Peak Performance for Soccer

In this book, over 40 of the world’s leading practitioners working in elite

soccer—over 6 continents—share advanced knowledge of the environment as
well as a scientifc understanding of the game and players. This book explores
those traits at an intricate level through shared experiences of some of the
best performance coaches working in elite soccer. The content in this book is
derived from practical and evidence based concepts that have been applied at
the elite level.
Uncovering the coaching strategies as well as contemporary issues in elite
soccer, this comprehensive textbook illustrates what it takes to thrive as a
performance coach at the top level. Collaborating with the industry leaders in
soccer, the chapters address a myriad of topics such as:

• the multiple roles and responsibilities;

• youth development;
• strength and conditioning application;
• nutrition and recovery strategies;
• tracking and monitoring ftness and fatigue;
• powerful communication methods and staff cohesion; and
• return to play and injury prevention strategies

Peak Performance for Soccer is essential reading for all coaches and practitioners,
at any level, who work in soccer.

Alex Calder is the head of sports science with Houston Dynamo, compet
ing in the Major League Soccer (MLS). He is an accredited level 3 elite coach
with the Australian Strength and Conditioning Association (ASCA), as well as
holding accreditations through the National Strength and Conditioning Associ
ation (NSCA) and Collegiate Strength and Conditioning Coaches Association
(CSCCa). Having worked in a variety of sports, he has coached at different
levels of competition worldwide for the past decade. He has published several
articles in relation to physical preparation and analysis.
Adam Centofanti is currently the head of ftness for the Seattle Sounders
FC, having previously served as the head of academy strength & conditioning
for Houston Dynamo FC. Formally with Melbourne City FC, Adam held various
roles with the club including conditioning coach/sports scientist in the academy
sector as well as overseeing the women’s performance program, achieving mul
tiple championships. He currently holds a master’s in sports science (Football
Performance) and an undergraduate degree in sports science. Adam is accred
ited as a level 2 coach by the Australian Strength and Conditioning Association
(ASCA). Additionally, Adam holds a B License for coaching with the Football
Federation Australia (FFA).
Peak Performance for Soccer
The Elite Coaching and Training Manual

Edited by Alex Calder

and Adam Centofanti
Cover image: Houston Dynamo FC
Logo design: odd creative
First published 2023
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 selection and editorial matter, Alex Calder and
Adam Centofanti; individual chapters, the contributors
The right of Alex Calder and Adam Centofanti to be identified as the
authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual
chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or
other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying
and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 978-1-032-06036-1 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-06031-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-20042-0 (ebk)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200420
Typeset in Gill Sans
by codeMantra
Contents

List of fgures vii

List of tables xii
List of contributors xiv

1 Role of the practitioner 1

G A RY WA L K E R , O L I V E R M O RG A N , A N TO N M AT I N L A U R I ,
A N T H O N Y N A RC I S I , A L E X C A L D E R A N D C L A I R E DAV I D S O N

2 From academy to professional 21

A L E X B E RG E R , J AC K C H R I S TO P H E R , N AT H A N P L A S K E T T,
T H O M A S C A R P E L S A N D A DA M C E N TO FA N T I

3 Needs analysis and testing 57

J A R R E D M A R S H , A L E X C A L D E R , J O R DA N S T E WA RT- M AC K I E
A N D M A RT I N B U C H H E I T

4 Strength, power and injury prevention 83

M I K E B E E R E , C H R I S T I A N C L A R U P, C O DY W I L L I A M S O N
A N D A DA M C E N TO FA N T I

5 Conditioning 108
G A RY WA L K E R , M A R K R E A D, DA R R E N B U RG E S S , E D L E N G
A N D A DA M C E N TO FA N T I

6 Player monitoring and practical application 139

A N D R E A R I B O L I , L E W I S M AC M I L L A N , A L E X C A L D E R
A N D LO RC A N M A S O N

7 Wearable technology 165

J O S H U A R I C E , DA M I A N KOVAC E V I C , A L E X C A L D E R
A N D J O E L C A RT E R
vi Contents
8 Recovery and nutrition 189
F R A N C I S C O TAVA R E S , A N TÓ N I O P E D RO M E N D E S ,
F R A N C I S C O P E R E I R A , B R E T T S I N G E R , M I C H A E L WAT T S
A N D H A N N A H S H E R I DA N

9 Return to play 223

RYA N T I M M I N S , J O H N H A RT L E Y, R I S TO - M AT T I TO I VO N E N ,
ALEX ANDER MOUHCINE AND ALEX CALDER

10 Periodisation 259
M A R K R E A D, R I C K R I E T V E L D, DA N N Y D E I G A N , M AT T B I R N I E ,
LO RC A N M A S O N A N D A DA M C E N TO FA N T I

11 Coach and staff integration 289

J A R R E D M A R S H , DAV I D C O S G R AV E , S C OT T G U Y E T T, PA U L C A F F R E Y
A N D P H I L I P PA M C G R E G O R

Index 323
Figures

1.1 Professional soccer hierarchy 1

1.2 Horizontal hierarchy of sports staff in a professional soccer setting 2
1.3a A continued professional educational pathway for
practitioners in elite soccer (Modifed from Springham et al. [1]) 3
1.3b A hypothetical pathway of further study and specialisation
options for interested practitioners in elite soccer (Modifed
from Springham [1]) 4
1.3c A hypothetical continued professional development pathway
for practitioners in elite soccer (Modifed from Springham [1]) 4
1.4 Roles within the industry 13
1.5 Demands of working in elite soccer than potentially cause
stress for a practitioner 18
1.6 Potential long term negative effects associated with constant
stress exposure in the workplace 18
2.1 Stages of peak height velocity (PHV) and the physical
development windows of opportunity 24
2.2 Weekly activation layout example 29
2.3 Long term athletic development pyramid 30
2.4 Mobility vs stability of joints in the human body 32
2.5 Movement skill breakdown 33
2.6 An example of progression system for key movements 35
2.7 Plyometric progression system 38
2.8 An example of exercise selection and how it relates to
progression system 41
2.9 Y drill progressions 41
2.10 Energy system development guide 42
2.11 Chronological (o), biological (●), and training age (□) of
hypothetical U14s players A, B, and C 47
2.12 Anthropometric measurement and calculation to determine
predicted maturity offset and age at peak height velocity
(PHV). S = stature, SH = seated height, LL = leg length
(= S SH), CA = chronological age, BM = body mass (Adjusted
equations for predicted maturity offset by Kozieł, S.M. and
R.M. Malina [64] 48
viii Figures
3.1 A systematic approach to solving problems and questions
within a performance department of an elite soccer organisation 61
3.2 The sensitivity specifcity quadrant 62
3.3 Testing categories with associated infuential attributes 66
3.4 Needs analysis based on the groups: cohort, positional,
and individual 68
3.5 Types of tests based on the objective. Injury risk tests assess
the likelihood of injury risk within a player. Performance
based tests assess output related qualities of a player 69
3.6 Cohort considerations when selecting tests from the outlined
objectives: injury risk and performance based tests 70
3.7 Examples of tests with cohort related benchmarks 70
3.8 Positional considerations when selecting tests from the
outlined objectives: injury risk and performance based tests 71
3.9 Examples of tests with positional related benchmarks 72
3.10 Individual considerations when analysing test results from the
outlined objectives: injury risk and performance based tests 73
4.1 Example of common strength and power tests performed in
professional soccer 88
4.2 Force–velocity relationship applied to training methodologies 90
4.3 Common complaints from players, due to misconceptions of
strength training in elite soccer 100
4.4 Strategies to increase compliance to strength training prescription 100
5.1 Venn diagram depicting a generalised integrated approach to
quantifying and interpreting the physical match performance
of soccer players (Adapted from Bradley and Ade [10]) 110
5.2 Overview of the relationship between different physiological
systems and the development of different ftness components.
(Adapted from Morgans et al. [38]) 111
5.3 Training approach to conditioning 115
5.4 Extracted GPS data from a 1st half (45 minute period).
A 5 minute rolling average applied to speed (m·min−1)
and acceleration (m·s−2). The red dot indicates the peak
intensity for a 5 minute period during match play for the
associated variables 117
5.5 Extensive top up conditioning: fullback position specifc 119
5.6 Examples of constraints within technical drills 120
5.7 A 5v5 small sided game example 121
5.8 Common errors with the drill design process 123
5.9 Identifying the constraints and barriers to performance within
a professional soccer environment 124
5.10 Position specifc high speed running protocol 131
6.1 A systematic approach to solving problems and questions
within a performance department of an elite soccer organization 140
 Figures ix
6.2 An investigation of the athlete workload injury cycle, its
effects, and modifcation of risk factors (Adapted from Windt
and Gabbett [145]) 152
6.3 Injury delay period. Showing weekly loads and the occurrence
of a ‘spike’ (Week 5) causing a ‘delayed injury’ (Week 9) and
return to training protocol (Adapted from Charlton and Drew [169]) 154
6.4 The sweet spot. Shows reduction in injury risk when the A:C
workload ratio is between 0.8 and 1.3 (Adapted from Blanch
and Gabbett [147]) 155
7.1 The training outcome is the consequence of the internal
training load determined by (1) individual characteristics, such
as genetic factors and previous training experience, and (2)
the quality, quantity and organisation of the external training
load (Extracted from Impellizzeri et al. [3]) 166
7.2 Factors that can be quantifed by wearable technology in
elite soccer 167
7.3 The process for practitioners in elite soccer examining
physiology related data 175
7.4 An example of a daily GPS report for a MD 2. HSR = Total
distance accumulated above 5.5 m·s−1. ACC/DEC = Total
exposures above or below 3.0 m·s−2 . Sprint = Total distance
accumulated above 7.0 m·s−1 177
7.5 An example of a weekly report. HSR = Total distance
accumulated above 5.5 m·s−1. ACC/DEC = Total exposures
above or below 3.0 m·s−2 . Sprint = Total distance
accumulated above 7.0 m·s−1 178
8.1 Schematic representation of hypothetical training capacity/
preparedness to train (vertical axis), according to the three
different intervals between training stimulus (blue arrow).
(a) The interval is too long and no adaptation occurs
(undertraining); (b) the interval is appropriate and desired
adaptations will occur; and (c) the interval is too short and
the training capacity decreases as the accumulated fatigue
increases (overreaching) (Adapted from Bishop et al. [6]) 192
8.2 Representation of a possible protein distribution throughout
the day for a 75 kg player 195
8.3 Example of a carbohydrate loading day for a 75 kg player 196
8.4 Two examples of meeting MD nutrition requirements (three
hours before kick off) for a 75 kg player 198
9.1 Matrix indicating the relationship between incidence and
severity when determining injury burden (Extracted from Bahr [5]) 224
9.2 Match injuries. Development of injury incidence, injury
severity, injury burden and re injury rate for all injuries,
muscle injuries and ligament injuries in matches over the
x Figures
study period. Injury incidence is defned as the number of
injuries per 1,000 hours of match exposure with 95% CI.
Injury severity is defned as the average number of absence
days following match injuries with 95% CI. Injury burden is
defned as the number of absence days caused per 1,000
hours of match exposure with 95% CI. Re injury rate is
defned as the number of re injuries per 1,000 hours of
training exposure with 95% CI (Extracted from Ekstrand et al. [4]) 225
9.3 Training injuries. Time course of injury incidence, injury
severity, injury burden and re injury rate for all injuries,
muscle injuries and ligament injuries over the study period.
Injury incidence is defned as the number of injuries per
1,000 hours of training exposure with 95% CI. Injury severity
is defned as the average number of absence days following
training injuries with 95% CI. Injury burden is defned as the
number of absence days caused per 1,000 hours of training
exposure with 95% CI. Re injury rate is defned as the
number of re injuries per 1,000 hours of training exposure
with 95% CI (Extracted from Ekstrand et al. [4]) 226
9.4 Time to return to play and rate of re injury for injuries
without intramuscular tendon involvement and injuries
with varying degrees of intramuscular tendon involvement
(Adapted from Van der Made et al. [13, 14]) 228
9.5 An illustration of the relationship between muscle strain and
eccentric force in HSI occurrences. The red line represents
the theoretical maximum capacity of the muscle. If we have
an eccentric force that exceeds this (e.g. sprinting) then we
have injury. If we have strain that exceeds this (e.g. kicking,
stretching), an injury often occurs 233
9.6 An example of manipulative variables of rehabilitation 238
9.7 An example of a hamstring RTP exercise progression. Exit
criteria for each stage is listed below the exercise menu 239
9.8 A decision based RTP model (Extracted from Creighton et al. [74]) 241
9.9 Commonly used performance tests throughout RTP
procedures. CMJ = Countermovement jumps, MDPP = Most
demanding passages of play 242
9.10 A decision making tree examining progressions based on
hamstring strength testing (Extracted from Wollin et al. [75]) 243
9.11 An example of feld based progressions using GPS related
metrics from match play. GL = Game Load, MDPP = Most
demanding passage of play, extracted from match play 245
9.12 Example of weekly increments of volume and intensity
markers in an RTP setting (Extracted from Taberner, Allen,
and Cohen [84]) 247
 Figures xi
9.13 The various disciplines involved in an athlete centred
approach in elite soccer 248
9.14 Return to play continuum outlining the overlap of
involvement of practitioners throughout the process 249
9.15 Elements of RTP process during the acute phase 249
9.16 Elements of RTP process during the subacute phase 250
9.17 Elements of end stage RTP process during the return to play phase 250
10.1 Visual representation of the structure of periodisation
(Derived from Matveyev and Zdornyj [7]) 259
10.2 Utilizing the warm up – the 4 and 5 day lead in 271
11.1 GRPI model (Adapted from Beckhard [1]) 289
11.2 Essentialism: The disciplined pursuit of less (Adapted from
Greg McKeown [2]) 291
11.3 Team of teams: New rules of engagement in a complex world
(Adapted from McChrystal [3]) 292
11.4 Key points to consider when engaging with confict 296
11.5 Steps for managing confict 297
11.6 Skill set of transformational leaders (Adapted from Bass [24]) 298
11.7 Mapping the stakeholders within an elite soccer environment 307
11.8 Categorising the power/interest relationships with players in
elite soccer 308
11.9 Actions to be taken as a practitioner/leader in relation to the
power/interest relationship 308
11.10 Identifying the varieties of hard tactics and soft tactics 309
Tables

2.1 Early specialisation model vs late specialisation models

of development 23
2.2 Example of a ten week training cycle to develop change of
direction (COD) qualities in the foundation phase 26
2.3 Implicit vs explicit learning descriptions and example 27
2.4 Movement patterns and examples 36
3.1 Example of testing battery in elite soccer 74
4.1 Example of an on feld plyometric prescription 92
4.2 Key exercises frequently utilised in professional soccer 93
4.3 Gym session scheduling example for a seven day microcycle 95
4.4 Example of a strength training prescription during fxture
congestion 97
5.1 Example of constraints within a 5v5+Goalkeepers drill 122
5.2 A sample template of constraints for a pre season
‘games based’ conditioning programme 129
5.3 Post match top up – position specifc tempo run prescription
example 132
5.4 A proposed schedule for conditioning and athletic
development stimuli during a two game week separated by
four days* 134
6.1 Examples of external and internal measures, separated by
subjective and objective categories 142
6.2 Example of a wellness questionnaire (ASRM*) 149
7.1 Examples of absolute and relative speed and acceleration
based thresholds 172
7.2 Heart rate zones, corresponding weight factors and training
descriptors 175
8.1 Protocol characteristics and individual and external factors to
be considered when designing a water immersion recovery protocol 208
8.2 Example of a cold recovery scheme for elite and amateur
team sport athletes during an in season week 210
9.1 Stages of a head injury in elite soccer 232
9.2 Mechanisms of hamstring injury strains in elite soccer 233
 Tables xiii
9.3 Optimal loading approach following a soft tissue injury 236
9.4 Progressions of integrating a player into team training during
the return to play phase 240
10.1 Planning considerations for developing a training structure 263
10.2 Four separate microcycles to approach a match day 266
10.3 Advantages and disadvantages to each match ‘lead in’ approach 273
10.4 An example of a two games per week microcycle 275
10.5 General speed endurance guidelines 281
10.6 Two microcycles for starters and non starters (one and two
matches per week) 283
11.1 Grouping of soccer players, categorised by their current
satisfaction with environment 306
Contributors

Mike Beere has almost a decade of service for Cardiff City FC in the English
Football League Championship (EFL), and is one of the most respected prac
titioners in the game. Mike is currently the senior strength and conditioning
coach for the EFL side and is obtaining his PhD from the University of South
Wales. Mike has also served the academy, with Cardiff City FC, and previ
ously with Swansea City FC. He is also a registered practitioner with the UK
Strength and Conditioning Association (UKSCA).

