GSS612 : REMOTE SENSING & IMAGE ANALYSIS

GLS612 : REMOTE SENSING

LECTURE 2

ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION PRINCIPLES
DR. SITI NOR MAIZAH SAAD
Senior Lecturer
Studies of Surveying Science and Geomatics
College of Built Environment
Universiti Teknologi Mara Perlis Branch
 LESSON OUTCOMES
▪ To describe the concept, and principle of EMR and their
components
▪ To identify the interaction of EMR at atmosphere through
absorption and scattering process and the interaction of EMR
with earth surface.
▪ To describe the interaction of EMR with various properties of
earth features including vegetation, soil and water bodies.
CONTENTS
▪ Introduction
I. Energy Source or Illumination
II. Radiation and the Atmosphere Interactions in the
Atmosphere
III. Interaction with the Target
 INTRODUCTION
▪ Remote Sensing can be defined as the science of acquiring,
processing and interpreting remotely sensed energy / images
that record the interaction between electromagnetic
radiation (EMR) and matter.

▪ In remote sensing system, EMR used as an information

carrier.
 ELEMENTS OF REMOTE SENSING
DATA/PROCESS
1. Energy Source or Illumination (A)
 propagates through the vacuum of space at the speed
of light
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B)
 interacts with the Earth's atmosphere
 interacts with the Earth's surface
3. Interaction with the Target (C)
 interacts with the Earth's atmosphere once again, and
finally reaches the remote sensors where it interacts
with various optical systems and detectors.

4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D)

5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E)
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F)
7. Application (G)
To describe the concept, and principle of EMR and
their components

Energy Source or Illumination (A)

▪ Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR)
OUTLINES
▪ Introduction to Energy Source
▪ Electromagnetic Radiation
▪ Electromagnetic Waves
▪ Frequency and Wavelength
▪ Electromagnetic Energy
▪ Sources of Electromagnetic Energy (Thermal Emission)

▪ Electromagnetic Spectrum
▪ Visible Spectrum
▪ Infrared Spectrum
▪ Microwave Spectrum
▪ Non-visible Spectrum

▪ Conclusions
INTRODUCTION TO ENERGY SOURCE
▪ The first requirement of RS is to have energy source which
illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the
target of interest.

▪ The transfer of energy by electromagnetic radiation is of

primary interest that can take place in a vacuum such as
the region between the sun and the earth.
▪ RS needs an energy source to illuminate the target (e.g. earth
features) unless the sensed energy is being emitted by the target.
▪ This energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation(EMR).
▪ The electromagnetic (EMS) spectrum is the range of all types of
EMR.
▪ EMR can be expressed in terms of energy, wavelength,
or frequency.
(NASA, 2020)
ENERGY SOURCE (SOLAR)
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
▪ EMR can be described in terms of a stream of mass-less particles,
called photons, each traveling in a wave-like pattern at the speed of light.
▪ Each photon contains a certain amount of energy.
▪ Light, electricity, and magnetism are manifestations of EMR.
Form of EMR = Sunlight + Energy.
▪ Consists of non-detectable(non visible) and detectable(visible) forms with
our eyes.
“EMR is energy propagated through space between electric
and magnetic fields. The electromagnetic spectrum is the
extent of that energy ranging from cosmic rays, gamma rays,
X-rays to ultraviolet, visible and infrared radiation including
microwave energy”
(Definition by United States Geological Survey (USGS))
▪ The different types of radiation are defined by the amount of energy found in
the photons.
▪ Radio waves have photons with low energies, microwave photons have a little
more energy than radio waves, infrared photons have still more, then visible,
ultraviolet, X-rays, and, the most energetic of all, gamma-rays.
 ▪ EMR transmits energy and has two
components, namely
▪ Electric field – varies in
magnitude in a direction
perpendicular to the direction in
which the radiation is travelling
▪ Magnetic field – oriented at
right angles to the electric fields.

