but France and Britain
made a secret agreement to give Ethiopia to Italy. • These events destroyed the authority of
the League, leaving it powerless (and with less members) to stop another war from breaking
out.

Success of League of Nations:

CONFLICTS: • (1920) settled the Swedish-Finnish dispute over the Åland Islands.
• (1921) guaranteed the security of Albania.
• (1925) prevented the outbreak of war in the Balkans between Greece and Bulgaria.
OTHERS:
• Gave aid to refugees.
• Helped suppress white slavery and fought opium traffic.
• Extended financial aid to needy nations (Austria).

United Nations:
• The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945 currently made up of
193 Member States.
• As of April 20th 1946, the League of Nations ceased to exist, handing over all of its assets,
its Library and Archives to the United Nations.
The main functions of the UN are:
- Maintain peace and international security.
- Develop friendly relations between states.
- Cooperate in the resolution of international disputes and promote the respect of human
rights.

Similarities and differences between LofN and UN:

• The structure of the United Nations was shaped to have a stronger authority on countries
through the UN Security Council.
• This time the USA did not back away from the UN, as it did after WW1.
• A significant number of the old League's aims, agencies and methods were transmitted
(International Court and the International Labour Organisation).
• The voting system change was a big step forward: decisions are taken by two third majority
of present and voting, while in the LN they were taken by unanimous voting.
• Furthermore the United Nations is a way more complex and complete organisation
(composed by 6 organs and several agencies).

• In conclusion, it can be said that the League of Nations, to a certain extent, laid the path for
the creation of the United Nations.
• The failure of the League showed the problems and weaknesses that could arise within an
international peace-keeping organisation. Despite being still in existence, the UN achieved
both wins and losses:
• The UN's first attempt to resolve a serious conflict, in Palestine (1947), was unsuccessful,
even disastrous: it failed to implement its own partition plan, and its special mediator was
assassinated.
• Differently, the Operation in Congo (ONUC) from 1960 to 1964, which prefigured an
alarming civil war, was a big success, thanks to the use of military force against rebels to
preserve the unity of the state of Congo.

How did the Korean War influence the development and direction of the cold war:

Political setting after WW2:

The decade after WW2 saw communism spreading to the Far East

Korea Divided at the 38th parallel into:

-Soviet-backed communist North Korea led by Kim Il Sung -American-backed non-communist
South Korea led by Syngman Rhee
United States
-Capitalist state led by Harry S. Truman Domino theory: if one country fell to communism,
then communism would spread to neighboring countries Foreign policy of containment:
attempt to prevent spread of communism but no regaining of territory lost to communism

China
Successful communist state led by Mao Zedong Ally of Soviet Union Shared border with
Korea Soviet Union
Led by Joseph Stalin Played covert role in Korean War: diplomatic support and strategic
planning

25th of June 1950: North Korea launched attack on South Korea across the 38th parallel
July 1950: USA and UN sent troops to support South Korea
September 1950: UN forces landed in Inchon and pushed back North Koreans to 38th
parallel
October 1950: China invaded Korea and drove US forces below 38th parallel
June 1951: More US troops deployed to Korea and communists driven back to 38th parallel
July 1953: Armistice signed in Panmunjom on 38th parallel

Consequences on Korea:
Social:
3-4 million casualties
1/10 th of population at the time
Economic:
Most of the industry destroyed
Majority of the population dead or injured
North Korea fell into poverty
Political:
North Korea and South Korea remained divided along 38th parallel

United States:
Economic/political:
Massive rearmament
Defense budget
48 billion in 1951
60 billion in 1952
Political:
Prevented South Korea from falling into communist arms
Fear of domino theory to impact US foreign policy for the next 20 years

Influence of the Korean War on the Cold War:

The Korean War was an important development in the Cold War because it was the first time
that the two superpowers fought a ‘proxy war’ in a third country. The proxy war strategy
would later on become a key feature of other Cold War conflicts such as the Vietnam War or
Cuban missile crisis.