Alex Berger has extensive coaching experience in the English Football tiers,
specifcally with Charlton Athletic FC, West Bromwich Albion FC, and
Leicester City FC. Alex offers a wealth of knowledge in terms of physical
preparation for soccer. Alex holds multiple certifcations with The Football
Association and the Australian Weightlifting Federation.

Matt Birnie has over 15 years of experience in the feld of elite professional
football, working across a multitude of age groups. He currently holds the
position of frst team ftness coach at Chelsea FC, where his priority is the
design of daily and weekly training structure. Matt understands the ‘pressure
cooker’ environment to perform at the optimum level and compete in multi
ple competitions throughout the season. He holds a UEFA B Licence and an
MSc in strength and conditioning, and is BASES accredited.

Martin Buchheit is a sport scientist, a strength and conditioning coach, and

current head of performance for LOSC Lille in the French top fight, Ligue
1. Buchheit previously served as the head of performance for Paris Saint
Germain Football Club (PSG). Additionally, Buchheit worked as an exercise
physiologist for ASPIRE Academy in Qatar, and he has served as a lecturer,
consultant, and strength and conditioning coach for various organizations.
Buchheit received his doctorate in physiology (PhD) from the University of
Strasbourg in France. His main research focuses on assessing, improving, and
monitoring the physiological determinants of team sport performance, with
a greater emphasis on soccer. Based on his feld and research experiences,
Buchheit developed the 30 15 Intermittent Fitness tests (used to programme
high intensity training) to improve high intensity training prescription, and
 Contributors xv
the 4’+3’ running test to track changes in training status using heart rate (var
iability) and GPS/accelerometer data. He has also performed some research
on the acute and chronic responses to hypoxic and/or heat exposure, and
their possible ergogenic effects on team sports physical performance. Bu
chheit has published more than 160 papers in peer reviewed journals, with
more than 100 as a frst author.
Darren Burgess is one of the industry’s highest regarded practitioners and
is currently Melbourne Football Club’s high performance manager. Burgess
has previously had spells with Liverpool FC, Arsenal FC, Parramatta Power,
and the Socceroos (Australian National Team). With decades of experience
at the elite level, Burgess has worked with some of the best footballers to
play the game. Having served multiple prestigious coaches in several coun
tries and competitions, Burgess’s wealth of knowledge encompasses all as
pects of physical preparation. Burgess obtained a PhD in sports science from
the Australian Catholic University in 2011, and continues to publish articles
in various international journals.
Paul Caffrey holds experience in Major League Soccer (MLS) and with the
United States national team programme. Caffrey has served as Houston Dy
namo FC’s head of performance since 2015. He spent 2014 at Chivas USA
as the frst assistant coach under Wilmer Cabrera. He served as an assistant
coach and ftness coach with the Colorado Rapids on Oscar Pareja’s staff
from 2012 to 2013. Caffrey also was the frst assistant coach under Cabrera
with the United States under 17 national team from 2007 to 2011 and over
saw the physical preparation and ftness training of the team. Caffrey has
an extensive playing career, including professional stints with Bohemian FC
and University College Dublin AFC (UCD). Caffrey holds a United States
Soccer Federation ‘A’ License as well as certifcations as a certifed strength
and conditioning specialist (National Strength and Conditioning Association)
and functional movement specialist (Functional Movement Systems). He also
carries master’s degrees in business administration, physical education, and
football strength and conditioning.
Thomas Carpels has two master’s degrees (MSc in training and coaching football
and MSc in sport and exercise science and medicine), and is currently working
towards his PhD through the University of Glasgow. After working for four sea
sons as a sports scientist at Rangers Football Club and as head of performance
at Orange County SC during the 2021 USL Championship season, Thomas has
recently taken up the role of frst team physical coach at Royal Antwerp Foot
ball Club in the Belgian top division. The Belgian native also holds the UEFA A
coaching license and is an accredited anthropometrist through the International
Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK).
Joel Carter is serving English Premier League club, Crystal Palace FC, as
the academy senior performance coach; his role is to provide sound high
performance knowledge and comprehensive evidence based performance
xvi Contributors
coaching to service the current and next generation of athletes. The
Australian native has spent the past few years overseas in India and England
working with elite players at the top level. Joel holds licences through the
Australian Strength and Conditioning Association (ASCA) and Football Fed
eration Australia (FFA).
Jack Christopher has spent the past decade with Chelsea FC in the English
Premier League, serving a variety of positions throughout his tenure. Cur
rently serving as the head of academy sport science and physical ftness,
Jack has a wealth of knowledge regarding physical development for youth
soccer players. Jack completed an MSc in high performance sport and is an
accredited sport scientist (BASES) and nutritionist (CISSN), whilst holding
credentials with the UK Strength and Conditioning Association. He is also a
co founder and performance coach at MyPerform, helping athletes around
the world unleash their true potential.
Christian Clarup is currently serving the Scandinavian giants FC Midtjylland
as the head of the sports science and strength and conditioning departments.
He is an expert within the feld of training elite football players on and off
the pitch and gained his expertise from working in elite environments for the
past 15 years. His work has contributed to securing international football
on a regular basis (UEFA Champions League, UEFA Euro League, and UEFA
Conference League) plus several national titles for his current club. He has
gained major experience working within a high performance environment
under constant pressure due to vast competitive success.
David Cosgrave is the senior director of Sports Medicine and High Perfor
mance at Orlando City Soccer Club in the Major League Soccer (MLS). A
graduate of the master of sports directorship in Manchester Metropolitan
University, he oversees the programmes that create elite levels of physi
cal capability, low levels of injury, high levels of mental resilience, and de
velopment of organizational culture. Cosgrave’s experience in the strategic
and operational leadership of medical, physical performance, nutrition, and
sports science is a result of his experience in top European clubs, includ
ing England’s Tottenham Hotspur FC, Liverpool FC, Bolton Wanderers FC,
Stoke City FC and Fulham FC, and FC Copenhagen of the Danish Superliga.
Claire Davidson is an HCPC registered sport and exercise psychologist who
has worked within both senior frst team and international football for the
past ten years. During this time, she has also supported a number of Olympic
athletes. Currently she works as the lead performance psychologist at the
English Football Association for the men’s pathway teams supporting the
coaches, support staff, and athletes involved in the U15 U21 age groups.
Danny Deigan is the current strength and conditioning coach for Mumbai City
FC, and has a substantial amount of experience as a strength and condition
ing coach in multiple international and club football environments. Danny
 Contributors xvii
has previously worked on the international stage with respective roles with
New Zealand Football and the Indian National Football teams. Danny holds
multiple certifcations through the Asian Football Confederation, Australian
Strength and Conditioning Association, and Altis.
Scott Guyett is the current assistant coach for the Australian A League team
Brisbane Roar. Prior to this, he spent over a decade with the English Premier
League team, Crystal Palace FC, as head of sport science and strength and
conditioning and was responsible for overseeing the football performance
elements of the frst team. Prior to his time at Crystal Palace FC, Scott
was a professional soccer player with multiple clubs across England. Scott is
currently a UEFA Pro License participant, whilst holding credentials with the
National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA), and UK Strength
and Conditioning Association (UKSCA).
John Hartley has over 20 years of experience as a physiotherapist in profes
sional sport. John is at present the head physiotherapist at Derby County FC.
He has previously worked for Aston Villa FC, Blackburn Rovers FC, War
rington Wolves RLFC, and England RLFC. He is registered as a practitioner
through the International Federation of Sports Physical Therapists (IFSPT)
and the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA). John is
currently pursuing a professional doctorate at the University of Birmingham.
Damian Kovacevic is a full time researcher within the College of Sport and
Exercise Science at Victoria University. Prior to working at Victoria Univer
sity, he was head of sport science and strength and conditioning for 2019 J
League champions, Yokohama F. Marinos. Between 2017 and 2019, Damian
held key roles within the academy of Melbourne Victory FC, including lead
sport scientist and strength and conditioning coordinator. Damian obtained
a master’s in sport science (majoring in football performance) and a bache
lor’s in sport development whilst holding accreditation with the Australian
Strength and Conditioning Association, and a football conditioning licence
with Football Federation Australia.
Ed Leng is currently lead sport scientist for Manchester United’s First Team.
Ed has spent the past decade working with some of the most prestigious
coaches and players in the game. With over six years at Tottenham Hotspur
and global experience as head of sports science with Melbourne City FC as
part of the City Football Group, Ed has developed knowledge and under
standing across many facets of physical performance. He has a particular
expertise and passion for data led strategies to infuence injury risk and drive
physical performance, demonstrated in his PhD from the University of Bath
and his recent international publications.
Lewis MacMillan has spent fve years with Fulham FC, and currently serves
as the club’s frst team sport scientist. Lewis is also currently pursuing his
PhD in exercise physiology with the University of Glasgow, whilst holding a
xviii Contributors
position as a guest lecturer. Lewis’ role with the English Premier League club,
Fulham FC, is implementing impactful and meaningful analysis of sporting
performance to optimize athletic development.
Jarred Marsh has been involved in professional football for over six years with
experience at both club and international level. As head of sport science for
one of Africa’s largest football clubs, Jarred has been able to create a robust
high performance structure and culture that, above all else, remains player
centred. Having completed his master’s in exercise science, as well as being
a certifed strength and conditioning specialist (NSCA), Jarred has merged
the use of evidence based principles and football systems to drive his teams
to peak competition level.
Lorcan Mason is a sports scientist and strength and conditioning coach
based in Ireland. He is currently working with youth and senior athletes
in soccer and Gaelic Games having had previous experience working in
professional football. He is a recent graduate from Athlone Institute of
Technology with a frst class honours BSc in sports science with exer
cise physiology and has a keen interest in furthering his academic career.
Lorcán also has an educational service ‘Mind Map Coaching’ where he
provides research summaries through the creation of mind maps on a
variety of sports science topics.
Anton Matinlauri is a frst team ftness coach and head of performance at
Fortaleza FC/CEIF in Colombia. He was previously in similar role at HJK Hel
sinki and also possesses frst team experience from Sevilla C.F. in Spain and
San Jose Earthquakes in the United States along with being part of developing
the coaching education for Finnish FA. Anton holds UEFA A licensure from
Finnish FA and possesses experience and degrees in both athletic training
(BSC from the United States and ATC licensure) and strength and condition
ing (MSC from Spain and CSCS licensure).
Philippa McGregor is a performance psychologist working across sport, ed
ucation, and business sectors. Spending the past ten years working predomi
nately in professional football, Philippa started her career at Fulham Football
club 2009–2015. She then moved to Manchester City, where she was head
of psychology for the academy until 2017, before moving to work as part of
the wider City Football Group, supporting players who were out on loan
and City’s global network of clubs. In 2019, Philippa set up her own business
nThrive2Perform Ltd. and is now working as a self employed consultant. Her
clients have included the English Football Association, Liverpool Women, Ab
erdeen and West Brom FC, Durham Cricket, and UK Coaching, as well as
individual athletes competing in international golf and gymnastics. Alongside
her work in sport, Philippa also works across education and business environ
ments applying performance psychology research, theory, and principles to
support culture projects, leadership programmes, and mental and wellbeing
development. Philippa has a PhD from Loughborough University that looked
 Contributors xix
at talent development environments, emotional regulation, and performance.
Philippa also holds her professional accreditation with the British Association
of Sport and Exercise Science, and is a chartered scientist and awaiting her
HCPC registration.
António Pedro Mendes is the head of Nutrition for Sporting Clube de Portu
gal, a department that involves four full time nutritionists. He has previously
worked for FC Paços de Ferreira, FC Porto, and Al Nassr FC (Saudi Arabia).
He is currently the head of Sports Nutrition at Clínica Espregueira – FIFA
Medical Centre of Excellence – and co Founder of Nutriens Academy, a
school focused on teaching nutrition at the highest level. António holds a BSc
in nutrition, and he is currently pursuing his PhD.
Oliver Morgan is currently head of performance support at Leicester City FC
Academy, having previously worked at Celtic Football Club and Liverpool Foot
ball Club, helping to produce professional players to become English and Scot
tish Premier League champions as well as Champions League winners. With a
passion for research, Oliver has completed a master’s by Research into talent
identifcation and currently completing a professional doctorate investigating
multi directional movement demands of elite youth soccer players. Oliver’s main
areas of interest lie within long term athlete development, maturation, change
of direction and agility, return to play strategies, and performance management.
Alexander Mouhcine is a performance and rehabilitation specialist, currently
working at Borussia Mönchengladbach in the German Bundesliga. As head of
rehabilitation and performance testing, he is responsible for decision making
throughout the whole return to play process. While regularly competing
internationally (UEFA Champions League/UEFA Europa League), he is well
aware of the challenge to work in a high pressure environment facing time as
always being the limiting factor. He contributed to several manuals concern
ing return to play algorithms, and as a coach, his aim is to translate scientifc
evidence into practice the best possible way.
Anthony Narcisi is the current strength and conditioning coach with Major
League Soccer (MLS) team, Houston Dynamo FC. Previously serving as the
head of performance for RGV FC Toros of the USL Championship, he holds
a master’s in high performance sport and a bachelor of science in kinesiol
ogy. Anthony is a certifed strength and conditioning specialist through the
National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA).
Francisco Pereira has been working with professional football teams since
2018, together with his private practice. Currently, he is the head nutrition
ist of the United Arab Emirates Football Association, where he works with
the youth and senior national teams (men and women). In addition, he is a
post graduate student with the Institute of Performance Nutrition (IOPN)
and has concluded his diploma in football strength and conditioning with the
Football Science Institute.
xx Contributors
Nathan Plaskett, an Australian native, is Derby County FC’s current strength,
conditioning, and rehab coach. Nathan has international experience work
ing with multiple A league clubs, Football Federation Australia, and various
rugby clubs. With a master’s degree in high performance sport, Nathan also
holds accreditations with Exercise and Sports Science Australia (ESSA), the
Australian Strength and Conditioning Association (ASCA), and The Football
Association (FA).

Mark Read has spent over fve years with one of the most successful Swedish
teams in soccer, Malmö FF. Currently the club’s head of physical perfor
mance, Mark has also held roles with their academy. He has previous coach
ing experience with Swansea City FC and West Bromwich Albion FC. Mark
holds a UEFA B Coaching badge, and licences with the National Strength and
Conditioning Association (NSCA) and International Society for the Advance
ment of Kinanthropometry (ISAK).

Andrea Riboli is an accredited physical performance coach, sport scientist, and

consultant experienced with both youth and adult elite football players. He
holds a PhD in sport sciences and is an adjunct professor in performance anal
ysis at the University of Milan. After experiences as exercise physiologist and
performance coach at different levels of competition, he holds the position of
head of performance in professional women’s basket. He worked as physical
performance coach in Como F.C., A.C. Milan, and Atalanta B.C. Academies
from 2009 to 2014. In 2014, he moved to Atalanta B.C. frst team and led the
Sport Science Department of the Club from 2016 to 2020. He published pa
pers in sport science and medicine peer reviewed international journals about
performance development in elite football players. He is currently leading re
search projects about training load management and performance develop
ment in football.

Joshua Rice is currently a physical development coach at Tottenham Hotspur

FC, having previously worked at both Liverpool FC and Everton FC respec
tively. Josh also completed his PhD last year (2021) at The University of
Birmingham with the project entitled ‘Examining the importance & effective
ness of physical development strategies in the developing footballer’.