▪ The deposition of the two fields can

▪
be described by the polarization
[Link]
[Link]

state of the EMR that can be either

horizontal or vertical.
▪ EMR is both a wave-like form of energy and a stream of particles.
▪ Its propagates through empty space at a speed of light c = 300,000,000
meter per second.
▪ EMS can be classified into various spectral regions such as:
▪ (a) visible spectrum,
▪ (b) infrared,
▪ (c) ultraviolet,
▪ (d) X-rays,
▪ (e) radio waves,
▪ (f) microwave.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
▪ All electromagnetic waves travel through space at the same speed, c = 2.99792458
x 108 m/s which almost 300,000,000(as stated in previous slide), commonly known
as the speed of light (c).

(*3.28 ft/m*1/5280 mi/ft = 186,234 miles/sec *60 sec/min*60 min/hr =

670,444,951 miles per hour)

speed of light = frequency x wavelength

c=λv
▪ The longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency.
▪ The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency.
 FREQUENCY & WAVELENGTH
▪ An electromagnetic wave is characterized by
▪ Wavelength
• length of one wave cycle which can be measured as
the distance between successive wave crest.
• represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ)
▪ Frequency
• number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point per
unit of time
• measured in hertz (Hz)
ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY
▪ Electromagnetic energy is composed of discrete units called ‘photons’ and
modelled by particle theory

▪ Gamma rays (around 10-9) – shorter (most energetic)

▪ Radiowaves (>1m) – the least energetic.
▪ In remote sensing, the energy emitted in longer wavelengths is more difficult to be
measured compared to shorter wavelengths. The longer the wavelength, the lower
the energy content.
 SOURCE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY
(THERMAL EMISSION)
▪ All objects above absolute 0 emit electromagnetic energy including water, soil and
the surface of the sun.
▪ The sun and the earth radiate energy in the form of wave
▪ Blackbody - Matter that is capable of absorbing and reemitting all EM energy it
receives
▪ Blackbody – emissivity (ϵ) = absorptivity (α) = maximum value (1.0)
▪ The amount of energy radiated by an object (not blackbodies) depends on its
absolute temp. and its emissivity – a function of wavelength
▪ How much energy any object radiates is,
among other things, a function of the surface
temperature of the object. This property is
expressed by the Stefan–Boltzmann law.

▪ The total energy emitted from an object

varies as T4 i.e. (Absolute Temperature of
the emitting material)4 and therefore
increases very rapidly with increases in
temperature.
▪ Also, it should be noted that this law is
expressed for an energy source that
behaves as a blackbody.
The law states that the power radiated by a black body is
▪ A blackbody is a hypothetical, ideal radiator
directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
that totally absorbs and reemits all energy
incident upon it. Actual objects only temperature. In simpler terms, as the temperature of a black
approach this ideal. body increases, its rate of energy emission increases
dramatically.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
▪ Electromagnetic spectrum(EMS) is the range of all types of EMR.
▪ The EMS is defined by wavelength. It ranges from very short
wavelength, cosmic rays to the long wavelength of standard radio
waves.
▪ As electromagnetic radiation moves from one medium to another it
can be reflected, absorbed, transmitted, or scattered.
▪ Different types of land cover absorb and reflect different portions of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
 VISIBLE SPECTRUM
▪ Visible/Optical Spectrum - The
light which our eyes can detect
forms the visible spectrum.
▪ The only portion of the spectrum
that we can associate with the
concept of colours.
▪ The visible wavelengths cover a range from approximately
0.4 µm to 0.7 µm.
▪ The longest visible wavelength is red and the shortest is
violet.
▪ [Link]
INFRARED SPECTRUM
• The infra red (IR) region covers the
wavelength range at approximately 0.7µm
to 100 µm- more than 100 times as wide as
visible portion.
• Divided into two categories: the (i)reflected
IR and (ii)emitted or thermal IR.
INFRARED SPECTRUM WAVELENGTH
RANGE
Reflected IR 0.7 to 3.0 µm.
– Radiated from Sun’s energy
Emitted IR (Thermal IR) 3.0 to 100 µm.
- Emitted from the earth surface
in the form of heat
 MICROWAVES SPECTRUM
• Microwave radiation covers the wavelength portion from about
1mm to 1m.
• the longest wavelength used for remote sensing.
• The shorter microwave wavelength have properties similar to
thermal infra red region
• The longer wavelength used for radio broadcast.
▪ Unlike optical and infrared imaging sensors
which are inherently passive, meaning they
rely on reflected or radiated energy, radar is
an active sensor-providing its own
illumination in the form of microwaves.