Korean War established a pattern of the USA being involved in events in Asia, put forward the
rollback policy and implementation of NSC-68

Influence of Korean War on relations:

US and China USSR and China

Worsening of relations Increased tensions

Squabble over who should pay the bill
 Remaining American soldiers worried Soviet Union seen as unreliable and
Chinese government demanded ally
Pressure on relations between the 2 Sino-Soviet split in 1960
countries

How much a difference to the overall nature of the global hierarchy, does decolonization
make?
When the British Empire left India in 1947:
India is the colony that British want to improve the most
Life expectancy 27 (UK=66.5)
Adult literacy 16% (UK=97.5% by 1900)
Population living below poverty line = 90% (UK=1.5-3%)

India today:
Life expectancy = 70 (2020)
Adult literacy = 74% (2018)
Poverty = 10.2% (2019)

If you have a national education system it encourages people to think more for themselves.
India → raw unfinished cotton that are taking into Britain to upvalue it

Ghana and Nigeria

Europe → seen as highest point of human civilization

WW1 and WW2 undermine this idea

Non-aligned movement:
Real economic autonomy was hard to reach for third world countries
Neo - colonialism
Even if colonialism comes to an end, they were still present in the economy since it was hard
for post-colonial countries to develop
The organization founded in 1961 by a number of neutral states which called for lowering of
Cold War tensions and for greater attention to be paid to underdevelopment to the
eradication of imperialism.

The extent to which decolonization affected the economy

Nixon & Bretton Woods
1944 - how to manage international financial world we live in, Bretton Woods was seen as a
solution to these problems
America:
American currency would have its value fixed to the price of gold
1oz of gold = 1 dollar
The price of the dollar is fixed

On one hand, this system got some kind of stability in place, by placing a limit.
This happens through capital controls that limit the ability to trade across borders.

Up until the 60s and 70s the system was quite successful.

The problem is that this system puts a big limit on the American economy. The dollar has
become overvalued. These problems start to accumulate in the 60s.

American exports became very expensive because of the fixed exchange rate.

The problems come up:

Value of imports started to exceed
The US has a trade deficit
Rising inflation: government spending on Vietnam + Great Society
Germany and Japan are out producing the US

Balance of payments
Industrial decline
Rising inflation

Nixon rips out this fixed exchange system and the conversion of dollars to gold.
He also threatened a return to trade protectionism unless West Germany and Japan, among
others, increased the value of their own currencies against the US dollar.

Why did Nixon want a detente in relations with the USSR:

Cut military spending

The cold war was fought in the thirld world:

The thirld world: disadvantaged countries

Bandung conference
29 countries attend this event
Major attendant: Indian prime minister, Egyptian President, Chinese Primer

The theory of the balance of terror:

Vietnam war: 1955 to 1975

Power vaccum: lack of stability

Difference between cold war in Asia and Russia

To what extent did decolonization alter the power hierarchy in the international system?

Decolonisation and the emergence of non-aligned states:

Colonial powers weakened by WW2 (France, Belgium, Netherlands,UK)
People under colonial rule were determined to break the ties that still hed them to Europe
Emergence of two anti-colonialist superpowers (US and SU) + new international climate after
1945
Colonies encouraged to make a bid for independence

Decolonisation unfolded in 2 phases:

Phase 1 - 1945 to 1955: affecting countries in the Near and Middle East and South-East Asia
Phase 2 - started in 1955: concerned North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa
10 years after the end of WW2, the Thirld World took its place as a new player i nthe
international arena

The Bandung Conference

Held from 18 to 24 April 1955 in Bandung, Indonesia
Representatives from 23 Asian and 6 African countries
Meeting to affirm their desire for independence and their refusal to align with the world
powers
They demanded
The decolonisation and emancipation of the people of Africa and Asia
Peaceful coexistance and economic development
Non-interference in internal affairs
Leaders hoped to focus on collaboration among the nations of the third world and reducting
their reliance on Europe and North America

The non-aligned movement

The Bandung Conference marked the emergence of Third-World countries on the
international stage and laid the foundation for the non-aligned movement during the Cold
War
Leaders of developing countries banded together to avoid being forced to take sides in the
Cold War contest
Conditions for membership
The states of the Non-Aligned Movement could not be part of a multilateral military alliance
They could not have signed a bilateral military agreement with one of the “big powers” if it
was “deliberately concluded in the context of Great Power conflicts”

Conclusion: were these efforts successful

Achievements of the non-aligned movement
NA countries gained influence in world affairs
Facilitated the attainment of independence in previously colonized countries
Promoted peace and internation cooperated
Mediated in international disputes
Minimized the domoninance of two superpowers over third world countries
Discouraged neo-colonialism

Challenges facing the NAM:

Shortage of funds due to economic problems in some member countries
Lack of commitment since NAM members owed allegiance to other organizations (UN,
Commonwealth)
Individual national interests conflict with those of NAM
Border disputes between member states which have hampered their collaboration
The collapse of the USSR destabilized the movement, there was no longer any need to align
with it