Rick Rietveld is the frst team sport scientist at AZ Alkmaar, which is an ambi
tious club in the top of the Dutch Eredivisie. After his bachelor’s and master’s
in human movement science at VU Amsterdam, Rick started to work at the
AZ Alkmaar Academy as an exercise physiologist. During his time with AZ
Alkmaar’s academy, he was responsible for the periodisation, monitoring, and
physical testing of the whole academy. In late 2018, Rick joined the frst team
of AZ Aklmaar, taking on a similar role. Translating the data and making objec
tive decisions about players and training is one of the key roles of his current
position.
 Contributors xxi
Hannah Sheridan has worked with a range of elite athletes since 2014. She is
currently the lead nutritionist at Tottenham Hotspur Football Club, where
she has supported the team throughout the last four seasons, including the
Champions League fnal in 2019. Hannah has developed the Nutrition De
partment at Spurs, which now involves two full time nutritionists within the
frst team and an academy nutritionist. Hannah is also a consultant nutri
tionist at a private practice and a registered Sport and Exercise Nutritionist
(SENr).
Brett Singer is a dietitian with Memorial Hermann IRONMAN Sports Medi
cine Institute. Brett has had the opportunity to work with individual athletes
from elite to junior levels for over ten years. Within his role, Brett serves as
the lead dietitian for Houston Dynamo FC, coordinating match day nutrition
tactics, supplementation programming, and overall nutrition education for
the club. Outside of his role with Memorial Hermann, Brett serves on the
Board of Directors for Collegiate Professional Sports Dietitians Association.
He has also served as an adjunct professor at the University of Houston for
several years.
Jordan Stewart-Mackie is a highly accomplished, ambitious, and current
head of sport science with Buriram United FC. Jordan supports and mo
tivates the physical progression of elite professional athletes by delivering
tailored training techniques, rehabilitation programmes, and nutritional guid
ance. Jordan has a strong portfolio of achievements and experience within
the sport science and strength and conditioning arena having enjoyed roles
with West Bromwich Albion FC, Leicester City FC, and Buriram United FC.
Jordan holds a UEFA B licence, and certifcations with the National Strength
& Conditioning Association (NSCA), the British Association of Sport and
Exercise Sciences (BASES), and FIFA.
Francisco Tavares is the performance coordinator for Sporting Clube de
Portugal, and has previously worked as a strength and conditioning coach
in elite rugby with the Chiefs Super Rugby franchise and the PRO14 team
Glasgow Warriors. He holds a PhD in sport sciences from the Waikato
University in New Zealand and an MSc also in sport sciences from the Uni
versity of Lisbon – Faculty of Human Kinetics in Portugal. Francisco is a
certifed strength and conditioning coach from the National Strength and
Conditioning Association (NSCA) and the Australian Strength and Condi
tioning Association (ASCA level 2). He is a published author in the areas of
neuromuscular responses and adaptations from training, and recovery from
training.
Ryan Timmins, PhD, is an ACU researcher in the feld of hamstring injury.
He completed his PhD in 2015 focusing on hamstring muscle architecture
and its role in injury and response to training interventions. He has over 40
publications in the area, as well as being the author of a textbook chapter on
xxii Contributors
hamstring anatomy. Dr Timmins’ research focus is on sports injury preven
tion and rehabilitation practices that are applicable to sporting environments
and realistic with their applications. He has been an invited speaker at the
ASPETAR Sports Medicine and Orthopaedic Hospital, Oslo Sports Trauma
Research Centre, and at the frst Copenhagen Hamstring Injury Seminar. For
the past decade, Dr Timmins has worked in the A League, having spent four
years at Brisbane Roar and seven years with Melbourne Victory. During this
time, his roles have included rehabilitation and injury prevention coordina
tor, physiotherapist assistant, strength and conditioning coach, and working
within the football operations.
Risto-Matti Toivonen is currently serving one of Finland’s powerhouse soc
cer clubs, HIFK Fotboll. Risto Matti has a considerable amount of European
soccer coaching experience. As HIFK Fotboll’s sport scientist/strength and
conditioning coach/physiotherapist, Risto Matti has an enormous skillset
surrounding the overall football performance for his club. The triple role
practitioner knows how to thrive under adverse conditions, whilst still en
hancing overall performance of the team.
Gary Walker is currently the director of sports performance for FC Cin
cinnati, leading the medical, sports science, strength and conditioning, and
nutrition support services to Major League Soccer (MLS) players. Prior to
this, he worked for over a decade as the head of strength and conditioning
and frst team ftness coach at Manchester United FC. Gary holds a PhD
from Loughborough University and an MSc in sports directorship from Sal
ford University Business School and is certifed with the UK Strength &
Conditioning Association (UKSCA), as well as the National Strength and
Conditioning Association.
Michael Watts has been researching and applying his knowledge within the
health, wellness, longevity, and performance industry for the past 19 years.
He spent 12 years working full time in Elite soccer in the English Premier
League and at National Team level before a move to the USA to work full
time for Under Armour as director of athlete performance. Michael has a
very holistic approach to human performance which includes sleep, breath
ing, recovery, nutrition, and mindset to optimize performance. Holding an
MSc in sport science, Michael is currently doing his LMT and a post bacca
laureate in sports performance and integrative nutrition at the Maryland
University of Integrative Health.
Cody Williamson is the head physiotherapist at Macarthur Football Club in
the A league. Cody completed his physiotherapy studies at La Trobe Univer
sity and also has a master’s degree in strength and conditioning. Cody has
previously held roles at Melbourne City Football Club. Specializing in athlete
rehabilitation in football, Cody has consulted with clubs across the globe
including teams located in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Asia.
1 Role of the practitioner
Gary Walker, Oliver Morgan, Anton Matinlauri,
Anthony Narcisi, Alex Calder and Claire Davidson

Overview of the performance coach role in elite soccer

Professional soccer structure

A typical professional sports hierarchy (Figure 1.1) consists of a board of direc
tors and investors at the top, supported by the chief executive offcer (CEO),
the general manager, and/or technical director overseeing the sports staff and
offce administrators. Generally, the board of directors’ main purpose is to in
crease success and proft within the club, whilst not having an input on day to
day operations. The CEO will often be in constant contact with the general
manager to ensure the operations are on target with the club’s mission. The
bottom layer of the structure (general manager/technical director, sport staff,
and offce/admin) is responsible for day to day operations with the players and
staff.

Sport staff
Amongst the sports staff, there are typically three departments that report to
the head coach on a day to day basis: assistant coaches, performance depart
ment, and medical department. However, in a modern structure, a performance
director often speaks on behalf of performance, nutrition, and medical depart
ments (Figure 1.2). The ‘sport science’ department has become more common
in Australia and the United Kingdom. However, remains somewhat of a novel ad
dition in the other countries. Sport scientists often refer to the individuals who
manage big data sets that relate to player’s health/ftness status. However, the
sport scientist title has been applied to those who offer services in strength and
conditioning as well as rehabilitation. Due to the lack of certifcation standards

Technical Director /
CEO/President Sport Staff
Director of Soccer
Board of directors General Manager
Office/Admin

Figure 1.1 Professional soccer hierarchy.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200420 1
2 Gary Walker et al.

Head
Performance Director
Coach

Assistant
Performance Department Nutrition Department Medical Department
Coaches

Sport End Stage Athletic Physical Doctor Massage

S&C Dietitian Nutritionist
Science Rehab Trainers Therapist (MD) Therapist

Figure 1.2 Horizontal hierarchy of sports staff in a professional soccer setting.

associated with the sport scientist role (in the United States), the department
has become quite broad. For example, the performance director position can
be interchangeable with the title ‘director of sport science’ at some professional
organisations, begging the question to what that role oversees. However, in any
circumstance, a performance director will flter the necessary information to
the coach in order to help drive daily decisions.

Different names/roles/titles
Depending on various aspects within the organisation’s structure, the role and
title of a practitioner can vary within the working environments. Sometimes
the same job description may have different titles, while the same title may also
have considerably different job descriptions and requirements. Reasoning for
such variability may be due to country, culture, language, club structure, and the
number of staff members working at the club. While ‘strength and conditioning
coach’ (S&C coach) may potentially be the most used title in global perspective,
other common translations and names used for the positions include ftness
coach, performance coach, physical performance coach, physical preparation
coach, applied sport scientist, and athletic coach.
In a bigger club, there may be several staff members working in the same de
partment, thus different names may be used for different roles. As mentioned
earlier, an example of a club’s performance staff structure may consist of the
following:

• Performance director:
• overseeing the departments (performance/medical/nutrition/etc.)
• Fitness coach:
• Working closely with the coaching staff on the feld
 Role of the practitioner 3
• Strength and conditioning coach:
• Responsible for the work outside of main soccer training on the feld,
that is, gym related activities
• Sport scientist:
• Primarily responsible for the global positioning system (GPS) analysis
and data analysis
• End stage rehab coach:
• Managing the return to play process after medically cleared for feld
related activity

For a performance department to be successful, it is integral that all the

above mentioned performance members are working closely together. In
contrast, in a club where such a department may not exist, a practitioner,
regardless of working title, may be working with a much wider spectrum of
responsibility.

Certifcations
With the rapid evolution of sports science in soccer, tertiary courses including
undergraduate and post graduate degrees are developing a direct relationship
to performance aspects in soccer (Figure 1.3a). These include degrees being
offered both online and in person setting. Recently in Spain, there has also been
growing number of universities offering their own specialised master’s level

Postgraduate degree: In
relation to strength and
conditioning science or
soccer strength and Professional
conditioning development courses
Strength and
conditioning coach (ISAK, etc)
Undergraduate degree: accreditation (NSCA-, Potential other Phd
In relation to sport and UKSCA-, BASES-, ASCA, accreditations
exercise science / ESSA, or other
equivalent). Potential coaching
exercise physiology, licences: UEFA/AFC/USSF
kinesiology / physical A and B
education / athletic
training / football fitness
coaching

Undergraduate
degree: In relation
to sport and Postgraduate Strength and
exercise science / degree: In relation conditioning coach Specialization
exercise to strength and accreditation
physiology, conditioning (NSCA-, UKSCA-, (Other education,
kinesiology / science or soccer BASES-, ASCA, courses and
physical education strength and ESSA, or other accreditation).
/ athletic training / conditioning. equivalent).
football fitness
coaching.

Figure 1.3a A continued professional educational pathway for practitioners in elite soc
cer (Modifed from Springham et al. [1]).
4 Gary Walker et al.
studies with direct relation to soccer performance. However, these studies do
not have full offcial post graduate accreditation, which is important to note as
this is required in the case a practitioner wants to apply for doctorate recogni
tion (PhD) in the future (Figure 1.3b).
In addition to traditional University schooling, many institutions and or
ganisations have begun to offer tertiary education and courses to match the
increased interest and demand for sport science in soccer. However, the grow
ing supply of graduates has also highlighted the mismatch between the skill
set taught at the university level and the skill set required to work within
professional soccer [1]. To close this gap, in several countries, there has been
an advance in effort to standardise the requirements in the feld with vari
ous licences being required or recommended for modern day practitioners
to be considered for a job opportunity. Invariably, in most countries, the
present day job descriptions often require the applicant to possess an ac
creditation from a recognised strength and conditioning/sports science asso
ciation (UKSCA, NSCA, ASCA, BASES, etc.). However, a lot of variability still
exist between countries in the certifcation process and requirements, as not
all nations have an accreditation process for sport science. Additionally, it has
become advantageous, for some roles, to obtain a coaching licence (UEFA,
AFC, USSF) on top of tertiary education (Figure 1.3b). Practitioners are often
required to also possess previous work experience through internships/vol
unteering, which have become a common prerequisite to obtaining a full time
position in professional soccer (Figure 1.3c).

UEFA/AFC/USSF B
Professional Phd
coaching licence
development courses UEFA/AFC/USSF A
Other education and
(ISAK, etc) coaching licence
accreditation

Figure 1.3b A hypothetical pathway of further study and specialisation options for inter
ested practitioners in elite soccer (Modifed from Springham [1]).

Department lead
Full time senior S&C
coaching role
Full time assistant senior
S&C role / full time junior
S&C coaching role
Work experience
placement / internship
experience / part time
"Volunteer or shadowing experience / academy
experience" coaching role

Figure 1.3c A hypothetical continued professional development pathway for practition

ers in elite soccer (Modifed from Springham [1]).
 Role of the practitioner 5
Value of integration
To integrate effectively within an interdisciplinary team, it is imperative for a
modern practitioner to have a basic understanding of operations within a per
formance team. This means having a crossover of basic knowledge and skill sets
in various areas in the feld from soccer coaching to weight room, data analysis,
nutrition, and psychology, allowing them to communicate and work effectively
as part of the multi disciplinary team. This is important as maximising the play
er’s and team’s performance is a complex and holistic. It could be stated that
“S&C coaches in professional football need to be excellent ‘generalists,’” re
ferring to this wide spectrum of required knowledge [1]. This does not mean,
however, that one should not have one specifc area of expertise as this can
be very benefcial in certain roles. Such specialisation could potentially be very
benefcial when being part of a bigger staff, allowing each member to focus more
on certain aspect around player health and performance. Even though required
to have wide spectrum of knowledge, a practitioner must also understand their
own level of competency and responsibility in different areas and seek support
from specialist (nutritionist, psychologist, etc.) when required and advised.
Crossover of competency and knowledge in more than one area related to
performance operations has been identifed as potentially valuable ability of a
practitioner. For example, having knowledge and experience in rehabilitation as
well as strength and conditioning can be incredibly advantageous for a perfor
mance department and soccer organisation as whole. The value of crossover re
ally becomes evident when there are changes in the personnel, which is extremely
common in football, as building trust and understanding among staff members
is a pre requisite for a successful working relationship. At the elite level, time is
often very limited, and for this reason, it is common for the head coach to bring
their closest staff members to new club (discussed further in Chapter 11). However,
very rarely full backroom staff are brought in by the head coach, support staff
members to quickly adapt to change, in order to enhance cohesion between de
partments. Having a skill set and knowledge in different areas does not guarantee
good communication, but certainly helps in understanding what the coaching staff
wants. Furthermore, emotional intelligence in relation to players’ health and ft
ness status is imperative for practitioners to be successful [2, 3].

Contemporary issues

Problems within coaching orientated staff

From a practitioner’s perspective, planning training with the coaching staff can
often be a diffcult task, depending on the coaching staff. Most head coaches
(and assistants) have played the sport, thus having a sense of training was from
a player’s perspective. This can be advantageous for a practitioner who is trying
to provide recommendations on training variables to the coaching staff. On
the contrary, these coaches may not be up to date with the evolving aspect
6 Gary Walker et al.
of physical preparation. Therefore, if a coach has the mentality of applying
what they were exposed to as a player, a practitioner may have issues with
training prescriptions. For example, a strength coach may want to prescribe
a weight training session mid week. However, the coaching staff could refute
that weight training session because they never were exposed to those types of
sessions when they played.

Problems within medical/physio staff

It is common for a medical staff and performance staff to clash methods and
philosophies. Performance staff, including strength and conditioning coaches,
often plan and prescribe training modalities based on a practical approach.
However, medical staff members, such as physiotherapists, can potentially have
a more conservative, clinical approach. Not one approach is more effective
than the other; however, it is imperative that all staff members have the same
long term goal in relation to the player’s health status. More specifcally, in a
return to play scenario, it is important that all members of the performance
staff are in agreeance of a continuum for personnel involvement. A physio
therapist should be working in conjunction with the strength coach to ensure
that appropriate regressions are put in place to create a smooth transition
between departments. If this level of communication and collaboration does
not occur, the exercise prescriptions may overlap, creating the athlete to be in
a non functional overreaching state.

Limitations with nutritional advice

Without a nutrition department, athletes may be unsure of where to direct
nutrition related questions. Unfortunately, this can be quite a common issue as
many performance departments tend to lack full time nutrition employees. The
strength coach often becomes responsible, by default, to answer nutrition related
questions because they are prescribing the recovery strategies to their gym ses
sions. Strength coaches need to be very cautious in their approach to recom
mending supplements, as they have limited knowledge in this scope of practice.
Specifcally, in certain countries, providing detailed nutritional recommendations
without appropriate tertiary education and/or certifcation in the feld (dietetic
recognition) can have serious repercussions to a practitioner. All strength and
conditioning specialists should be certifed through the World Anti Doping
Agency (WADA) as well as staying informed as to the banned substance list.

Current issues with professional soccer players

It is common that a team suffers from at least one individual who does not
adhere to the requirements of the weight training programme. It is thought
that these players are more common in professional soccer, perhaps stemming
from cultural habits. Being that soccer is an aerobically dominated sport, the
 Role of the practitioner 7
stereotype regarding physical preparation is running long distances. However,
with the evolution of sport science, it has become clear that soccer has some
large strength power components [4, 5]. Hence, the heavy emphasis on resist
ance training in the current era [6]. Undesirably, there are some athletes who
are still in agreeance with the outdated stereotype. These are the athletes that
create unwanted behaviours and attitudes when it comes to the gym sessions.
It is certainly challenging, from a practitioner’s perspective, to encourage those
individuals to adhere to the efforts in the gym to reduce the risk of diminishing
the quality of club culture. It is imperative that practitioners display multiple
leadership qualities to adhere to the team/club needs and create a winning
environment.