▪ Operates in the microwave and

radio wavelength regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum (wavelengths
range from 1mm to 20m) in approximately
the 1-1000 GHz region
 RADAR ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
▪ Ka, K, and Ku bands: very short wavelengths used in early airborne radar
systems but uncommon today.
▪ X-band: used extensively on airborne systems for military reconnaissance and
terrain mapping.
▪ C-band: common on many airborne research systems (CCRS Convair-580 and
NASA AirSAR) and spaceborne systems (including ERS-1 and 2 and
RADARSAT).
▪ S-band: used on board the Russian ALMAZ satellite.
▪ L-band: used onboard American SEASAT and Japanese JERS-1 satellites and
NASA airborne system.
▪ P-band: longest radar wavelengths, used on NASA experimental airborne
research system.
 NON VISIBLE SPECTRUM
• We feel infrared light as heat and our radios pick up the messages
encoded in radio waves emitted by radio stations.
• Ultraviolet light has high enough energy to damage our skin cells,
so our bodies will produce a darker pigment in our skin to prevent
exposure of the deeper skin cells to the UV.
• X-rays have more energy than UV, so they can pass through skin,
muscles, and organs. –They are blocked by bones, so when the
doctor takes your X-ray, the results is the shadow image of the X-rays
that passed through your body.
• Gamma rays are the most energetic form of electromagnetic
radiation and are produced in nuclear reactions.
QUESTIONS
 CONCLUSION
▪ EMR is an energy source from sunlight to illuminate the target
which represented by electromagnetic waves and particles.
▪ Only electromagnetic spectrum ranges between 0.4m–0.7m,
0.7m–100m and 1mm-1m which consists of visible, infrared
and microwave respectively involve in remote sensing where
radiation is not strongly absorbed.
▪ The sun represents the initial source of most of the
electromagnetic energy remote sensing system (except radar,
lidar and sonar).
ENERGY-MATTER INTERACTION
 To identify the interaction of EMR at
atmosphere through absorption and
scattering process and the interaction of
EMR with earth surface.

Radiation and The Atmosphere (B)

▪ Interaction With Atmosphere
▪ Interaction With Earth Surface
 OUTLINES
▪ Interaction With Atmosphere
▪ Interaction Mechanism
▪ Absorption
▪ Scattering
▪ Rayleigh
▪ Mie
▪ Non-selective