The cold was was fought in the third world:

Korea
Years fought: 1950-53
US involvement:
Directly involved
US troops sent in the battlefield
Provided resources and strategic planning to South Korea

The conflict:
Korean split into North and South after WW2
USSR - North Korea
Us - South Korea
In 1950, 75000 North Korean troops crossed the border
Conflict resolved with the establishment of demilitarized zone

Soviet involvement:
Never publicly admitted involvement
Provided military aid and planning capabilities
China sent millions of troops

Vietnam
1.”Domino Theory” leads President Eisenhower to support the creation of a non-communist
regime in South Vietnam, led by Ngo Dinh Diem
2. Under John F.. Kennedy, Eisenhower’s successor, US increases its military presence in the
South, as Diem’s regime fails to establish national control
[Link] Kennedy’s assassination in 1963, Lyndon Johnson sanctions massive expansion
of US military intervention, authorized by the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)
US troop levels rise dramatically during the Johnson (1963-1969) and Nixon (1969-1974)
administrations
Nixon gradually accepts defeat amid military failure, public protests & congressional pressure
North Vietnam conquers the South in 1975.

Years fought: 1955-1975

US involvement:
Directly and heavily involved from the beginning
Involvement increased when congress authorized President Lydon Johnson to send even
more troops

The conflict:
Split into North and South after independence from France
Communist leader Ho Chi Minh - North
US supported Ngo Dinh Diem - South
Increased US military presence in 1964 - led to hostilities
After decades of guerilla welfare - North won
Soviet involvement:
Directly involved
Funded the North Vietnamese
Sent thousands of military advisors who served in the war effort

Afghanistan:
Years fought: 1979-1989
US involvement:
Indirectly involved
Supported the mujahideen by with financial and military aid

The conflict:
Afghanistan’s Soviet friendly leader was assassinated
Soviet Union intervened militarily and installed a Soviet loyalist
Afghan insurgent groups (mujhideen) waged guerilla welfare against the Soviet government
Soviet Union eventually withdrew and subsequently collapsed

Soviet involvement:
Directly involved
Sent 100.000 troops to take control of the country

Nicaragua:
Years fought: 1961-1990
US involvement:
Indirectly involved
Originally supported the Somoza regime. Covertly backed into contras with funding and
training
Supported winded down after Iran-Contra Affair scandal

The conflict:
1933 - US occupation of Nicaragua ended - Somoza family dynasty came to power
Early 1970s - Sandinistas launched full-scale guerrilla campaign against government forces
Sandistas gained control in 1979
Early 1970s - Contras attacked the Sandista government
Sandinistas lost election in 1990
Soviet involvement:
Indirectly involved
Funded the Sandinista government

Angola:
Years fought: 1975-2002
US involvement:
Indirectly involved
Financially supported UNITA
Encouraged UNITA to pursue a military option rather than a negotiated settlement

The conflict:
Independence from Portugal 1975 - two political functions began fighting for control of the
country
The communist People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA)
National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA)
Fought for decades
In the end - MPLA prevailed

Soviet involvement:
Indirectly involved
Provided financial and military support to MPLA
MPLA good ties with Cuba
Cuba conducted with some independent operations in the country

Why did the cold war play out differently in the third world compared to Europe:
Threats of mutually assured destruction prevented US and USSR from attacking each other
Proxy wars deemed safer way of exercising hostilities
Cost effective to support parties critical of enemy
War-weariness and skeptical of risking life abroad

Why proxy wars in the Third World?

Fragile states after years of colonialism and imperialism
New leaders emerged in the third world - either support or go against
Easy to influence through financial aid, military and political support

Laos and Cambodia

•US intervention in South East Asia also included actions against the Khmer Rouge
(Cambodia) and the Pathet Laos (Laos)
•
•1964-1973: U.S. dropped over two million tons of bombs on Laos during 580,000 bombing
missions — equal to a planeload of bombs every 8 minutes, 24-hours a day, for 9 years.
•
•Over the same period, US dropped 2.7 million tons of bombs on Cambodia; about 30 per
cent of the country's population was internally displaced.
Decolonization: From Korea (1950-1953) and Vietnam (1955-1975) to Cuba (1959-1962),
Angola (1975-1991) and Afghanistan (1979-1991), struggles for self-determination shaped
many of the Cold War’s major crises and military events
Cold War: Failure in Vietnam revealed the limits of American power, leading the Nixon and
Ford (1974-1977) administrations to rethink worldwide containment and contemplate
détente with the USSR