Operating as a solo practitioner

While clubs in the highest ranks of soccer have multiple specialists collaborating
within a performance department, many clubs below the top ranks have one
practitioner executing all the responsibilities of a performance department.
From designing and implementing training, to monitoring and interpreting
training loads, a solo practitioner is responsible for the full spectrum of work
within a performance department. Without being afforded the luxury of multi
ple staff members, operating as a stand alone department requires a great deal
of organisation to get the maximum return from your players. There are multi
ple factors within one’s organisation that will infuence what areas to prioritise,
but this process is one that must be constantly evaluated and adjusted regularly
throughout a season.

Modelling a performance department

Modelling a performance department encompasses a broad spectrum of as
pects and should align with the goals set out by the club offcials, technical
staff, and support staff. When running a performance department individually,
a practitioner should strive to build a culture that allows for automation of
processes. By automating daily processes, the practitioner can optimise the
fow of activity to support organisational goals, create a competitive environ
ment and contribute to building a team culture [7]. To begin this process, a
practitioner should analyse the needs of the team from a global perspective
when planning. For example, implementing a gym strength programme focus
ing on general hamstring injury prevention for the whole team, as opposed to
making multiple individual programmes, that share the same goal of building
robust hamstrings. Once processes are in place, individualising programmes
could be the next logical progression to improving a department, but as a frst
step, a global programme can address the most important needs for every
player. Thus, allowing more time to be spent in other areas that need to be
addressed and in essence, permits the practitioner to carefully examine exe
cution of lifting technique.
8 Gary Walker et al.
Once the department model is established, the practitioner must create and
promote an environment that allows for the execution and control of pro
cesses. This can be achieved by establishing set rules and strict policies to create
an environment where athletes hold each other accountable. For example, man
dating an athlete to weigh in prior to training and weigh out post training. Anyone
who fails to do so is disciplined accordingly. Empowering leaders in the locker
room to hold this standard can help bridge the gap between staff and players. By
giving the players certain responsibilities and autonomy, it can promote a culture
of accountability which in turn will help grow the culture of the team [8].
In contrast to structure, other components of the environment could also be
less structured in the form of general guidelines or guided practice over time.
For example, spending time teaching an athlete proper execution of pre training
movement preparation. Over time the players should understand and be self
suffcient in performing the necessary movements by themselves. As a result,
creates accountability while allowing the practitioner to focus on other players
or areas. Whether your model encompasses one of these ideas or a combina
tion of both, it is essential that whatever processes are in place allow for con
sistent execution from the players independent of the practitioner.

Daily obstacles and limitations

Practitioners in a performance department consisting of a well resourced
multi disciplinary team can specialise in one or two disciplines. The increased
manpower allows the focus of each practitioner to play a specifc key role that
contributes to the whole of the department. Conversely, an obstacle a solo
practitioner will encounter is that they will have to simultaneously work across
multiple disciplines, limiting the amount of time that can be dedicated to any
one aspect of the department. An example of a standard day in season may be:

– Arrive to work
– Meet with coaches
– Analyse player wellness
– Set up training – feld
– Set up training – gym
– Set up monitoring/wearables
– Greet players on arrival
– Have one or two conversations with players/staff pre training
– Perform movement preparation and on feld warm up
– Support the feld session with technical staff (and rehab session with medi
cal staff)
– Complete necessary on feld conditioning post training
– Collect all RPE’s + collect wearables
– Prepare post training nutrition
– Coach gym session(s). Potentially for multiple groups
– Support rehab gym session with medical staff
 Role of the practitioner 9
– Have multiple conversations with players/staff post training
– Analyse and interpret training data
– Deliver fltered training information to all staff
– Meet with coaches/medical staff
– Plan for the following day
*It is important to note that this daily outline is not defnitive and there will vary
depending on factors within the individual’s environment.

Along with the multiple considerations, a solo practitioner must have a funda
mental understanding of every facet of performance in soccer. To effciently
navigate a day long workload, the practitioner must be a well rounded gener
alist. With limited time and many responsibilities, being a well rounded gen
eralist will allow practitioners to cover a broad range of needs. It may be
diffcult to allocate equal time to every area of a performance department so
automating as many processes as possible on the front end allows for more
interaction with the players. Prioritising needs is not only necessary but also
constantly being evaluated and adjusted on a regular basis. If the practitioner
can be profcient across all areas of their department, it can give them the
greatest return of investment for each component being implemented. If de
fcient in any area, this will only take away from other areas, thus slowing the
daily fow. For example, if the practitioner does not have the GPS report to
the coaches in a timely manner, the following day’s training plan can be com
promised, thus potentially putting the players at risk. Once primary tasks are
being consistently implemented, practitioners can identify specifc areas that
require a higher level of specialisation.

Optimising communication
In a team environment, communication to the players from the performance
department and technical and support staff must be clear and concise. A positive
aspect to operating as a solo practitioner is every message being sent is fltered
by one person. Without multiple lines of communication, messages should be
delivered clearly without any miscommunication or misinterpretation from dif
ferent parties. This is especially important when working in a team with minimal
resources. Everyone involved must be aware of the processes across the per
formance, medical, and technical departments to put the athletes in the best
position for success [9]. Proper communication and organisation will allow the
team to promote the same messages across the team and in training. Addition
ally, another positive aspect of operating solo is that there are no competing
philosophies or ideas amongst fellow staff members. Without any debate about
what should be implemented the practitioner has complete creative control.
This control can keep messages consistent which can allow for players to under
stand and buy in to the processes across the team. However, the processes put
in place by the solo practitioner won’t be challenged by peers, which potentially
results in an unfulflling procedure.
10 Gary Walker et al.
Importance of empowerment
Promoting autonomy amongst the players can be a strategy used to help instil
processes that a solo practitioner may not have otherwise have time to ded
icate to on a regular basis. It is impossible to do every task operating alone.
However, teaching athletes and giving them responsibilities over time can help
them to grow as individual problem solvers as well as promote team cohesion
that will help drive the culture [8]. It is important to note that not every athlete
will have these responsibilities given to them. The responsibilities and level of
responsibility will be determined by the practitioner, and dependent on a variety
of personality traits of the individuals [10]. Most importantly, practitioner should
never leave themselves or an athlete at risk when assigning responsibilities or al
locating tasks. Due to high maturity levels, veteran players and team captains are
prime candidates who can act as an extension of the department. For example,
giving an experienced athlete the permission to cue and correct a younger athlete
in the gym can help facilitate the training process. By empowering this experi
enced player, practitioners will have more freedom to focus attention in other
areas that may need focus. When giving responsibility to athletes, it is important
that they understand that they are expected to hold themselves and their team
mates to a higher standard. Any inconsistencies will create an unclear message
and defeat the purpose of entrusting these athletes with a higher responsibility.

Priorities and delegation

Once a needs analysis (see Chapter 3 for more detail) is established, a solo
practitioner can decide what testing protocols are most appropriate to im
plement in their environment. Tests should prioritise the general needs of the
sport before looking at specifc needs of individuals. With limited time and
minimal resources, areas such as player testing must be concise, easy to exe
cute, and provide value while giving actionable information. Once a season has
started, fnding time to retest every player will be challenging so it is important
to emphasise that any tests used hold value and resources required should be
minimal, allowing for a valid retest.
Utilising wearable tracking, such as global positioning system (GPS), in train
ing is an example of how a practitioner can perform valid, reliable, and re
peatable tests without any extra set up. Tests such as maximum velocity and
maximum aerobic speed (MAS) are examples of tests that can be captured
within the confnes of a training session. Furthermore, physical tests such as
a broad jump or vertical jump can be performed quickly as a part of a gym
session. The above mentioned tests are examples of what can be implemented
periodically to assess progress for the whole team. Once global needs of the
team have been addressed, the practitioner can then focus on additional tests
for specifc high priority athletes. This could include addressing players seen as
a high priority by the club, veteran players who merit special attention, or ath
letes who are at a greater risk of injury.
 Role of the practitioner 11
Relationships; balance of friendliness and respect
The more face time with your players, the more opportunity there is to build
relationships. With limited time each day, it is imperative to capitalise on time
available to build trust with the players. These relationships are important ones
that help to create and increase buy in whilst emphasising messages, but this
communication goes beyond the sport. Some days you may need to be a coach,
other days you may need to lend a friendly ear to a player. Showing your players
you care about them as a person, just as much as you care about their success
within their career is imperative in building meaningful relationships. However,
there is a fne line between creating professional relationships and personal
relationships with the players. A solo practitioner (and any practitioner for that
matter) should exclusively focus on creating relationships that are built on trust
as opposed to friendships. How those player coach relationships are built play a
crucial role to what a solo practitioner can implement effectively.

A higher purpose and unwritten laws of the industry

A higher purpose
Whatever one’s individual role is within a professional soccer club, evidently,
they are only one aspect of a larger organisational structure (Figure 1.2). Within
any organisation there exists a higher purpose and each practitioner should be
fully aware of what this is and how they positively contribute towards this.
Several key questions should be asked:

• What is the vision, mission and aims of the organisation?

• What are the traditions, culture and heritage within an organisation?
• What are the specifc club / organisational values?
• How is success defned within the organisation?
• What are the goals on a macro (organisational) level?

The answers to these questions can be highly varied between clubs depending
upon a number of factors such as the size of the club that a practitioner works
for, the age and history of the club, and the availability of fnancial, technological,
and human resources, together with the developmental level that a practitioner
works within. Greater variety exists at the senior level as organisational aspira
tions differ between winning titles and trophies, getting promoted, reaching the
play offs, and avoiding relegation. Within the academy environment, the mission
and aims of the organisation are generally more consistent, involving the holistic
individual development of young people, yet their end goals may differ by way of
developing players to play in the club’s frst team or to sell for a fnancial proft
and future sustainability.
When the answers to the above questions have been determined, the next
step is to ensure that the strategies on a micro (departmental) level are aligned
12 Gary Walker et al.
to the organisational goals. Key questions involve how these strategies can be
measured and key performance indicators (KPI) are generally developed, involv
ing the performance director and other stakeholders to assess the effectiveness
of each department. Finally, it is important that as a practitioner performing any
role within a performance department (ftness coach, strength and conditioning
coach, sports scientist), their work in both the short and long term aligns with
the departmental strategies, ftting into the multidisciplinary and club wide organ
isational approach. This can differ at the international versus the club level, which
can be further broken down into a ‘club appointed’ and ‘coach appointed role.’
Each practitioner that works within high performance soccer also has an
individual higher purpose. This is characterised by an individual set of attitudes,
values, and beliefs, together with their own knowledge, skill set, and life expe
rience both inside and outside of soccer. This higher purpose is illustrated by
what drives a practitioner on a daily, weekly, and seasonal basis. An in depth
description of motivation is beyond the scope of this chapter but is one of the
driving forces behind human behaviour and is typically divided into extrinsic and
intrinsic factors. Extrinsic motivation is an external infuence that impels people
to act in a certain way and may include salary, rewards, bonuses, promotions,
or associations with success. Intrinsic motivation refers to an internal form
of motivation that occurs as a result of aligning certain actions with values or
pleasure for performing and completing a task. In recruiting practitioners into a
performance department, the alignment of an individual’s higher purpose with
those of an organisation can be a method used to identify a person’s cultural ft
and suitability within a particular organisation.

Different roles within the industry

Club-appointed role
This is a role that is contracted to the club and functions irrespectively of any
head coach or managerial change. The role can be within the frst team, re
serves, or academy environment in either the performance and/or medical de
partment. These positions are generally characterised by permanent contracts
with fxed periods of notice and termination for the employer and employee.
It should be noted, however, that for these club wide positions within Major
League Soccer in the United States, a number of these positions are ‘at will,’
involving no fxed notice periods.
Club appointed roles generally have long term strategic direction, prevent
ing the organisation from having to replace all members of a performance and
medical department in the event of a change of head coach. This provides both a
consistency in philosophy and service delivery to players. Nonetheless, the ma
jor role responsibilities are to provide a support service to the head coach and
technical staff. Club appointed roles may also have higher education research
links to identify ‘best practice’ solutions to performance problems, with the
ability to implement these consistently over several years.
 Role of the practitioner 13
Coach-appointed role
This is a role recruited by the head coach/manager or appointed as part of their
technical staff. In a number of clubs, the head coach/manager personally identifes,
selects, and appoints his support staff. These positions generally involve assistant
technical coaches but can also involve the head of performance, ftness coach,
or medical practitioners. This is a role contracted to the club, but with a fxed
term contract aligned to the length of the head coach/manager’s contract. Such
fast paced roles are commonplace in the senior frst team setting, with greater
emphasis on the day to day and short term approach, given that elite profes
sional soccer is a results based industry. If results are not as to the owners/board
acceptance, then these practitioners may lose their jobs, particularly if there is a
change of head coach. Accordingly, these roles can be highly pressured and more
volatile, involving a higher reward but associated with greater risk. These roles
are more prevalent in larger, and more high profle elite European clubs.

International role
This is a role that is contracted to work within a country’s national federa
tion or governing body, working with the senior or age group national teams.
Practitioners that work within the performance and/or medical department
of national federations have historically often also worked for a professional
club; however, in recent years, a number of international federations have em
ployed practitioners on an exclusive basis (Figure 1.4). Working within a multi
disciplinary team (MDT) of an international federation requires both short and
long term responsibilities.
In the short term, there are a number of international friendly matches, com
petitive qualifcation matches and tournaments that are characterised by a large
number of matches in a short period of time. This requires the practitioner to
quickly identify the individual status of players and prescribe an appropriate
training and/or recovery stimulus to optimise the preparation and performance
of the player during these matches. Following any international camp, appropri
ate player feedback is generally provided to the respective clubs to allow the
player to transition back into the club environment without issue. As there are
large periods of time between international fxture periods, it is important that
considerable planning takes place to prepare for international camps and tour
nament scenarios, ensuring that the necessary infrastructure has been identifed

Club Soccer International Soccer

Coach-
Club-Appointed Short-Term Exclusive
Appointed

Figure 1.4 Roles within the industry.

14 Gary Walker et al.
and implemented. Furthermore, international staff must communicate, develop
relationships and share information with players and their respective club staff
to ensure that agreed training and nutritional priorities are being implemented
within the club setting and to monitor the programme that the player is con
ducting from a distance. Finally, the international practitioner may conduct their
own ‘in house’ research and retrospective analysis to identify the most appro
priate ways of operating during the relatively short international periods to
increase their opportunity for successful outcomes in the future.

Unwritten laws of the industry

In professional soccer, regardless of the role that is performed within a perfor
mance or a medical department, there exists multiple laws/rules that will allow
the practitioner to be more successful in both the short and long term. These
rules are not written down, nor are they taught in undergraduate or post
graduate university courses, rather they are developed with experience once a
practitioner has worked within the industry for an extended period of time. It
is the hope that these points will provide young and inexperienced practition
ers with appropriate information to enable them to better navigate the feld of
high performance professional soccer:

• T.E.A.M.: Successful soccer performance is multi disciplinary in nature

and involves a number of technical, tactical, physical, and mental disci
plines. Within a multi disciplinary support staff, each service provider
needs to appreciate the signifcance and complementary nature of one
another’s roles if the preparation and performance of each player is to be
optimised.
• Work in collaboration: Although successful performance is multi
disciplinary, practitioners are required to work together in inter disciplinary
fashion and collaborate on a daily basis. There is signifcant power in col
laboration and working together for a common goal. Historically, the main
critique of strength and conditioning and sports science practice from
players and coaches in professional football is that practitioners work in
dependently to the on feld coaching process. This silo approach is often
adopted as a result of an inability to align these service deliveries with the
goals and game model of the head coach. This, in turn, can lead to a mis
management of training load and an elevation in injury risk.
• Know your role: Understand what your individual role is within the
multi disciplinary team. What are your individual responsibilities that you
will be accountable for? Do you have individual KPI’s or goals that have been
set for you? Focus on doing these to the best of your ability and controlling
the factors that you are personally responsible for.
• Do no harm, but do something: How can you make a difference and
add value to the player, department, or organisation that you are working
with?
 Role of the practitioner 15
• Do not use a reductionist approach: Please remember that both per
formance and injury are multi factorial in nature and affected by many tran
sient and interacting factors. Be very wary of using a reductionist ‘cause and
effect’ nature for more complex occurrences.
• Power of communication: We work with people and through people on
a daily basis. Appropriate communication across a number of stakeholders
within the organisation is vital for success within any role in professional
soccer.
• Educate to innovate: Educate players if you are attempting to change a
particular practice. Explain the reasons for any intervention that you sug
gest. People don’t buy what you do, they buy why you do it. Ensure that
the current generation of players do not receive all their sports science
information via social media.
• Don’t sweat the small stuff: Focus your time, effort, and energy on the
factors that will transfer to the largest performance or preparation gains.
Ensure that the basics are frmly established before attempting to imple
ment the practices that may make a difference. In short, focus on the 99%
before chasing the 1%.
• Treat players as individuals: Although a squad of players can number
more than 20 players, it is important to be aware that players are unique
as individuals. They have their own genetics, playing position, strengths and
weaknesses, maturation, and training age together with an individual injury
history. Do not always use averages, rather manage individuals daily. Fur
thermore, within the academy setting, it is vital to develop individuals and
not teams.
• Train players, don’t chase numbers: With the rapid growth in tech
nology and the information available to the sports performance and medi
cal practitioner, it is extremely important to remember that our role is to
train and rehabilitate players, not chase numbers. Furthermore, leverage
data to inform your practice and solve performance problems, but do not
be a spreadsheet coach. Ultimately, be data informed, not data driven.
• The research doesn’t always apply: Allowing research to inform your
practice is a sensible way of developing your system and philosophy of
work to remain current within the industry. It is extremely important to
note, however, that searching the internet for soccer related training, load
monitoring, and recovery interventions will produce a plethora of journal
articles across a range of ages, playing standards and research designs. De
ciphering this information is a challenge for all practitioners and it is impor
tant to critically appraise and flter this information, before adopting it into
your practice and scope of work.
• Be genuine: The aphorism of ‘faking it until you make it’ is a strategy of
that may serve one well within elite soccer for a very short time, but not
throughout a career. Both players and coaches will see through imitation
over a prolonged period, thus it is vital that practitioners are genuine and
conduct their work with authenticity daily.
16 Gary Walker et al.
Surviving the industry

Staff turnover
Unfortunately, a common characteristic of professional football is high staff
turnover. This occurs at both frst team and academy levels. There are some
key characteristics that practitioners require in order to survive the industry
independent of their role; however, there are some bespoke challenges that
practitioners will face depending on their type of role and environment they
work in (IE. frst team vs. academy).