▪ Interaction with Earth Surface

▪ Interaction Mechanism
▪ Reflection
▪ Specular
▪ Diffuse

▪ Conclusions
 INTERACTION WITH ATMOSPHERE
▪ Between the observed surface and the observing sensor, the
atmosphere interacts with both the incoming and outgoing radiation.
▪ The atmospheric components interact with radiation arriving at or
leaving from the target surface and therefore modify the signal that we
are interested in retrieving.
▪ Main interaction in the atmosphere –
▪ Absorption
▪ Scattering
 INTERACTION MECHANISM
▪ From the source to the sensor, the radiation passes through the
atmosphere.
▪ Atmosphere consists of gases and the particles that causing the
interactions of EMR passing through it.
▪ The distance traveled by the radiation through the atmosphere or
path length are varies depending on the remote sensing
techniques and sources.
▪ Space photography using solar energy
▪ Airborne thermal sensor using emitted energy from the objects
on the earth.
 ABSORPTION
▪ Radiation may be absorbed by a substance and give up its energy largely to
heating the substance.
▪ EMR is partly absorbed by various molecules
▪ Most efficient absorbers:
▪ Ozone (O3)
▪ Water vapour (H2O)
▪ Carbon dioxide (CO2)
▪ About half of the spectrum between 0 - 22μm – not useful for RS of earth
surface – can’t penetrate atmosphere
▪ Atmospheric moisture – strong absorption for EMR at longer wavelengths
▪ Hardly any transmission between 22 μm – 1mm.
▪ > 1mm more transparent – microwave region
ATMOSPHERE
ABSORPTION
BY
ATMOSPHERE
GASES
 ATMOSPHERIC WINDOWS
▪ As a result of these absorptions the spatial observation is
reduced to certain bands of the spectrum, known as
atmospheric windows, where the transmittance of the
atmosphere is sufficiently high
Atmospheric Windows Wavelength
• Visible spectrum and Near located between 0.3 and 1.35μm
Infrared
• Middle infrared from 1.5 to 1.8μm, 2.0 to 2.4μm,
2.9 to 4.2μm, and 4.5 to 5.5μm
• Thermal infrared between 8 and 14μm
• Microwave over 20μm, where the atmosphere is
practically transparent.
 SCATTERING
▪ Radiation may be scattered, that is, deflected in all directions and
lost ultimately to absorption or further scattering (as light is
scattered in the atmosphere).
▪ Particle or gaseous molecules present in the atmosphere re-directs
Electromagnetic waves from their original path.
TYPES OF SCATTERING
▪ Selective Scattering
1. Rayleigh Scattering
2. Mie Scattering

 Non-selective Scattering
▪ The amount of scattering depends on
▪ Wavelength
▪ Amount of particle and gases
▪ Distance the radiation travels though the atmosphere
SELECTIVE SCATTERING:
RAYLEIGH SCATTERING