Cold war:
USA - “containment” → communism could stay where it was, but would not be allowed to
spread
Block further spread
Expose falsities of soviet pretensions
Induce a retraction of Kremlin’s control and influence
Foster the seeds of destruction within Soviet system

Marshall Plan - US to combat economic instability that provided fertile fields for communsim

Germany: Berlin crisis

Divided in 4
Americans responded with supplies
1949: Germany split in 2

East vs West - Capitalist Freedom vs Communist totalitarianism

Truman doctrine: containment of communism and increased military spending

By aiding states who supported it - marshall plan
Western bloc - democratic
Eastern bloc - communist

Greek civil war:

Left wing protest
British troops collaborated w right wing and nazi sympathizer against communits
1946
US support had facilitated the Greeks and government victory over the communists

The Berlin Wall effectively stabilized the european dimension of the cold war. There were no
longer going to be conflicts about the division of germany → turning point
Interventions in Vietnam - hot war across asia

Raegan - believes US can win the cold war

Soviet Union led by Stalin but is then replaced by Krushchev and then by Brezhnev

Phase 1:
Prague Spring: invasion of Czechoslovakia

Nixon wants to rebuild a partnership with USSR

Soviet sign - intensification of involvement of US in Vietnam war

Military and political causes for detente

Military - Johnson to Nixon to Ford
Political -Krushchev to Brezhnev

Nuclear Arms Race:

1969 - USSR NUCLEAR PARITY WITH US
Mutual assured destruction
Arms race - threatened to wipe out human race but economic burdens on both

Leadership - how foreign policy should be

The empirical data shows that the nuclear weapons was an enduring feature of the Cold War
Political leaders were trying not to use weapons, but military did want to use them??
1958 taiwan strait crisis - ussr uses its navy to win control of taiwan -
1962: cuban missle crisis
Truman is contemplating use of nuclear weapons in the korean war

Systematic attempt by both superpowers to reduce prospect of nuclear war

Significant desire to get more stable
Before with truman doctrine US was more of an aggressively anti communist state. Under
Nixon the foreign policy is changing

Salt 1 and Salt 2:

1974: Vladivostok Summit → reduce size
CHANGE IN MINDSET

Helsinki Accords:
Agree a settlement to the borders of Europe
2nd world war came to an end there was never a treaty that recognized the end and territorial
borders arrangements
They make an agreement of the inviolability
Give diplomatic recognition to the existence of a soviet sphere of influence - warsaw pact are
part of this
Respect for territorial integrity - neither alliance was going to interfere with politics of either
side
Soviet Union was not going to interfere in Germany
US not Hungary
East Germany not in West Germany
End of era of containment
US is recognizing in official diplomatic terms the existence of the communist block

Why did we have this change?

MAD - once both sides possessed enough nuclear weapons, the nuclear weapons lost its
purpose. You can’t have a military strategic advantage anymore. There was a stalemate in the
Cold War.

This change wouldn’t have happened based on the leadership change.

USSR replacement of Krushchev by Brezhnev
Krushchev acted very foolishly [Link] missile crisis and then essentially backing down
Brezhnev was very similar to Nixon - very conservative leader - didn’t believe in benefitting in
a massive conflict

US side - failures in Vietnam war

The Republicans start to take a more Anti-Vietnam approach

US power decline - frames Nixon’s foreign policy and is more open to a Detente
Nixon believes that this made the US vulnerable
The American currency could potentially crash
The US dollar became overvalued making US exports less competitive
Stabilize US Soviet relations

Police of retrenchment

Brezhnev:
Similar priorities
He wanted to stabilize to invest less in fighting in such an intense conflict
To stabilize Brezhnev accept the Helsinki Accords and Nixon to engage in diplomatic talks

Sino -Soviet split made USSR more isolated diplomatically and lacking allies and so it wanted
to have a more cooperative relationship
Sino-Soviet split:
Disputes over communist ideologies
Both communist powers competed influence into the Third World
As China becomes more stable, it wants to have more of a leadership of the communist block
There are also a series of border problems
This increases Brezhnev will to support the Detente
On the US side it was also important since it lead to Triangular Diplomacy → The US tries to
play off the 2 superpowers against one another to integrate itself more and more with China
→ leads to friendlier relationship w United States