First team
At frst team level, the instability of the manager/head coach position primarily
dictates the rate of staff turnover. With managerial changes, there will also be
changes to coach appointed positions that include coaching staff, medical, and
performance staff. Even though these positions are deemed to be shorter term
positions, these types of changes can also alter the structure of departments as
well as more longer term positions that provide direction for long term strate
gies, such as a performance director. A practitioner in a club appointed position
in frst team football needs to be adaptable to different managerial and coach
ing styles, new strategic direction, and potentially a new game model which will
dictate training philosophies. Taking time to learn from a new approach, whilst
being authentic and genuine, will pave the way for building strong relationships.
Understanding and adopting a new or different language of soccer, as well trying
to create a common language will allow a practitioner to communicate how they
can add value and provide a support service to the coaching team. It is likely
that responsibilities may change with a change in managerial appointments, and
therefore being malleable as a practitioner and showing a willingness to change is
generally required. Dependent on the circumstances and the situation of the club,
a practitioner may look to increase role satisfaction and feeling of impact through
seeking new or alternative opportunities. Working within the rehabilitation team,
concentrating more on strength, and conditioning process within the gym, or
with other squads within the club (such as academy teams), are all viable options
to increase value to the organisation and the feeling of making a difference.
In coach appointed positions, practitioners require an ability to embed
quickly into a new club with likely changes in tradition, culture, operations,
structure, philosophies, and strategies between clubs. In addition, an ability to
understand, accept, and empathise with a new set of staff with a difference in
professional opinions, strategies, and working styles are key characteristics.

Academy environments
Within developmental settings, the vast majority of roles will be club appointed. A
high turnover of staff in academies is independent of frst team manager changes,
with staff transitioning between clubs to seek new opportunities and challenges
 Role of the practitioner 17
or to potentially gain a promotion. Staff transition internally within clubs and ex
ternally between clubs across all departments and positions. Internally, the coach
ing staff have frequent changes where coaches tend to move up from younger
ages groups to older ones. Performance practitioners, who themselves can tran
sition to older age groups, can fnd themselves working with coaches who they
have previously worked with at younger ages. Alternatively, there will be frequent
instances where staff have transitioned in from other clubs, where a different
philosophy may be used to develop players. In all scenarios, building strong pro
fessional relationships and bonds is therefore a necessity for practitioners. Per
formance practitioners in academy settings may work across more than one age
group and therefore work with multiple coaches and support staff, managed or
overseen by a department head (E.G., head of foundation phase U9 U12s). There
fore, creating and managing multiple relationships simultaneously is required in
order to be effective. Adopting multiple strategies to apply the same scientifc
content may be required to cater for the different working and learning styles of
coaches, support staff, and players.

Attributes to survive
Although there can be a large amount of staff turnover in the elite soccer en
vironment, there are a number of key attributes required for practitioners in
dependent of their working environment or role orientation. Not only will the
below mentioned attributes aid practitioners in maintaining their role in elite soc
cer, but also these will help enhance one’s mental health and working environment.

Creating and managing relationships

Soccer has often been described by the people that work within it as a ‘people
business.’ Having an ability to create and maintain relationships with all types
of staff members are key attributes of interpersonal skills required by practi
tioners. Building strong relationships with key stakeholders is also a principal
requirement to be able to translate scientifc knowledge to practice. Recog
nising, understanding, and managing different personality types is fundamental
in establishing rapport with players and staff members (more detail discussed in
Chapter 11). Having an ability to manage up is also a desirable characteristic to
align and manage expectations of those stakeholders.

Self-care
For a long time, researchers have primarily focused on athletes, their needs,
characteristics, and the environment which they require to successfully thrive
in. However, since 2008, the attention of investigations has begun to shift to
those supporting the athlete and has started to view those around the athlete
(the ‘team behind the team’) as performers in their own right [11–13]. To date
the research has primarily centred on managers and coaches, but there are
clear and important messages for all those employed in elite sport. We know
18 Gary Walker et al.

Unsociable work hours

Long days

Blurred work/life balance

Demands
causing
Influencing key stakeholders
stess
Moving around the country away from support systems of
family and friends
Poor job security (particularly in first team environments)

Figure 1.5 Demands of working in elite soccer than potentially cause stress for a practitioner.

Poor
Conflict at
Burnout relationships
home
at work

Reduced
emotional Tiredness Poor diet
control

Increase in
Weight gain or
alcohol
weight loss
consumption

Figure 1.6 Potential long term negative effects associated with constant stress exposure
in the workplace.

in elite sport there are lots and lots of demands that can often leave us feeling
stretched (Figure 1.5).
Generally, in the short term, this stretch is usually something that one can
handle. However, research shows that over longer periods of time, it can have
negative effects (Figure 1.6) [11–13]. No matter how resilient or tough one
perceives themselves, we are all human and we don’t have an infnite amount of
energy or resource. Therefore, it is imperative that one practices self care and
understands what helps maintain one’s best self. Failure to do so will result in
a very diffcult attempt to help the athletes become the best version of them
selves [14, 15]. It is important that practitioners in elite soccer learn how to fnd
a balance between the demands of the job and personal resources so that one
can thrive in roles and not just survive each season [16].

Expectancies and working conditions

Working with new staff, especially new line managers or coaches, requires es
tablishing clear responsibilities and expectancies for a harmonious and effective
 Role of the practitioner 19
working relationship. Establishing role expectancies will determine role effective
ness and how a practitioner is contributing to the overall aim of the organisation.
Some changes and alterations to roles may be less formal in nature to suit the
needs of coaching teams. Performing warm ups and conditioning with or with
out the ball, providing training load feedback in graphical or a numerical format,
conducting formal meetings versus informal conversations, and types of recovery
sessions are all examples of small nuances that can accompany changes in man
agerial changes. Accordingly, this may require fexibility from the performance
practitioner.

Communication
Translating knowledge to the end user requires practitioners to be able to com
municate complex scientifc principles in an easy to understand manner. Dif
ferent end users will require a different type of language from the practitioner.
Explaining scientifc concepts in an understandable manner will increase buy in
from the end user, whether that is a player, a parent, or a head coach. Feedback
or explanations must be contextualised to the individual or to how they apply
to the team and contribute to the overall strategy of the club.

Continual learning and work ethic

A desire to continually evolve and develop as a practitioner, alongside a dedicated
work ethic, is highly regarded values. Sport science in soccer is an ever evolving
feld; therefore, maintaining an understanding of the most contemporary re
search is vital in optimally preparing players for competition.

Conclusion
Overall, the ability to understand that there is more than one way to operate as
an applied performance practitioner in soccer is vital. Being open minded with a
continual desire to learn and develop is a vital characteristic to possess as an ap
plied practitioner in elite soccer. There are a variety of roles and responsibilities
that a performance practitioner can hold within an elite soccer environment.
In order to thrive in an elite soccer setting, a practitioner must understand
the knowledge and traits required to operate effciently within any given envi
ronment and circumstance. Staff turnover is often unavoidable in professional
soccer; however, there are certain attributes that practitioners can continue to
develop to further succeed within in the industry.

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2 From academy to professional
Alex Berger, Jack Christopher, Nathan Plaskett,
Thomas Carpels and Adam Centofanti

The next generation

The journey to becoming a professional soccer player can be a rocky road with
many ups and downs. Top prospects are often misguided or lack a certain qual
ity to make it to the next level. As the game has evolved, so has the prerequisite
to have elite physical and psychological qualities to play at the professional level.
It is no surprise how important good long term athletic development planning
and execution is. Performance practitioners at all levels must have an excel
lent understanding of the phases of development. This includes each of the key
physical qualities required, knowledge of the challenges that youth soccer play
ers may face, how to overcome them, and the overall programming to ensure
no key windows of opportunity are missed. Above all, a performance practi
tioner developing the next generation of soccer players must also understand
their responsibility to be an excellent mentor. Someone who develops not only
elite athletes, but also exceptional human beings with excellent values, that will
carry over into the rest of their lives, and ultimately contribute to a positive
performance driven culture in the frst team.

Phases of development
Research and best practice in soccer has begun to increasingly focus on the
long term athletic development (LTAD) pathway and how best to enhance the
physical characteristics of the adolescent athlete [1]. The end goal of such pro
grammes is to produce robust resilient players that can withstand the rigours
of professional soccer. A key tenet for practitioners to understand, however,
is that the developing athlete has differing needs from the fully developed adult
athlete, and that there potentially exists windows of opportunity to take advan
tage of, as the child moves throughout this maturation process. Specifcally, the
introduction of the Elite Player Performance Plan (EPPP) framework within the
UK is centred around these key differences and aims to set out a structured set
of principles to guide this process within developmental soccer.
Competition around the world at youth level is centred around a child’s
chronological age, yet there can be signifcant differences in a child’s needs,

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200420 2
22 Alex Berger et al.
physical abilities, and cognitive development within the same chronological age
group [2, 3]. For example, average variations in anthropometric characteristics,
such as height and weight, have shown to be as large as 15 cm and 21 kg, respec
tively, between the least and most mature players within the same chronological
age group (i.e. U14’s).
The chronological age at which each individual undergoes the most pro
nounced acceleration in physical development varies greatly from individual
to individual, however, tends to be between 11 and 16 years of age, in youth
soccer athletes. Termed Peak Height Velocity (PHV), the period of greatest
accelerated growth spurt coincides with the commencement of puberty, with
players who mature earlier tending to be taller, heavier, and quicker than their
later maturing counterparts [4–9]. As a result, a player’s level of physical ma
turity has shown to have relationships with lower leg explosive power, force
production capabilities, neuromuscular control, and ability to utilise their
stretch shortening cycle effciently, as well as aerobic endurance capacity, all
of which have been shown to be desirable physical characteristics in soccer
players [10–12].
It is now commonplace to perform regular testing protocols in youth cohorts,
with the aim of highlighting talent and measuring physical performance improve
ments over time [13]. An important distinction to make is understanding why a
high performing athlete within a particular test of athleticism is achieving a high
score. For example, is a particular athlete far outperforming others in tests of
speed because they are further along in his/her physical development than the
rest of the group? What are the implications for that low scoring athlete, are
they ignored in favour of higher performing athletes when it comes to contracts?
Whilst the awareness of this concept is becoming better understood globally,
players with signifcant potential and ability can perhaps ‘fall through the cracks’,
because of a lack of understanding of how a youth athlete is achieving their
scores in tests of athleticism, at lower levels with limited resources. Ultimately,
a player’s ability to perform at the highest level is dependent upon performing
well in training and competition long term, as opposed to ‘winning’ an individual
match or performing well in a single test of athleticism in the short term. This
philosophical standpoint is key to helping guide a player to fulfl their poten
tial as they move throughout adolescence and should be a key tennet of LTAD
programmes.
Several models have been developed to help explain and guide this process,
with one of the models describing phases of development and importantly, the
focus for training and competition at each phase. Balyi illustrated that it takes
roughly 8–12 years for a talented athlete to reach ‘elite’ levels and describes
a model which provides an explanation as to what the main focus of training
should be within each phase of development [14]. Table 2.1 outlines phases as
either ‘Early Specialisation’ or ‘Late Specialisation’ and suggests how the focus
of training and matches changes as the adolescent athlete undergoes chrono
logical development. It fails, however, to highlight the differences in physical
maturation as the athlete moves toward adulthood.
 From academy to professional 23
Table 2.1 Early specialisation model vs late specialisation
models of development

Early specialisation Late specialisation

1 Training to train FUNdamental

2 Training to compete Learning to train
3 Training to win Training to train
4 Retainment Training to compete
5 Training to win
6 Retainment

Resultingly, the research has focused on providing a more in depth under

standing of what physiological changes are taking place at each stage of mat
uration [15, 16]. Structured programmes to enhance physical development at
each stage, where practitioners aim to take advantage of ‘windows of accelerated
development’, and have been suggested as the best practice in creating robust
professional athletes in the long term [7, 10, 11]. The windows of accelerated de
velopment suggest that each phase of development has a period where the type
of growth is primarily infuenced by differing physiological functions. For example,
prior to the onset of puberty, physical development has been suggested to be
infuenced most greatly by neural adaptations, whereby fundamental motor skills
and the creation of neurological pathways responsible for tasks such as running,
throwing, and jumping are developed at a greater rate during this time. During
puberty, however, the physiological changes occurring at this time have been sug
gested to be because of a rapid increase in hormonal changes. For the practi
tioner and athlete, it can be a challenging and critical phase as it encompasses both
opportunity and vulnerability in terms of growth and development.
During PHV, bones grow primarily to the musculature, putting added stress
on connective tissue and the growth plates where they attach. Flexibility, during
the time of accelerated growth, can be compromised through a reduced range
of motion, which resultingly has the potential to create abnormal movement
patterns, and has been referred to as a period of adolescent awkwardness [17,
18]. Having knowledge of how an athlete moves through the phases of matu
ration can help practitioners design LTAD models, in order to target the type
of adaptations that have been suggested are prevalent at each stage. A physical
development programme for a U12 player should focus on developing physical
literacy, and profciency across a variety of movement competencies, providing
24 Alex Berger et al.

Pre PHV PHV Post PHV

•Neural •Hormonal •Structural
•Movement skills •Hypertrophy •Relative Strength, Speed
•Exposure to Variety of •Addition of load in Key & Power
sports & movement movments once •Targetting performance
patterns competancy has been improvements
established

Figure 2.1 Stages of peak height velocity (PHV) and the physical development windows
of opportunity.

the U12 player with a range of stimuli to adapt to, both within the confnes of the
gym space and out on the pitch. By targeting motor learning and exposing the
athletes within this phase to a variety of sports, movements, and skills, practition
ers can theoretically take advantage of the increased neurological development
during this phase [7, 16]. The needs of a U19 athlete will be completely different
from the U12 (pre PHV) athlete. Aims of the programme for the U19 athlete will
be to target structural adaptations to training, whether that be through targeting
increases in strength and size to developing movement skills that might facilitate
success within the athletes given playing position (Figure 2.1).
Developing models that guide the enhancement of a range of physical qual
ities that lend themselves to successful performance in soccer in adulthood
over a long period of time is key. Globally, developmental soccer athletes move
through several key phases;

• Foundation phase (U9–U12s)

• Youth development phase (U13–U16s)
• Professional development phase (U17–U18s)
• Performance phase (professional soccer) (should they make the grade)

Considering soccer players can potentially be in academies from U9 to a profes

sional adult (potentially 12+ years), it is crucial that plans aimed at developing a
particular player’s physicality are diversifed from that which would be in place
for an adult. Therefore, an important consideration of these LTAD models in
soccer is the amount of energy that is put into developing the person, devel
oping a player’s understanding for the game, and providing an experience that
develops a range of life skills as well as physical qualities.