▪ Electromagnetic radiation interacts with atmospheric molecules and tiny

particles (smaller than wavelength)
Diameter of particles << wavelength of EMR
▪ Also known as selective/molecular scattering.
▪ Effect: Shorter wavelengths are scattered more than longer
wavelengths.
▪ In the context of remote sensing, the Rayleigh scattering is the
most important type of scattering.
▪ It causes a distortion of spectral characteristics of the reflected light when
compared to measurements taken on the ground.
 EFFECTS OF RAYLEIGH SCATTERING
▪ Daytime - a clear sky to be observed as blue (blue-shortest wavelength is
scattered more)
▪ Sunrise and sunset – the sky appears orange and red (sun rays travel a
longer distance, only longer wavelength reach the earth surface)
▪ Haze in imagery
▪ High altitude - Bluish-grey cast in a colour image
▪ A “blue” sky is a manifestation of Rayleigh scatter. In the absence of scatter,
the sky would appear black. But, as sunlight interacts with the earth’s
atmosphere, it scatters the shorter (blue) wavelengths more dominantly
than the other visible wavelengths. Consequently, we see a blue sky.
▪ At sunrise and sunset, however, the sun’s rays travel through a longer
atmospheric path length than during midday. With the longer path, the
scatter (and absorption) of short wavelengths is so complete that we see
only the less scattered, longer wavelengths of orange and red.
▪ Rayleigh scatter is one of the primary causes of “haze” in imagery. Visually,
haze diminishes the “crispness,” or “contrast,” of an image. In color
photography, it results in a bluish-gray cast to an image, particularly when
taken from high altitude. camera lens, transmit short wavelengths.
(Chuvieco & Huete, 2016)
SELECTIVE SCATTERING:
MIE SCATTERING
▪ The wavelength of the incoming radiation is similar in size to the
atmospheric particles. Diameter of particles = wavelength of EMR
▪ Effect: Wavelengths are scattered at lower portions of the atmosphere
where larger particles are more abundant.
▪ Aerosols and atmospheric dust are the main causes of this type of
dispersion, although it is also caused by forest res or coastal mist.
▪ Influences the entire spectral region from the near UV including near
infrared
▪ Longer wavelength also get scattered compared to Rayleigh scattering.
▪ Mie scattering is also dependent on the wavelength of incoming radiation,
although to a smaller degree than Rayleigh scattering.
 NON-SELECTIVE SCATTERING
▪ The atmospheric particles size are much larger than the
radiation wavelength.
Diameter of particles >> wavelength of EMR
▪ Diameter is greater than 10X the wavelengths being
sensed.
▪ Examples: water droplets, ice crystals, larger dust
particles
▪ Non-selective scattering of visible light (0.4-0.7m)
▪ Effect: All visible and IR wavelengths get scattered
equally.
Examples :
effect of cloud (consists of water droplets 5-10 m diameter). All wavelength
are scattered equally – a cloud appears white or grey.
Cloud – shadow effect
 INTERACTION WITH EARTH SURFACE
▪ Absorption
▪ Transmission
▪ Reflection
▪ Specular
▪ Diffuse
 INTERACTION MECHANISMS
▪ Absorption occurs when radiation (energy) is absorbed into the
target.
▪ Transmission (T) occurs when radiation passes through a target.
▪ Reflection (R) occurs when radiation "bounces" off the target and
is redirected.
▪ How much of the energy is absorbed, transmitted or reflected by a
material will depend upon:
▪ Wavelength of the energy
▪ Material constituting the surface, and
▪ Condition of the feature.
 RADIATION
▪ Energy reaching the earth’s surface – irradiance
▪ Energy reflected by the surface – radiance
▪ Irradiance and radiance – expressed in
▪ For each material - specific reflectance curve (show the fraction of the
incident radiation that is reflected as a function of wavelength)
▪ Store collections of typical curves in spectral libraries
▪ Reflectance measurements - laboratory or in the field using spectrometer
REFLECTIONS
▪ Reflection occurs when radiance ‘bounces off the
target and is then reflected.
▪ 2 types of reflectance:
▪ Specular Reflection
▪ Diffuse Reflection
 SPECULAR REFLECTION
 Reflection of smooth surfaces
such as mirrors or a calm body
of water leads to a type of
reflection.
 Typically occurs when a surface
is smooth and all (almost all) of
the energy is directed away
from surface in a single
direction
 DIFFUSE REFLECTION
▪ Reflection of rough surfaces such as
clothing, paper, and the asphalt
roadway leads to a type of reflection.
▪ Surface is rough and the energy is
reflected almost uniform in all
directions.
▪ Also known as Lambertian
Tan and Cheng (2017)
 ▪ Source: [Link]

RADIATION – TARGET INTERACTIONS

(INTERACTION OF VIS AND NIR WITH LEAVES – MEASURING VEGETATION – NDVI)
RADIATION – TARGET INTERACTIONS
INTERACTION OF VIS AND NIR WITH LEAVES
RADIATION – TARGET INTERACTIONS
(INTERACTION OF VIS AND NIR WITH WATER)
 QUESTIONS

Before radiation used for remote sensing reaches the Earth's surface, it has to travel through some distance and
interact with the particles of the Earth’s atmosphere. List and explain the mechanism of atmospheric effect in
EMR interaction with the atmosphere.
(10 marks)
 CONCLUSIONS
▪ The interaction mechanism of EMR at atmosphere are through the process of
▪ Absorption
▪ Scattering

▪ The absorption involve

▪ Ozone (O3)
▪ Water vapour (H2O)
▪ Carbon dioxide (CO2)

▪ Only selected wavelength regions outside the main absorption bands of the atmospheric gases
or Atmospheric Windows can be used for remote sensing.
▪ The scattering consist of
▪ Selective Scattering
1. Rayleigh Scattering
2. Mie Scattering
 Non-selective Scattering
▪ The main interaction mechanism of EMR with Earth surface are through Reflection. Two types of
reflection are:
▪ Specular Reflection
▪ Diffuse Reflection
RECAP TOPIC 1:
▪ Based on EMS, only three (3) EMR portions can be
sensed/recorded using remote sensing techniques.
▪ Available RS System based on EMR:
▪ Optical Remote Sensing
▪ Thermal Remote Sensing
▪ Microwave Remote Sensing
 To describe the interaction of EMR with
various properties of earth surface feature
including vegetation, soil and water bodies.