Limited process:
US continued to practice containment in Latin America - Bolivia and Chile
USSR equally continues to use its military force in support of pro-soviet forces in Eastern
European and Third World countries - invasion of Afghanistan
Neither side dismantled its arm race - did not bring it to an end

Collapse late 1970 and early 1980

Election of Carter 1977
Wanted to have a more aggressive and progressive stance on human rights
Opposed Helsinki accords

1979:
Soviet invaded Afghanistan - one of the most important proxy wars in the Cold War
US funds the anti-Soviet Mujahideen

1981: election of ronald reagen

Death of detente
Much more similar to Truman
An aggressive version of containment and roll-back
Believed if US kept investing in military it could win the Cold War

International Relations
Week 7: The International System after the End of
the Cold War
The End of Detente
After the high-point of detente in the mid-1970s - SALT (1972/74) and Helsinki Accord (1975),
the rapprochement between the USA & USSR started to come to an end:
The American death of detente: Nixon, Ford and Carter
Proxy wars: Angola, Ethiopia and Afghanistan
US foreign policy under Ronald Reagan (1981-89)

Detente was an American foreign policy initiative created by Nixon.

1975-75 - Watergate scandal: Nixon and his advisors were found to be spying on the
American democratic congress which forced him to resign. American liberals begin to argue
that Detente was a trail of American values.
Jimmy Carter, attacked the Nixon-Ford-Kissinger as a betrayal of US values and human rights.
As Carter withdrew from the SALT negotiations in 1979 after the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan.

Proxy conflicts: Angola, Ethiopia and Afghanistan:

Ethiopia and Angola , soviet union used economic and military systems
Angolan Civil War: 1975-1991
Ussr and Cuba supported the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) vs the
National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA)
Ethiopian Civil war: 1974-1991
USSR & Cuba supported the Marxists armed group the Derg, while US
allies Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Pakistan supported the People’s Revolutionary Democratic
Front

The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, 1979-1989:

Afghanistan in the period leading up to the role was ruled by a monarchy, but the People’s
Democratic Party, a communist faction, seized power in 1978, but were unable to consolidate
power. The Soviet intervenes in 1979.
Soviet motives: perceived threat of political Islam and rise of American influence in the
Middle East.
USA provided financial and military support to the Afghan Mujahideen,
800.000 - 2 million Afghans killed during the occupations; USSR lost 14.453 troops
Leads to the ‘Carter Doctrine’, 1980, which proclaimed that the US would use military force to
defend its interests in the Persian Gulf - a key source of global oil supplies.

Return to Cold War: US Foreign Policy under Ronald Regan

Ronal Regan substitutes Jimmy Carter
Defining Presidents of American History
Would describe the USSR as an evil empire
Wanted United States to spread democracy and capitalism by using force
1981-1985: US military skyrockets. Strategic Defense Initiative - project using ground and
space based missiles.
Much more aggressive and focused on developing American foreign power.
Increases funds to Afghanistan Mujahideen, invasion of Grenada, and actions against left-
wing parties in El Salvador and Nicaragua.

Conclusion:
By the 1980s superpower relations were more hostile than at any time since the Cuban
Missile Crisis of 1962
Reagan responded positively to the new Soviet leader Gorbachev
1987: the two had agreed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, banning land-
based ballistic and cruise missiles
1986-88: Gorbachev agreed to withdraw Soviet forces from Afghanistan, announced
uniliteral cuts to the Red Army, and declared the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine.

The Collapse of the USSR

Internal factors
Gorbachev’s reforms
Economic decline
political/national fragmentation
External factors
American power
Foreign policy defeats
Did the USA win the Cold War?

March 1985 - Gorbachev became leader of USSR

Jan 1989 - Soviet troops withdraw from Afghanistan

Gorbachev’s reforms:

Background:
Afghan war
Chernobyl disaster - the technician tried to keep this disaster a secret - feel as though they
can’t express and leads to destruction
Economic decline / social unrest

Reforms: way Gorbachev responds to issues

Perestroika - economic reconstruction
Glasnost - political openness
Attempts to change the soviet system and reduce centralized control
Liberalize Soviet system - even though Gorbachev was a communist
Reform it introducing elements of market economy
Abandonments of the Brezhnev Doctrine
Gorbachev regime signaled it was no longer going to use military force

Unintended Consequences:
Perestroika: undermined party control over the economy and encouraged corruption, while
rising investment spending and consumer subsidies caused rapid inflation without boosting
output.
Glasnost: made communist governments vulnerable to opposition movements, especially as
Gorbachev withdraw 500000 troops from Eastern Europe in 1987
By 1989, the USSR and the Eastern Bloc were hit by labor strikes, political protests and severe
consumer shortages.