Athletic development

The modern-day athlete

Firstly, it’s important to acknowledge the key characteristics of the modern day
athlete to enable us to relate and communicate with our athletes more ef
fectively. It also allows us to manipulate the training environment to their
 From academy to professional 25
preferences to help maximise engagement and ultimately athletic development.
The industry has seen a cultural shift over the past 15 years which coincides
with a shift from millennials to generation Z. So, what do we know about Gen
eration Z? [19].

Who?
Born between 1996 and 2012, it’s important to recognise that generation la
bels aren’t completely distinct with some characteristics fowing from one to
another. They aren’t globally applicable to all individuals within a ‘generation’.
However, they do provide us with an insight into the product of an ever changing
world and how this has affected our athletes.

Digital natives
Digital natives were born into a more technologically advanced world. They
don’t know a world without social media and their virtual world is every bit as
real as reality. However, they are more astute with their personal data and want
more control over where it goes. As coaches, it’s important to consider how
we share data with players and ensure they get something in return.

Competitive
Individuals in this category are even more competitive than their predecessors
and crave constant stimulation. Coaches can embrace this competitive nature
by providing players with instantaneous feedback wherever possible. Techno
logical advancements such as Velocity Based Training have been shown to be
very effective at improving intent and could be a great tool for creating compe
tition [20].

Hyper personalisation
In their virtual world, content is tailored to their exact need which drives their
desire for personalisation. They tend to be experiential learners and want to
be involved in all aspects of their programme: Planning, implementation, and
goal setting. Coaches should think of innovative ways to personalise their pro
grammes and utilise coaching techniques bespoke to their preferred style of
learning.

9–12s (Foundation phase)

The foundation phase is potentially the most important part of the players’
athletic development journey. It’s an opportunity to build a broad movement
base that sets players up to be agile, robust athletes who can handle the cha
otic and random movement demands of the game. The key term is variation.
Players need to be exposed to a variety of different movement skills, within
a multitude of performance contexts and coached through different practice
26 Alex Berger et al.
Table 2.2 Example of a ten week training cycle to develop change of direction (COD)
qualities in the foundation phase

Week Movement skill Key coaching points

1–2 Deceleration Use of the foot to brake, declined body position

Rotational Skills Timing of shoulders and hips, how to accelerate rotation –
generating momentum
3–4 90°–180° turn Cross step vs Outside leg push vs Short quick step
Use of upper body lean
5–6 Tag Variations Open practice. Emphasise good practice
Attacking – Individuals who use body for deception well
Defending – Individuals who can decelerate quickly and
turn in response to an opponent’s movement
7–8 Deceleration Revisit foot contact and body position. Vary exit demands
Rotational Skills How to initiate and accelerate rotation (e.g. when in the
air)
9–10 3v3 Tag Rugby Opportunity to practice good attacking change of
Squash variation direction skills
Opportunity to practice deceleration skills and quicker
90° and 180° turns

designs. Utilising a spiral curriculum is a great option. As opposed to a conven

tional curriculum, whereby you teach topic A, then move on to topic B, a spiral
curriculum allows several different skills/topics to be taught at the same time.
As the weeks progress, gradually increase depth and complexity until they are
ultimately performing the skill as they would in a game (Table 2.2).
The training cycle begins with the fundamentals. Players are exposed to a
mixture of open and closed practices. They have a mixture of explicit (how to
utilise foot contact to slow down) and implicit learning (how to beat a player in
tag rugby) methods (Table 2.3).
Players are taught the skill of deceleration in a multitude of contexts (to react
to a squash ball, to beat a player 1v1 when facing an individual, to defend against
an attacker). This education is vitally important to help players become more
agile movers and more adept at solving the variety of movement challenges the
game yields. There is an intentional use of alternative sports to soccer to help
teach young players how to move well. Multisport exposure helps to protect
against the potential pitfalls of early specialisation which has been associated
with reduced motor skill development and overuse injuries and adds more
depth when teaching movement skills for soccer [21, 22]. Developing physical
capabilities is only part of their development; it’s also a vitally important time
for development of technical skills and basic tactical understanding. Therefore,
 From academy to professional 27
Table 2.3 Implicit vs explicit learning descriptions and example

Description Example

A player practices a skill without conscious thought Change of direction

on how to execute it. The task is set up in such a Directional tag game
way that the correct movement strategy will bring Tag rugby
about success. The environment is complex enough Landing mechanics
that the athlete can’t rehearse the skill in their head Handball
Obstacle course time trial
Conscious thought is given on how to perform a skill. Change of direction
Technique can is understood and can be verbalised. 10 m sprint into a 90° turn left
The task is potentially more ‘closed’ and often Landing mechanics
includes verbal cues from the coach. It gives the Box jumps
player an opportunity to repeatedly rehearse a skill
with a high level of support

programming needs to be fexible to ft in around the training schedule. It’s

not paramount to stick to the conventional structure of warm up followed by
training. Younger players tend to have a shorter attention span and respond
better to short 5–10 minute blocks interspersed within the session, accumu
lating to 15–30 minutes/session, 2–4x/week. If individuals are really struggling
with a particular skill or falling behind the group, the use of additional individ
ual sessions can be benefcial. Generation Z players are very profcient with
technology and place a high value on feedback. The use of video feedback can
enhance the learning process and allow a continuation of coaching even when
the individual is at home. Home programmes can be a great way of increasing
contact time and ensuring the player gets the support they need without de
tracting from their time on the pitch. Certain individuals will inevitably need ad
ditional support. Arrival activities can be a fantastic way to achieve this, players
will often turn up early for training, utilise this time to work with individuals on
specifc movement traits they struggle with.

13–16s (Youth development phase)

The youth development phase is potentially the most challenging period for the
aspiring soccer to navigate. Players will inevitably experience accelerated peri
ods of growth, for some this can be incremental, for others the rate can be very
high which often has negative implications for both movement competency and
injury risk as discussed earlier. Players may mature early, providing them with
a physical advantage over their less mature peers, or late, providing signifcant
challenges to perform against physically superior opponents.
28 Alex Berger et al.
As players begin to mature and the physical intensity of sessions increases,
the importance of physical preparation prior to the session gains signifcance.
Moving athletic development work to the start of the sessions helps ensure
contact time is kept high, whilst also providing suffcient preparation for the
subsequent session. However, it’s important to view these sessions as an ath
letic development opportunity not solely a ‘Warm Up’ and add structure to
what and how this is delivered. Contact time should be 15–20 minutes per
session, 3–4x/week (Figure 2.2).
As players begin to mature during this phase, if they display good movement
qualities, the programme can gradually begin to increase time allocation to de
veloping physical capacities (strength, power, and speed). Ideally contact time
should be between 15 and 20 minutes/session (3–5x/week) and is usually placed
at the beginning of the session, however, continue to integrate athletic develop
ment content within the session where possible.
The spiral curriculum helps to prevent overload or boredom but also en
sures structure in the continued development of athletic skills, therefore,
preferred over the traditional ‘block periodisation’. With strength training,
block periodisation is implemented on the premise that developing one phys
ical characteristic (i.e., Strength) will complement the development of the
following characteristic (i.e. Power). In the context of skill development, de
celeration is needed to change direction effciently. Many locomotive skills are
interlinked, and all complement one another, so it’s important to continue to
develop them simultaneously.

U17s (Earn the right)

This category refers to a player’s transition from a schoolboy programme with
reduced training frequency to a full time programme competing with older play
ers. Not only does training frequency often increase, but sessions also demand
greater intensity, the game is played quicker, and there is a gradual shift from a
development to performance focus. It is important to give players time to adapt
during the early stages of this development phase.

U17+ (Perform)
Players in this category are expected to display good levels of strength and
have adjusted to the increased demands of professional soccer, depending on
their pathway. Once these things are in place, we can remove the restraint and
allow players to compete and push each other to maximise athletic potential.
A system based approach is still appropriate but it’s now important to start
targeting very specifc performance goals and increase individualisation. During
this phase, there is more of an emphasis on performance and players are often
playing across multiple competitions. Therefore, it’s important for programming
to have large degrees of fexibility to maximise training opportunities whilst
adjusting for fatigue and ensuring players are fresh for games.
Figure 2.2 Weekly activation layout example.
From academy to professional
29
30 Alex Berger et al.
Key qualities for development
As part of a young soccer player’s journey, there are several qualities that, if trained
to maximum capacity, will hold them in great stead as they learn to cope with the
increased physical demands of the professional game. To preface, it is not in the
purview of this section to discuss the specifcs of growth and maturation as they
pertain to the training of the qualities listed below. Rather, to provide the ‘why’ and
the ‘how’ of the key qualities that a soccer player will need from their time as acad
emy players to physically nurture their progression into a frst team environment.
Soccer performance for the young player is perhaps best explained using a
pyramid model (Figure 2.3) as it illustrates the interaction between physical
qualities, e.g., a player benefts from being movement competent before training
strength, and a powerful player should see benefts in their acceleration. The
pyramid does not attempt to show that certain qualities are more important
than others because they are at the bottom of the pyramid or must be trained
before others. Of course, it is not that simple and in fact, it’s the qualities at the
top that are the most specifc to the game of soccer. However, beyond move
ment experience, where we attempt to challenge problem solving and enhance
cognitive function, the youth athletic development is about getting improvements
from progression. In essence, using the least amount of complexity/intensity as
possible. The qualities at the bottom of the pyramid will hold a young player in
great stead as they move through the later development phases when the focus
shifts from learning, competency and mastering the fundamentals to becoming
powerful, fast, and reactive. As we reverse engineer from the game itself to the
physical qualities it contains, this chapter answers two fundamental questions:

1 What are the bio motor qualities in soccer?

2 How do young players train these qualities to become physically prepared
for soccer?

CHANGE OF DIRECTION

SPEED/ACCELERATION

POWER

STRENGTH & CONDITIONING

MOVEMENT COMPETENCY

MOBILITY/STABILITY

MOVEMENT EXPERIENCE

Figure 2.3 Long term athletic development pyramid.

 From academy to professional 31
From a long term athletic development standpoint, the initial goal is the build a
well rounded athlete, then as they progress, training will become more specifc
to the physical qualities needed in soccer. While as mentioned, it is important
that aspiring players aim to develop all components of the pyramid, including
the base, it should be noted that it is not uncommon for some genetically gifted
players to be able to maximise certain qualities despite the absence of others.
However, as this is not the majority, comprehensive athletic development is
integral for the young player.
Beginning with mobility and stability, a critical foundation is required to de
velop all other physical qualities effectively and effciently. By having appropriate
ranges of motion and stability through and in the end points of that range, it sets
the foundation for ‘movement competency’. The goal of developing movement
competency is to provide athletes with movement options in all three planes
of motion – Sagittal, Frontal, and Transverse. This provides the body with a
greater ability to adapt and adjust to the chaotic nature of the game as their
training and playing age increases. This is a critical part of the pyramid for a
young athlete and soccer player as in conjunction with ‘movement experience’
the process may have important cognitive advantages later into adulthood [23].
Next to movement competency, the development of strength qualities is a
critical component of a young soccer players development, as strength under
pins many of the qualities listed above (power, acceleration, change of direc
tion). Additionally, strength creates more robust athletes who are less prone
to injury [24]. In conjunction with building a strength base, the development
of a solid aerobic capacity is fundamental to performance, due to the high aer
obic demands of soccer. A high level of aerobic capacity will also improve the
athlete’s ability to repeat high intensity efforts that are required at the highest
level [25], e.g., repeat sprint, power ability, and improve tactical decisions and
technical execution [26].
Once adequate strength is established, the next progression is ‘power’, the
expression of as much force in as little time as possible. Training for power will
increase rate of force development (RFD) via improved motor unit recruitment
and rate coding, leading to improvements in general athleticism [27]. Specif
cally, the soccer player should see improvements in key physical actions such as
jumping, accelerating, and changing direction. These physical actions along with
sprinting are some of the more obvious and often indirectly trained in team
training. However, in any soccer player, there are benefts to training these
qualities in isolation. Strength and power training can lead to improvements in
central nervous system activation, facilitating more effcient muscular recruit
ment when more specifc training is completed. Therefore, acceleration training
allows for the realisation and transfer of the benefts gained from strength/
power training. Furthermore, most high intensity actions in football cover less
than 20 m, making acceleration critical to game related outcomes [28].
For both reducing risk of injury and improving on pitch performance, regular
maximum velocity exposures are critical [29]. Regular exposure will not only
help protect the hamstrings but also improve anaerobic speed reserve, making
32 Alex Berger et al.
sub maximal efforts easier and more sustainable. As it relates to soccer, maxi
mal velocity (including acceleration) is the most common physical action prior
to a goal being scored [30]. Change of direction, if performed with appropriate
intensity, can be considered ‘high speed strength training’ due to the manoeu
vre responsible for a direction change featuring eccentric muscle contraction
during braking, followed by concentric contraction, granting propulsive force
[31]. This could theoretically assist in the transfer from the gym to the pitch.
Specifc training in this area provides controlled exposure to more specifc
contraction speeds, ground contacts, and direction. This has positive implica
tions for both agile performance and ACL risk, as lower level or less experi
enced athletes experience greater knee valgus moments in unplanned change
of direction tasks [32].

Mobility and stability

Does the athlete have movement options in the major joints needed?
Areas needing stability can often be trained via normal progression through
strength exercises, especially foot, knee, and lumbar stability (Figure 2.4). On
the other hand, mobility is a quality that usually needs to be trained independ
ent of other qualities. There are three common times in which mobility can be
trained: sequenced with strength exercises (1A – Back Squat, 1B – Thoracic
Mobility), in a pre activation session prior to team training and in a recovery
session.
An example of how to break these down or ‘periodise’ is to categorise and
theme the sessions. Sequencing with strength exercises, focus on either an area
that player struggles with or an area that directly impacts the strength exercise.

Figure 2.4 Mobility vs stability of joints in the human body.

 From academy to professional 33
In a pre activation session, focus on a more holistic approach – general mobility
for thoracic, hip, and ankle, including some strength in range exercises, e.g., no
handed 90/90 hip rotation.

Movement competency
It is important to distinguish between movement competency and movement
experience. Movement experience is gained in the early (six to ten years) and
more unstructured phases for a young person or prospective soccer player. At
this stage, free movement, problem solving should be the main priority as this
will teach players to be aware of their body and cognitively be able to solve
movement problems [16]. Movement competency is mastering the fundamental
movement patterns that will underpin the training of key physical qualities. As
players move into the older stages of their time in the academy, it is advanta
geous to have mastered these fundamental movements (Figure 2.5). It is also
important to note that part of this process is to create an environment that
gives a young player a reason to learn a particular movement pattern.
One of the keys to developing both movement competency and strength is
to create progressions that will not only continue to improve a player’s move
ment competency, yet also facilitate strength within that movement. To apply
these progressions into practice, it is important that a system is created, one
that shows both the player and the coach where they’re at. The question to ask
here is ‘what will determine when a player can progress to the next movement?’
Some of the movements will be subjective technical competency, e.g., BW Squat,
wall drills, and some will be external loading based, e.g., 25 kg Goblet Squat
for 8–10 repetitions or a 150% BW Back Squat. What these standards are is a
conversation to be had within the academy performance department and the

Figure 2.5 Movement skill breakdown.

34 Alex Berger et al.
frst team performance department. From a club philosophical standpoint, what
condition do the frst team staff want academy players to be in if they transition
into that environment? What training methodologies do players need to be pre
pared for? This is by no means a black and white discussion; however, it is im
portant that the entire department is working towards the same physical goals.
The gym based progressions in Figure 2.6 focus on mastering BW before adding
load, using load to maximise trunk demands, and then maximising external load
to build global relative strength.