Interaction with the Target (C)

▪Vegetation
▪Soil
▪Water Bodies
INTRODUCTION: SPECTRAL SIGNATURE
▪ The reflectance behavior of an object over various
wavelengths of the EMS is commonly referred to as a
spectral reflectance signature or spectral signature.
▪ If we can detect that spectral signature, we can separate
features and get insight to the general size and shape of
objects.
▪ Spectral signature change over time and space.
▪ The relationship between the incident solar energy at the surface and the
spectral composition of the remotely sensed reflected energy provides a
wealth of information about the biogeochemical nature of the surface (leaf
chemistry, soil min- eralogy, water content) and the physical and structural
characteristics of the surface (e.g., canopy height, leaf area, and soil
roughness).
▪ The area observed by a sensor will most likely contain a variety of the
surface materials (soil, vegetation, water, litter) in varying proportions and
arrangements, and thus, remote sensing measurements often consist of
mixed signals comprising multiple reflectance signatures.
(Chuvieco & Huete, 2009)
▪ Spectral signatures can be represented
graphically with the reflected EMR’s
frequencies (or wavelength) plotted on
the x axis and intensities on the y axis.
▪ From the graph:
▪ Different object do not all absorb the
same part of solar radiation
▪ Consequently, their reflected ray are
different.
SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE
(VEGETATION, SOIL AND WATER)
▪ [Link]
 Factors in Object Affecting Spectral Reflectance
Pattern of the Object (GENERAL)

1. Surface Roughness / texture of the features

2. Organic or Inorganic content in features

3. Moisture content in the features

 1. SURFACE ROUGHNESS / TEXTURE OF THE FEATURES

• The reflectance pattern of an object is influenced by it

roughness (rough/smooth)
• *Specular & Diffuse Reflections
• In comparison to wavelength, diffuse reflection will dominate
• if the wavelength is much smaller than the surface variations,
OR
• the particles size that make up the surface,.
 INTERACTION EMR WITH VEGETATION
▪ Plant chlorophyll absorbs energy in
wavelength band blue (0.45µm) and red
(0.65µm), and highly reflected green energy.
▪ The eyes see healthy vegetation as green in
color.
▪ If plant in stress condition, the chlorophyll
absorb less energy in the blue and red band.
▪ This increase in red reflectance and combine
with green energy caused the plant turn yellow
color.
▪ Reflectance in healthy vegetation increases
in the range 0.7- 1.3µm (IR region).
CONT..
▪ Absorption (pigment absorption – visible wavelength) is minimal and
the reflectance is from the internal structure of plant leave. This
structure varies between plant species. Hence, the reflectance in IR
regions permits us to discriminate between species.
▪ They look similar in the visible band .
▪ Vegetation stress alters the reflectance in this region, and this make
possible for its detection.
▪ Water in the leaf absorbs energy at 1.4, 1.9 and 2.7µm (Near
Infrared), where dips in reflectance occur.
VEGETATION SPECTRAL SIGNATURE
(EXAMPLE)
 ▪ The curve is low in blue and red
band with a peak in green band.
▪ This pattern is caused by the
absorption of chlorophyll to the blue
and red energy, but less absorption
of green radiation.
▪ The absorption of blue and red is to
provide energy for the process of
photosynthesis of the plant.