The Economics of Soviet Decline:

Soviet industrialization raised living standards, and between 1950 and 1970, annual GDP
growth rates averaged 7% - higher than Western Europe and the United States
Yet after 1970 the Soviet economy began to decline, as per capita GDP growth slowed from
2.7% per year in 1974-75 to 1.5% per year in 1973-85.
By the 1980s the economies of the USSR and Eastern Bloc were increasingly reliant on food
imports and foreign loans, while living standards lagged significantly behind those in
Western Europe and the United States
This fostered social unrest: e.g. the rise of the Polish independent trade union Solidarity with
10 million members by 1981.

Political fracture:
The turn to glasnost in 1986 allowed non-communist parties to organize against hardline
socialist governments in Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia and East Germany
These groups were often supported by Western loans and advisers, whose influence after the
Helsinki accords of 1975.
This was a major change from 1968, when the USSR had invaded Czechoslovakia

Revolutions of 1989:
On July 7th 1989, Gorbachev announced that the USSR would not use force to dictate the
internal affairs of Warsaw Pact countries, renouncing the Brezhnev Doctrine
In August 1989, Poland became the first country to end one-party rule, when the Parliament
made Tadeusz Mazowiecki - one of the leaders of Solidarity - the first non-communist Prime
Minister since 1946
This sparked the revolutionary wave of 1988, ending communist rule across Eastern Europe

Did the USA win the Cold War?

Regean’s Cold War policies contributed to the USSR’s defeat in Afghanistan and the
intensification of the arms race - developments that burdened the Soviet economy and
undermined faith in socialist rule
However, the USSR’s collapse may have more fundamental internal causes, such as
Gorbachev’s reforms and the country’s socioeconomic problems
Arguably, the United States won the Cold War in Europe but lost to communism in Asia

The International system after the cold war:

Human Rights, the UN and the Responsibility to protect
US-China Politics: a new cold war?

War and Violence after the cold war

1991-2001: Yugoslav Wars and Bosnian Genocide
A series of military conflicts between social and ethnic groups within former Yugoslavia
1995: Srebrenica Massacre
More than 8000 Bosnian Muslims (male civilians) killed by Bosnian Serb Army led by Ratko
Mladic
1994: Rwandan Genocide
500000 to 662000 Tutsi killed by Hutu militias

Human rights and the United Nations after the Cold war:
1998: establishment of the International Criminal Court by UN-negotiated Treaty of Rome
2005: Norm of the ‘Responsibility to Protect’ adopted at United Nations World Summit
2011: R2’ invoked regarding UN approval for NATO’S intervention in Libya

Challenged to the UN and the Human Rights Agenda:

Failure to prevent war/ethnic violence
Critics of the ICC point out that its indictments have focused overwhelmingly on African
countries; some have accused it on Western imperialism
Prosecutions for war crimes and crimes against humanity have largely focused on perceived
enemies of the US government, such as leaders of the former Yugoslavia
US ‘War on Terror’
The rise of China

US-China relations: a new cold war?

Ideological differences democratic vs authoritarian

Week 8: European Integration

Federalism: a system of government in which states unite and give up some of their powers
to a central authority
Supernations: transcending national boundaries, authority, or interests

First phase of European integration:

1950s
Post-war reconstruction, including the German questions, the Marshall Plan
The Cold war
The post-war economic boom and the construction of the welfare state

The USA is a large external driver of integrations:

Marshall Plan → Rebuild Europe 12-16bn

The German questions:

More than simply strings-free aid, it creates a set of practices and institutions for European
collaboration with the USA
Organization for European Economic Cooperations (OECC) is a US-led institution to promote
trade across borders and plan the administration of Marshall aid. The US hopes it will
progress into a customs union

The German question:

As US is consolidating, Europe is faced with German question: how Germany should exist
within Europe again
For the USA, the German question is solved by rebuilding the German economy and possibly
rearming Germany.
For the USSR, the German question could be solved by re-unifying Germany on neutral
terms. Suggested by Stalin in 1952.