Strength
When training for strength, there are a few questions to be asked: What are
the main movements? How will intensity be prescribed? How will this be pro
gressed over time?
Overall, the rules that govern these questions should be:

• Technique > Load

• Simple > Complex
• Low Intensity > High Intensity

Strength before the gym

While not at the age where dedicated training in the gym is required, the young
athlete can learn to develop whole body strength against external load via wres
tling and ball protection drills. Various gymnastic and animalistic movements,
e.g., bunny hops, inchworms, and wall climbing, can also help develop coordi
nated whole body/trunk strength prior to a player’s introduction to gym related
strength work

Movement selection
Reverse engineering from observation of the sport itself – what are the bio
mechanical qualities of soccer? Furthermore, how much force is being applied
in these actions? In what directions are the forces being applied? In what parts
of the range of motion is the force applied? What musculature is responsible?
What are the movements that a player should be training to both reduce injury
risk and increase physical performance in soccer? When considering movement
selection, we must also consider injury history, equipment access, and logistics.
Soccer is a 360 degree sport and contains movements in all three planes of mo
tion (Sagittal, Frontal, and Transverse) with high joint forces that are often un
evenly dispersed between legs (e.g., running and changing direction) As such, it
is important that all three planes of motion are trained, overloaded to prepare
the relevant tissues for the high forces and a range of bilateral and unilateral
exercises utilised. To aid in programming and progression, these movements
can be prescribed in patterns (Table 2.4).
 Movement
Experience

Movement
Competency

Lower Body Upper Body Field Based

Squat Hinge Lunge Jump/Land Horiztonal Push Horitontal Pull Ver˜cal Push Ver˜cal Pull Brace Accelera˜on Deccelera˜on Change Direc˜on Sprint

Tall to Short Base BW Rowing Lateral & Crossover Accelera˜on

BW Squat to Box Glute Bridge BW Split Squat Incline Push Up Incline TRX Row Push Up Varia˜ons Ant/Post Tilts Wall Drill Hold Landing varia˜ons
Landing Varia˜ons Wall Drill Progressions

Tall to Short Single 1/2 Kneeling SA DB 1/2 Kneeling SA Deadbug w Arm Lateral Load and
BW Squat Kneeling Hip Hinge BW Reverse Lunge Push Up Supine TRX Row Wall Drill March Falling Lunge A-March
Leg Shoulder Press Cable Pulldown Lower Li°

Al˜tude 2 Leg SA Bent Over DB Kneeling SA DB Kneeling SA Cable Deadbug w Bent Banded Push to
Goblet Squat Dowel Hip Hinge BW Walking Lunge Weighted Push Up Linear Load and Li° Jog to Base Decel A-Skip
Landing Row Shoulder Press Pulldown Leg Lower Base

Cable/Banded Pull Alterna˜ng DB Alterna˜ng Bent Standing SA DB Assisted Chin Deadbug w Jog to Split Stance Banded Push to
KB Front Squat Goblet Split Squat Al˜tude Single Leg Wall Drill Switch Ankling
Through Bench Press Over Row Shoulder Press Up/Pull Up Straight Leg Lower Decel Base (Cont.)

Banded March,
Standing DB Increase Approach
Barbell Front Squat KB Pick Up DB Walking Lunge Box Jump DB Bench Press DB Bent Over Row Chin Up/Pull Up Wall Hold Deadbug Bound, Run Banded Shu˛e A-Switch
Shoulder Press Speeds
(Shoulders)

DB Bulgarian Split Barbell Bent Over Barbell Shoulder Banded March,

Barbell Back Squat DB RDL Squat Jump Barbell Bench Press Plank Varia˜ons Random Stop Calls Crossover to Base Shin Dribble
Squat Row Press Bound, Run (Waist

BB Bulgarian Split Countermovement An˜-Lateral / An˜- Crossover to Base

Barbell RDL Alterna˜ve Starts Integrate into COD Dead Leg
Squat Jump Rota˜on Varia˜ons (Cont.)

Shu˛e, Cut,
Trapbar Deadli˜ SL Squat Broad Jump Dribble Bleed
Crossover

Mirror/Reac˜ve
Scissor Drills
Varia˜ons
From academy to professional

Wicket Drills
35

Figure 2.6 An example of progression system for key movements.

36 Alex Berger et al.
Table 2.4 Movement patterns and examples

Movement pattern Movement example

Lower body
Bilateral knee dominant Barbell back squat
Bilateral hip dominant Barbell Romanian deadlift
Unilateral knee dominant Rear foot elevated split squat
Unilateral hip dominant Single leg hip thrust
Isolated accessories – commonly injured areas in soccer
Hamstring Nordic curls
Adductor Copenhagen’s
Quadricep/rectus femoris Reverse nordic
Calf/soleus Seated & standing calf raises
Upper body & trunk
Horizontal push/pull Barbell bench press/single arm dumbbell row
Vertical push/pull Barbell shoulder press/chin ups
Anti rotation Pallof Press
Anti lateral fexion Suitcase carry
Anti extension Deadbug
Rotation Standing cable rotation

Prescription options
For most young players, working through exercise progressions will provide
enough overload to induce strength gains and advanced prescription methods
aren’t necessary. Beyond this, there are certain methods that can be employed
to continue strength gains once they have achieved an appropriate level of
movement competency. Such methods include: % 1RM, Reps in Reserve (RIR)
and Velocity Based [33].

Periodisation options
During the younger phases of development, periodisation beyond linear pro
gression is considered unnecessary as the focus should be on fun, engagement,
and appropriate development vs. games or competition related outcomes.
However, when discussing periodisation in the later stages of academy develop
ment, often there can be a large gap between theory and application. Especially
in season when intensity/volume is high, programming needs can become more
reactive. When prescribing strength training, there are several popular meth
ods to periodise (Note: these are not with respect to other physical qualities and
 From academy to professional 37
as such options such as conjugate or agile are not relevant), including constant,
reverse linear, rep accumulation, set accumulation, and undulating.

Power
From its role in acceleration, to its role in jumping, optimising power output
will provide a signifcant advantage to any soccer player – young or old. Due to
the inverse relationship of force and velocity during concentric contractions,
we can manipulate external load and target a specifc adaptation. For example,
a 3RM deadlift will produce high amounts of force but move at a slow veloc
ity. Conversely, a barbell countermovement jump would produce low amounts
of force but move at high velocity. Due to the nature of the power equation
(Power = Force × Velocity) (see Chapter 4), an increase in either force or veloc
ity should lead to greater power outputs. However, to only train for strength is
likely to reduce a player’s ability to produce force in times specifc to the sport.
Therefore, the goal of a strength and power programme is to be able to pro
duce larger amounts of force at quicker speeds. Because of an increase in Rate
of Force Development, a more explosive player is the result.
As aforementioned, direct power training is not necessary for the foundation
or youth phase soccer player, rather a form of training more commonly utilised
by the professional development phase player. However, there are two impor
tant components of power training that young players can learn and develop
while progressing through the youth development phase. Firstly, developing
technical competency in the movements associated with this form of training
will create a strong foundation and enhance the effectiveness of this training in
the future. Secondly, learning to perform strength movements with maximum
intent will have excellent transfer to the intent required to augment outputs in
direct power training [34]. General recommendations when training for power:
3–6 sets, 2–5 repetitions, 3 min + rest between sets. Beyond these general
recommendations, more well trained soccer players, typically in the profes
sional development phase, may beneft from some more advanced methods
when training for power. Such methods include Band Resisted, Band Assisted
(Overspeed) Post Activation Potentiation, French Contrast, and Cluster Sets.
These methods are designed to manipulate the force velocity curve and nervous
system to further enhance explosive power (see Chapter 4).

Plyometrics
Plyometrics are defned as quick and powerful movements that utilise the
stretch shortening cycle (SSC), with ‘true’ or ‘fast’ plyometrics having a ground
contact time of less than 250 ms [35]. Appropriate progression of plyometric
training is of the utmost importance as the ground reaction forces accepted
by the body’s joints can exceed 3–4x bodyweight (BW) for more advanced
progressions (Figure 2.7) [36]. If a player is going to produce large amounts
38 Alex Berger et al.

Movement Direction Initiation Contstraint

Jump Linear Non-Countermovement Free Space

Bound Lateral Countermovement Low Hurdle

Hop Rotational Double Contact Medium Hurdle

Continuous High Hurdle

Depth

Figure 2.7 Plyometric progression system.

of force and express it in times specifc to the sport, then they must have the
ability to accept the consequences – the higher the jump, the harder the land
ing. If a player cannot safely absorb forces in a slow controlled environment,
being injured by fast, high force changes in direction and landings in game play, is
much more likely. Consequently, technical mastery of landing drills to improve
eccentric force absorption is critical, especially in young soccer players. Landing
training can be implemented early in a player’s development, typically at the
start of the youth development programme (YDP). Stiff landings while hav
ing the same vertical ground reaction force increase knee fexion/compression
forces. Conversely, ‘soft’ landings will help dissipate forces, reduce knee fexion/
compression forces and ultimately injury risk [37].
Despite their effectiveness and most common utilisation in building a founda
tion prior to more intense drills, landing training is a benefcial injury reduction
tools at all stages. Specifcally, utilising more challenging options via perturba
tions, load and obstacles can help prevent ACL injuries (Figure 2.8) [38]. The
use of extensive plyometrics not only serves to progress intensity of ground
reaction forces but also improves coordination, rhythm, and timing. Continu
ous sub maximal jumps and hops for higher repetitions are a great way to build
tissue resilience.
Some recommendations when prescribing plyometrics: count ground
contacts – as a basic rule, the lower the intensity of the plyometric, the higher
ground contacts can be tolerated. Later in an academy players career, the inten
sity and volume of plyometrics will likely need to be manipulated around training/
playing schedule as these elements become more intense and frequent. Although
limited evidence, general recommendations for recovery time of a plyometric
training session is 48–72 hours [39].

Acceleration
One of the easiest ways to improve acceleration is to practise accelerating.
When the opportunity to accelerate (in closed conditions) presents itself, such
as the warm up or training drill, perform it with maximum intensity and good
technique. Simply practising the skill will contribute towards better projection,
rhythm, and coordination, three vital components of acceleration. Greater
 From academy to professional 39
relative strength and power will maximise the effect of this rehearsal more than
just rehearsal itself [40]. This is perhaps the most effective way for the young
soccer player to develop acceleration – technique, repetition with intent, and
off feld progression.
A crossbridge between accelerating itself and strength/power training is the
use of tools such as sleds, prowlers, and adjustable training lines (such as Exer
genie). These pieces of equipment can be very effective at overloading key ac
celeration positions and qualities. This is signifcant as players will see better
transfer to acceleration performance if exercises mimic the motor pattern and
contraction type of the movement [41]. When determining sled or Exer genie
resistance, loads resulting in a 75% max velocity loss produce the greatest im
provements in 0–5 and 0–10 m performance [42]. Additionally, using different
percentages of velocity loss may represent different training zones as per the
force velocity curve and helpful prescriptive tool [43]. Alternatively, sled loading
of 75% BW seems to optimise peak power output, while loads of up to 130%
BW are still effective [43]. Overall, acceleration with any weight has been shown
to be better than unresisted for improving acceleration performance [44].

Maximum velocity
The best strategy to improving max velocity is to run at maximum velocity [41].
While there are variations of running drills and specifc gym based exercises
that can be done to support this goal, ultimately, all will fall short in the absence
of regular sprint training. However, there is an injury risk to doing too much
and too little maximum velocity training [45]. As such, it is generally recom
mended in team sport that there is a minimum of six exposures >85% and a
maximum of ten, ensuring one to two bouts at maximum velocity per week to
decrease risk and improve sprint performance [46–48]. Outside of sprinting it
self, there are a number of other modalities that can positively contribute, such
as non sprint training, sprint training, technical mastery/re enforcement, and
non linear sprint training. The strong relationship between back squat strength
and sprint performance might be explained by the fact that individuals exhibiting
greater lower body strength are able to produce a higher peak ground reaction
force (pGRF), impulse, and RFD during each foot strike while running. It is clear
from the scientifc literature that an individual’s overall sprint performance or
ability to express higher sprint velocities is impacted by his ability to express
high pGRF and impulse.

Non-linear sprint training

Soccer is not played in a straight line and consequently, maximum velocity
will not always be required in a straight line [49]. Utilising curvilinear running
can help provide a more specifc training stimulus. Examples such as arc and
s shaped runs can help replicate the true non linear running paths seen in game
play while building resiliency to the ankles and hamstrings as they react to the
internal and external rotation moments. Building on this, integrating these runs
40 Alex Berger et al.
into game play situations and drills can further assist with the transfer of speed
to gameplay, e.g., strikers changing their running path.

Technical mastery
Technique is a critical aspect of running fast and doing it safely [50]. Building
timing, coordination and rhythm are key factors when it comes to adapting
sprinting speed to the chaos of game play. The drills used must replicate the key
technical elements of sprinting to ensure any crossover effect, already limited
due to lower movement velocities [41]. All the above can be achieved via techni
cal drills and constraint based running. Examples of technical drills include A & B
Skips/Pops/switch variations, straight leg bounds, and a mixture of all into runs/
bleeds. Constraint running can include the use of dowels/aqua bags overhead or
in front, integrated into technical drills, linear running, and curvilinear running.
Perhaps most common is the use of ‘wickets’ (cones or mini hurdles) to en
courage front side mechanics, specifcally cyclical heel recovery, limb exchange,
and direction of foot strike while also manipulating stride length and frequency.
For the young player, it is critical that these sub components of sprinting
performance are not rushed in the name of ‘transfer’. Build technical prof
ciency and training experience in the running patterns, plyometric, and strength
training foundations as per previous sections. One of the most effective ways of
programming maximum velocity and all its constituents is ‘Micro dosing’.

Microdosing
The realities of sport training are that sometimes dedicated 15–20 minute
speed blocks aren’t possible, so it is important to fnd strategies to circumvent
the issue; therefore, microdosing is a very effective strategy. The method con
sists of mini sessions that are high intensity, low volume, and done frequently. In
application to maximum velocity, including a maximum effort sprint at the end
of a warm up on two to three occasions throughout a training week is a great
way to maintain (and increase) robustness. This can also be done with technical
speed drills, non linear sprinting, and plyometrics, incorporating them as part
of a team warm up to not only prepare for training but to also reinforce key
sprinting constituents.

Change of direction
Change of direction (COD) drills can be effectively utilised in a warm up setting
both as session preparation or a training intervention. It is important to recog
nise that players are exposed to large volumes of direction change during tech
nical drills, team training and games [51]. For the early developing athlete, COD
should be trained via free play and games. For example: team evasion games,
Cat & Mouse, and 1 v 1 tag games. As players mature, COD training can begin
 From academy to professional 41
to capitalise on the dedicated learning of COD postures /positions, translating
into closed skill drills to help ingrain these patterns. As a closed skill, two of the
fundamental ways to train and improve change of direction are to manipulate
the entry velocity and the cutting angle. Both will increase the intensity of the
impact at the knee, hip, and ankle and have signifcant infuence over knee valgus
moments generated [52]. To progress COD drills, it is suggested to start with
slow entry velocity and gradually progress to fast entries (accelerations). Start
with small cutting angles and progressively increase the dimensions (Figure 2.9).
Ultimately, progressing from planned to unplanned with the inclusion of differ
ent auditory and visual stimuli to create a reactive component. The inclusion of
a reactive component for young players is of particular beneft in developing a
player’s cognitive ability to react to stimuli [53].

Ways to progress Y-drill

• Increase cutting angle – cone colour (Red = hardest), increase approach
distance and velocity consequently.
• Random call of ‘left’ or ‘right’, use person at black triangle to point in
direction, use person at black triangle to move in opposite direction.
• Add 2 more cones to the traditional drill, e.g., green and yellow. Then
add back pedals, additional cuts, or fgure 8s could be used in conjunc
tion with the reactive progressions above (Figure 2.8).
• Use combinations of the above with technical components, e.g., bounce
pass off player at black triangle.

High Hurdle Double Contact

High Hurdle Double Contact Lateral Jump
Lateral Jump

Figure 2.8 An example of exercise selection and how it relates to progression system.

1-10m approach 1-10m approach

Figure 2.9 Y drill progressions.

42 Alex Berger et al.
Conditioning
As aforementioned, younger academy players programmes (9–14 years) should
not contain specifc conditioning interventions, rather, developing qualities via
free play, games, team training, and variations. As players progress through the
ages and especially into the professional development phase, specifc condition
ing methods can be implemented to further support players in preparing for
the demands of the professional game. Such methods can include low intensity
steady state (time or distance based), maximum aerobic speed (MAS) and
tempo running (<75% Maximum velocity). In conjunction with such method
ologies, small sided games can begin to be manipulated via pitch size, playing
numbers, etc. to emphasise certain physical qualities and global positioning sys
tem (GPS) metrics. Governing any conditioning method should be knowledge of
work intervals and work:rest ratios. Figure 2.10 provides an outline of recom
mended durations and work:rest ratios for each energy system and its power
and capacity elements. Traditional on pitch ‘conditioning’ will focus on the aer
obic and glycolytic energy systems, while alactic conditioning is developed via
previously discussed qualities (power, speed, etc.). Different ratios will lead to
different adaptations; therefore, it is important that a specifc goal is thought
about prior to the programming of a session, be it small sided games or running
based conditioning.