• The curve rises sharply between red and near IR (NIR) band due to the interactions
between internal leaf structure and EMR.
• This curve represents active vegetation.
• The steep rise in reflectance occurs at around 0.7µm and this point is called the RED
EDGE point.
• Its property is important in the study of photosynthetic state of vegetation.
 CONT..
▪ The shape of spectral reflectance curve useful for:
▪ Distinguishing vegetated and non-vegetated areas,
▪ Difference between species, and
▪ Estimation of physical properties of vegetation such as Leaf Area Index-LAI, Biomass
and crop yield.
▪ Different between types of vegetation and their growth rate can be
assessed based on multi-temporal imagery where imagery of the same
area collected at different periods in the growing season.
 •INTERACTION OF EMR WITH SOIL
Factors that affect soil reflectance are:

▪ Moisture content,
▪ Soil texture ([Link] of sand, silt and clay),
▪ Surface roughness/structure
▪ Presence of ion oxide,
▪ Organic matter content.
▪ Soil mineralogy

**Of these variables, moisture content is the most important due to its dynamic nature and large overall impact
on soil reflectance.
 SPECTRAL CURVE OF SOIL
▪ Moisture in soil decreases its reflectance.
▪ This effect is greatest in the water absorption bands at about 1.4, 1.9, 2.2 and
2.7 µm.
▪ Soil moisture content is strongly related to the soil texture. Soil texture such as
sandy soil with low moisture reflectance is high, while poor drained soils have
lower reflectance.
▪ Soil roughness, Organic matter and Iron oxide reduced reflectance.
▪ The curve rises in reflectance with increasing wavelength
 Soil Spectral Signature
(Particle Size)

 Variation in the
spectral
reflectance
characteristics
of soil
according to
particle size
SOIL SPECTRAL SIGNATURE
(MOISTURE CONTENT)

▪ Variation in the spectral

reflectance characteristics of soil
according to moisture content
Soil Spectral Signature
(Soil Textures)

 Variation in the
spectral
reflectance
characteristics of
soil according to
soil texture
EXAMPLE : SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE OF
BARE SOIL
 INTERACTION OF EMR WITH WATER BODIES
▪ As water absorbs energy, in infrared wavelength water reflectance is zero and
this IR band is useful in locating and mapping of water bodies.
▪ Various conditions of water bodies may be well distinguished in visible
bands.
▪ Reflectance properties of water body can be function of:
▪ Interaction with water’s surface resulted a specular reflection,
▪ Suspended material in water, and(the bottom of water body)
▪ Clear water absorbs little energy in less than 0.6µm
band. High transmittance in the blue-green band.
▪ When turbidity of water changes, transmittance and
reflectance changes as well.
▪ Turbidity is due to presence of organic and inorganic
material.
▪ Water contains suspended sediments from soil erosion
have higher visible reflectance than clear water.
▪ Reflectance of water changes with chlorophyll
concentration.
WATER BODIES SPECTRAL SIGNATURE
(EXAMPLE)
 CONT..
▪ Increase in chlorophyll tend to decrease water reflectance in the blue band (as
it absorb) and increase it in the green band (highly reflected).
▪ This property is useful in the detection of algae via remote sensing data.
▪ Also pollutants such as oil and industrial wastes.
▪ The spectral curve shows a reduction in reflectance as the wavelength
increases and is zero in the NIR band.
GROUND
TRUTH
 CONCLUSIONS
▪ The object properties in remote sensing can be determined by analyzing their
spectral signatures.
▪ Spectral signatures are the pattern of Electromagnetic spectrum reflected by
an object which can be represented graphically with the reflected EMR’s
frequency (x axis) and intensities (y axis).
▪ Reflectance in healthy vegetation increases in the range 0.7- 1.3µm (IR region).
▪ Soil reflectance (high/low reflectance) are depends on six (6) main factors. The
most factor is moisture content where the reflectance will decrease by water
absorption bands at about 1.4, 1.9, 2.2 and 2.7 µm.
▪ Clear water absorbs little energy in less than 0.6µm band. High transmittance
in the blue-green band.