A re-unified Germany could both regain European supremacy or become a contested zone
in the Cold War as in 1945.
But a reconstructed and re-armed West Germany could also threaten French interests,
including replacing France as the primary American ally on the continent.
For West Germany, Konrad Adeanuer wants to rehabilitate the image of German state
through closer ties to both Europe and America
Ultimately, to remove the restrictions held over from the occupation and re-arm and
reconnect West Germany to the world.

The European Coal and Steel Community

The Schuman Plan, devised by Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman. Announced on may 9th,
1950 to unite industrial production for Western European countries under a single authority.

The German question:

For the French this allows the development of German industry and economy to proceed
within a framework proposed by - and executed with - the French state.
For the Americans this fosters European co-operation and German reconstruction.
For the West Germans this allows them to rebuild economic and political power without
alarming their European neighbors.

While the plan is under development by Schuman, Konrad Adenauer is the first person
notified, but Dean Acheson the American secretary of State is the second.

This will make it that no war occurs between France and Germany.

The European Coal and Steel Community which includes: France, Germany, Italy, Belgium,
Netherlands, Luxembourg

What does it do?

Brings down barriers to trade in coal and steel and promotes integration of industries across
national borders
Creates supranational structures: a high authority, appointed by member states, and an
assembly of MPs from member states parliaments.

The ECSC also has a strong social democratic component. Funds are allocated to
compensate and re-employ workers displaced by the integration and modernisation of
industry.

The USA and European Integration:

The creation of NATO in 1949 was a landmark in European military co-operation.
America under the demands of the Korean war, begins pushing for a fully re-armed Germany
in 1950.
Americans are proposing to rearm Germany by US backing.
1950 - Monnet and Rene propose the European Defense Community, an integrated
European military force and eventually the US backs up the plan.

The death of the European Political Community:

Proposed by the ECSC assembly and intended to introduce a directly elected body and an
appointed senate.

1957 - Treaty of Rome is the next step towards economic integration between the six ECSC
states, creating the European Economic Community
The treaty concerns the eventual creation of a customs union. Meaning a common external
tariff between the states.
But it also sketches out an extensive plan for further economic integration.

Part 2:
Monetary vs Fiscal policy:
Monetary policy: the availability of money + credit in the economy
Fiscal policy: direct tax + spend powers of the government
Tariffs: a tax imposed at national borders on certain kinds of goods
Economic integration:
Establish a free trade area
The elimination of tariffs between members
Establish a customs union
Common external tariffs between all states
Establish a common market
Removal of restrictions on movement of goods, people, capital, and services, between
members
Create an economic union
Harmonization of domestic economic policies between members
Full economic integration
Transfer control of monetary and fiscal powers to a supranational authority

So the EEC in 1957 is working towards a free trade area, and a customs union.
Free trade area:
The elimination of tariffs between members
Eg. NAFTA
Customs union:
Common external tariffs between all states
Ie. states have the same tariffs on goods from OUTSIDE the free trade area

If we look at European integration in phases, the 1950s involves:

The creation of the ECSC which establish supranational bodies either appointed or staffed
directly by politicians and member states
The creation of the EEC, which works towards economic integration, starting with free trade
and customers union.

The 1960s saw:

The 1965 merger treaty (Brussels Treaty) which brought together the structures of the ECSC,
the EEC, and the European Atomic Energy Community under the title “European
Communities”
The finalizing of the customs union and the elimination of most tariffs between nations by
1968.

1970s and 1980s

This period is often presented as a stagnation or stalling of closer integration
A general trend towards deregulation more volatile capital movements and inability of
European economies to control inflation, led to a re-evaluation of national economic
planning vs openness to the world market

Example of France in the 1980s:

Successive french regimes were unable to kick-start the economy
Raymond Barre used an American style tight monetary policy to fight inflation
Francois Mitterand used a vast Keynesian spending program to grow the economy

Week 9: Rise of Asia

Asia in the modern age
Modernizing Japan and China from the 19th century to the Cold war
Asia after decolonisation and Mao
The Asian Economic Miracle reform
China as a superpower
Chinese influence and power since the beginning of the 21st century

Asia in the modern age

Japan from the Meiji Restoration (1968)
Japan defeats Russia in Korea and South Manchuria in 1853, the first time an Asian power
defeats one of the so-called great powers
Up until the mid-to late nineteenth century, China had dominated East Asia
Chinese decline led to a power vacuum into which Japan were concerned the Western
Powers would step.
This led to Japanese wars with China (1894-5), Russia (1904-1905) and the conquest of
Taiwan (1894), South Manchuria (1905) and Korea (1910)

The Japanese Empire:

Other great powers feel the need to include Japan
It grew a lot stronger in WW1 by joining the allies
Japanese invasion of Manchuria 1931!!!!
Part of fascist militarism preceding WWII
Japan leaves the League of Nations in response to criticism of the occupation of Manchuria
and fights a stalemate in China that lasts until 1945.
The Nazi victories in Europe at the beginning of the World War 2 led to the weakening the
European grip on South-East Asia, which Japan rushed to take control over
Japanese moves in South East Asia led to a US embargo, and eventually Pearl Harbor

It is important to recognize that Japan had an opportunity to establish itself, but instead it
created its own thing

The situation in China:

Meanwhile nationalism grew in China with the establishment of the Guomindang (GMD) who
emerged in the 1920s, who eventually established the Nanking Republic.
Initially allied with the Soviets and Chinese communists to take control in 1927.
Chiang Kaishek rules from 1928-1949, intended to be “modernizing” “rational” government of
national unity.

Chinese Civil war:

GMD (nationalists) and Communist Party had agreed to work together to counter japan from
1937 onwards. War is devastating, at least 15 million deaths, and weakens nationalists while
strengthening communists.
Following the war there was a stalemate between the two groups: Soviets had remained
neutral, while the US supported the GMD.
War breaks out in April 1946: GMD gamble on strong US support, which isnt forthcoming.
Mao’s communists win and the GMD flee to Taiwan in 1949.

China under Mao (1949-76)

The Chinese Civil War ends in 1949 with Mao establishing the People’s Republic of China.
Mao was a follower of Marxism-Leninism, but had developed it in a new direction, focused on
the peasantry.
Campaigns of modernization and ideological conversion Great Leap Forward (1958-62), the
Cultural Revolution (1966-76)
Struggle hard for three years. Change the face of China. Catch up with Britain and America -
mao
The Great Leap forward is widely considered a failure. Food shortages and famine did not
produce the transformation envisioned.
However: 1950-75 average annual growth of 4.2%. Better than majority of non industrialized
nations → china despite the failure is becoming a more developed country

China in the world:

Huge impact on the Cold War - takes lead role in Korea and Vietnam against the US. Closer
to direct conflict than the USSR
Presence of Communist China causes increased US interest in the region
OBTAINS NUCLEAR BOMB IN 1964
Close but contentious relationship with USSR. Heavily reliant on Soviet expertise, and clear
ideological parallels.
The relationship deteriorated over ideological issues, tensions over Chinese atomic
ambitions, and led to the “Sino-Soviet split” from the late 1950s onward.
In many ways China is extremely isolated at this time.
Republic of China occupies Chinese (Taiwan) place at UN from founding until 1971.
Highly dependent on USSR for expertise, industrial material, and also diplomatic
connections.

Change in China:
Mao dies in 1976. Succeeded briefly by Hua Guofeng, then in 1978 by Deng Xiaoping
Begins a phase of “reform and opening”

The Xiaoping Era:

Begins programme of change based on “Four Modernizations”
agriculture
Industry
Military
Science and technology

Immense opening of Chinese economy

End of collective farming-private plots for farmers
Allows foreign investment
End of “iron rice bowl”
Special economic zones

Average gross domestic product increased from 4 to 9.5 during 1978-2005

China becomes increasingly close to the US and distant to the USSR

The Developmental States : Japan

The US occupied Japan for 7 years after the war
The Developmental States : South Korea
Substantial growth

The Developmental States : Taiwan

The “Asian Tigers”

South korea, taiwan, singapore, hong kong
The Asian Miracle:
Can’t discount the role of the US
Originally interested in China as a counterbalance to Japan
Their outstanding economic success makes it plausible to suggest that they have created a
more competitive form of capitalism, from which other countries would be wise to learn.

Return to China:
Deng Xiaoping resign in 1992, and dies in 1997
Succeeded by: Jiang Zemin
Xiaoping was a modernizer, but did not open society to the same degree he opened the
economy. Few democratic, or otherwise liberal interventions.

China and the WTO:

China begins negotiations to join the GATT (precursor to WTO) in 1986
WTO is formed in 1995
China is excluded after intervention by US and Japan over tariffs and further liberalization of
the economy
Want reduction of state intervention and protections still not enough of a market economy
After China received approval and joined, American politicians were convinced that
liberalization in China’s economy will eventually result in democratic reforms in the country.