Programming
The purpose of an academy athletic development programme is to create an
environment that provides talent with the best possible chance of progressing.
Programmes need to be adaptable and personalised to ensure players maximise
their athletic potential and avoid ‘survival of the fttest’. An academy benefts
from a more stable environment than that of a frst team, subsequently contact
time can be high.

System Duration Work: Rest

Alactate Power < 15 second 1:10+

Alactate Capacity < 15 seconds 1:3-4

Energy System
Development

Glycolitic Power 30-50 seconds 1:4-5

Glycolitic Capacity 1-1.5 minutes 1:3-4

Aerobic Power 1.5-3.5 minutes 1:1-0.5

Aerobic Capacity 4 minutes + 1:0.3

Figure 2.10 Energy system development guide.

 From academy to professional 43
With professional soccer getting faster, teams are playing more fxtures with
less breaks in the calendar to rest and recover [54]. Consequently, time for
athletic development can be limited with staff prioritising technical and tactical
sessions in preparation for games [55]. In addition, the life of a soccer player is
always changing, players may change clubs, affected by team selection, changes
in style of play or position. Therefore, it is vitally important to recognise their
time in the academy as precious and utilise it effectively. In addition, a pro
gramme needs to ensure players have a level of self awareness and autonomy to
be able to adjust their preparation, training, and recovery to their current sit
uation and thrive in any environment. Athletic development programmes need
to strike an appropriate balance between surrounding players with a safe space
to develop, whilst ensuring they can be comfortable with chaos and instability.

On-feld conditioning
Implementing training models which refect the environment that youth players
are attempting to join, such as the frst team, allow for an easier transition when
players are called upon. An academy environment will typically have a much
higher number of training sessions due to less competition demands, which pro
vides a great opportunity to isolate conditioning, and optimally develop energy
systems and position specifc conditioning. Players are exposed to a concurrent
training stimulus with on feld conditioning and off feld strength development.

Training models
There are many training models utilised at frst team level (see Chapter 10) in
cluding: 5 Day, 2 Game Week and Midweek Recovery. Including various models
on a regular basis in the academy setting helps ensure players are adaptable and
helps prepare them for their transition from academy to frst team or loan. It
is important to establish your training model based on development, environ
ment/culture, and realities of frst team soccer. There are various examples of
training models in an academy, such as the following.

• 5-Day Training Model: This model places the toughest training days
at the start of the week and reduces volume and intensity towards the
game. This works well in an academy setting as it provides the most training
opportunities for technical, tactical, and physical adaptation. Within this
model, players can be exposed to a high gym load Monday to Wednesday
with plenty of opportunities for additional physical sessions.
• 2-Game Week: It’s so important players are exposed to this model within
the academy system as players are frequently required to play games with
limited recovery. The two games should be separated by two to four days
and if competition demands don’t allow this to occur, it should be artif
cially replicated through 11v11 in training or the arranging of friendlies. This
training model is fantastic for conditioning and allows players to develop
their own recovery techniques to cope with these demands. However, it
44 Alex Berger et al.
does limit opportunities for physical development in other areas with the
focus switching to recovery. This is a really important point to emphasise
with young academy players. Once their careers begin in the adult game it
is unlikely, they will get another situation whereby they are exposed to so
many training opportunities to work on aspects of their game away from
the match.
• Midweek Recovery: This model separates the two toughest training ses
sion with a recovery day in between. It is a great alternative to the fve day
model and helps protect against training monotony. There is still ample
opportunity for physical development off the feld throughout the week
between Monday and Thursday. It also allows a mental down day midweek
for players to focus primarily on schooling.

Types of training days

Training needs to provide a suffcient stimulus to prepare players for the de
mands of the game. Practitioners should strive to achieve this through
soccer based practices wherever possible to support training specifcity.
However, isolated running practices do serve a purpose within the train
ing day as they allow a practitioner to target an energy system with more
specifcity. Isolated running drills are also a good opportunity to practise
correct running mechanics. Physical recommendations need to be fexible
enough to support the technical and tactical theme of the session outlined
by the technical coach. By providing coaches with an adaptable framework,
we can ensure players are exposed to all physical aspects of the game within
a training week and can ensure optimal physical development alongside their
progression as soccer players.
The physical themes below allow practitioners to provide training sessions
with a specifc emphasis but aren’t intended to act as a one size fts all ap
proach. For an in depth look at training days, see Chapter 10.

Intensive days
• High in accelerations & decelerations
• High intensity
• Shorter work periods
• Smaller spaces

Extensive days
• High in total distance
• High in high speed running and sprint distance
• Max velocity sprinting
• Longer work periods
• Larger spaces
 From academy to professional 45
Hybrid (intensive/extensive) days
• Combination of intensive/extensive principles
• Commonly performed four days out from match if middle day in week is
given off

Reactive speed days

• Quality over quantity approach
• Reduced high speed and sprint distance
• Work periods short
• If performed coming off a day off, this session can incorporate max velocity
sprinting exposure

Pre-match days
• Low total distance
• Non fatiguing reactive and potentiation physical work
• Work periods short

Second-day recovery (‘re-entry’) days (MD+2)

• Low intensive actions
• Adaptable day depending on individual recovery status
• Moderate work periods
• Small to medium spaces

Avoiding monotony
With a high number of training sessions, it’s imperative to avoid training mo
notony as this can lead to a plateau in athletic development and increased injury
risk. Strategies to mitigate against monotony include:

• Order of Session: Vary the placement of your most intense practices

within the session. The frst fve minutes of a game is often the most in
tense, so place intense periods at the start of training from time to time.
• Rest Periods: During a game, rest periods would only occur due to stop
pages in play and players are expected to play continuously for 45 min
utes. Consider rest periods both within and between practices to provide
variation.
• Training Models: Regularly include various training models. Where pos
sible, arrange fxtures mid week or replicate a 2 game week with a high
training stimulus.
• Time of Day: Vary training times between morning, afternoon, and
evening. This may also provide an opportunity to prescribe strength train
ing before training with less fatigue.
46 Alex Berger et al.
Creating the right environment
It is imperative to create an environment that supports the modern day player
and allows them to challenge themselves to maximise athletic potential. Finding
the appropriate balance between an enjoyable, sociable space where individuals
feel comfortable, whilst also aspiring to create a challenging environment for
players to grow. It’s important to start with non negotiables and ensure these
are clearly communicated and agreed. These will be specifc to your environ
ment but centre around respect for each other and the facility, appropriate
clothing and footwear, punctuality, and willingness to work.
To encourage healthy competition, simple additions such as large leader
boards are a great way to get players thinking about their efforts and is where
technology can make a huge difference. For example, provision of instantane
ous feedback when performing max velocity squat jumps has shown to support
athletes in maintaining a greater jump intensity throughout the training inter
vention. Subsequently they showed greater improvements in horizontal jump
and 30 m sprint performance [20].

Limitations and challenges

A player’s development pathway typically involves multifactorial challenges
caused by changes in different areas (i.e. athletic, psychological, psychoso
cial, and academic) which he or she needs to cope with in order to progress
[7, 16]. Simultaneously, players mature from childhood into adolescence into
adulthood; transitions that are characterised by accelerated changes in non
sport specifc areas such as social and cognitive functioning. Considering such
changes, it can be argued that the overall development process, in addition to
his or her soccer education, has a profound impact on both the player as well
as the individual. Therefore, the aim of this section is to highlight some of the
main concerns regarding the holistic development of young players that should
be addressed appropriately by practitioners and any stakeholders with a direct
involvement in player development.

Biological maturation and physical development

One of the biggest and most common challenges young players face early on in
their career are those linked to biological maturation and physical growth and
development. Ironically, while maturation is an individual biological process, it
is the environment that is created by others that often has the biggest impact
on the physical development of young players, which will ultimately shape their
formative years. Key concepts that should be acknowledged and considered
when designing a nurturing and effective development strategy include chron
ological age, biological age, and training age. Chronological age refers to the
exact age of a player at one moment in time relative to his or her date of birth.
A player’s biological age indicates the progress to a physically mature state,
 From academy to professional 47

Figure 2.11 Chronological (o), biological (●), and training age (□) of hypothetical U14s
players A, B, and C.

irrespective of chronological age, while training age refers to the number of

years that a player has been participating in structured and deliberate practice.
While they all represent an area specifc age, a linear relationship between all
three concepts cannot be assumed. Consequently, academy players within the
same squad who have a similar chronological age can vary signifcantly in terms
of biological and training age (Figure 2.11).
As is quite common in any other educational setting, academy players are
traditionally categorised into training groups according to their chronological
age. However, such categorisation may not always be the most suitable means
of classifying children and adolescents involved in competitive sports. Research
on the relative age effect has investigated the presence of signifcant anthropo
metric differences between players, following skewed birth date distributions
and meaningful chronological age differences within the same age groups [56].
However, when chronological age differences between players within the same
selection year are eliminated or deemed negligible, adolescents still grow and
mature at a different rate. Therefore, players of the same chronological age
can differ greatly in biological maturity, resulting in signifcant physical (dis)ad
vantages compared to their peers [57, 58]. Such a relative superior or inferior
physical capacity during developmental stages can have a massive impact on indi
vidual performance and selection [3, 59, 60]. Consequently, it could deny young
talents equal opportunities and quality attention, ultimately affecting their
chances to progress and maximise their potential. Moreover, a chronological
48 Alex Berger et al.
categorisation could present detrimental effects on physical ftness as players
within the same age group who differ in biological maturity are subject to the
same loads during generic team based training sessions, while potentially being
less robust to cope with imposed demands. This ultimately can result in an in
creased risk of injury. When available resources enable practitioners to do so,
they are urged to tailor training sessions to the needs of players as effectively as
possible to maximise soccer performance while mitigating the risk of injury [61].
As chronological age fails to represent a meaningful indication of physical
maturity, the assessment of biological age seems more appropriate when group
ing academy players in an organised competitive environment. Relative to their
chronological age, players can be either biologically ahead (early maturing), ‘on
time’ (average maturing) or behind their chronological age (late maturing). For
example, players A, B, and C are respectively early, average, and late maturing
(Figure 2.10). An effective approach that has been adopted extensively to assess
and track biological maturation is through regular anthropometric measure
ment [62]. A consistent collection of somatic data (i.e. stature, seated height,
leg length, and body mass) allows practitioners to identify and monitor sensitive
periods of accelerated growth by providing valuable estimates on the predicted
age of PHV and maturity offset (i.e. time prior to or following PHV) [63–65].
For example, by calculating maturity offset as a numerical value relative to a
player’s chronological age at the time of measurement, the age at which PHV
occurs can be determined as the difference between chronological age and
maturity offset (Figure 2.12). More recently, rather than using ‘maturity offset’
as a key variable, it has been argued that the application of a ‘maturity ratio’ (i.e.
chronological age relative to age at PHV) presents a more reliable and accurate
indicator of the non linear growth process [65].

Figure 2.12 Anthropometric measurement and calculation to determine predicted ma

turity offset and age at peak height velocity (PHV). S = stature, SH = seated
height, LL = leg length (= S SH), CA = chronological age, BM = body mass
(Adjusted equations for predicted maturity offset by Kozieł, S.M. and R.M.
Malina [64]
 From academy to professional 49
Identifying these periods is key when developing young talent, as it has been
evidenced that players approaching PHV are at an increased risk of developing
acute and chronic injuries [61, 62]. The time spent at PHV is often characterised
by an increased rate of bone growth disproportionate to muscle lengthening,
resulting in a phenomenon often referred to as ‘adolescent awkwardness’. Imbal
ances between bone growth and muscle lengthening can impede neuromuscular
function and cause structural damage [66, 67]. Muscular integrity is usually com
promised following the exposure of soft tissue to superior stress and repetitive
loads when participating in untailored performance driven sessions. Logically, the
most common injuries include muscle tears and ligament sprains (see Chapter 9).
Other overuse injuries can be attributed to reductions in the regulation of overall
body control, such as proprioception, fexibility, and stability [61].
Quantifying biological maturity will allow appropriate interventions to be
taken sooner rather than later. The overall volume and specifc content of train
ing for ‘at risk’ players (e.g. players within 6 months of their PHV, before or
after) should be monitored closely. Avoiding excessive loads and high explosive
actions will reduce the risk of injury, as sudden rapid and repetitive eccentric
contractions can cause severe strain on the tendons and ligaments of muscles
that are already ‘playing catch up’ with the growth rate of a developing body. In
addition to a reduction in cumulative training load, special attention to re op
timise technical movement patterns and to enhance mobility and strength to
facilitate neuromuscular function and control is recommended. While propor
tionally less time is usually allocated to strength training, this might be the per
fect window to increase the volume and time spent in the gym. To answer the
need for a more maturity appropriate environment on the pitch, bio banding
has become an established approach in academy soccer in recent years [68,
69]. The concept of bio banding focuses on grouping players during training
and games based on physical attributes associated with their individual growth
and maturation, rather than chronological age. From a physical development
perspective, bio banding can enable players to engage in a challenging and com
petitive format with their similar mature peers, while avoiding regular exposure
to superior physical demands they are not ready to cope with yet, allowing an
appropriate and undisrupted growth process.
Like biological age, training age can vary amongst players within the same
squad. Someone with a greater training age is more able to cope with an in
creased complexity of training compared to someone of a lower training age.
Therefore, practitioners need to consider both biological and training age when
planning and designing training programmes and aim to tailor their sessions to
the signifcant differences and needs of players, to maximise development and
performance while mitigating the risk of injury and increasing player availability.

Education
School and soccer can clash with increased regularity as young players pro
gress through the development stages, most commonly due to ineffcient time
50 Alex Berger et al.
management or conficts of interests. Therefore, understanding the role of ed
ucation and the way it can be presented and experienced is crucial in fnding
an appropriate balance that offers the best of both. It is important to note that
schools and soccer clubs are both educational institutes. Soccer academies are
in fact soccer schools where players are students. As such, both offer a high
level of interaction with educators and exposure to a social environment that
is characterised by a wide variety of age groups, personalities, and sociocultural
backgrounds. All these factors shape psychosocial development. While schools
initially focus on general knowledge and academic performance to prepare stu
dents for a professional career that could span a lifetime, soccer academies
target an education in a very specifc industry where athletic performance is
key for survival in a career that could just span up to 15 years. Taking these
considerations into account, clubs and their academies are urged to encourage
and support school education while also nurturing and fuelling the passion for
soccer, regardless of where the player’s initial priorities may lie.
Considering the low retention rate in soccer due to drop out or deselection –
only 0.5% of the number of registered youth players worldwide are listed as
professional soccer players – it is in everybody’s best interest that the quality
of both development plans is of the highest level [70]. Only when a balanced
collaboration in terms of time and educational content is achieved, will all three
stakeholders (player, school, and academy) beneft the most. Some great initia
tives that offer an effective school soccer balance include performance schools.
Talented young players are enrolled in (online) educational programmes which
are aimed to give them the opportunity of suffcient daily soccer practice within
an academic environment without having to sacrifce valuable school time. An
other example are partnerships between schools and academies where tutors
are deployed to improve the student athlete’s study time and increase individ
ual attention.
More and more clubs are acknowledging their role as an educational institute,
by intensifying their investment in coach and player education that specifcally
focuses on soccer specifc topics to maximise development and performance.
Coach education through courses aimed at continuous professional develop
ment (CPD) should be a key pillar in the development strategy driven by any
club/academy management. Given the amount of overall contact time they
have with players, coaches are often in the best possible position to deliver
soccer relevant interventions and reinforce key messages that promote learning
and maximise functional capacity and cognitive development. Creating better
coaches leads to better mentoring, which leads to better player development.
While many opportunities for CPD are already offered externally by national
federations and governing bodies, clubs should look to provide their coaches
with as much support as possible, either by organising quality educational inter
ventions themselves, or by funding courses outside of the club. Player education
in key areas such as training principles, lifestyle, recovery, nutrition, and sleep
will help players develop valuable attributes such as increased self awareness
and the ability to make informed decisions autonomously. Most importantly, it
 From academy to professional 51
will empower them to take ownership and responsibility for their own career as
a soccer player. Considering the time players spend away from the club and the
abundancy of factors with an immediate impact on performance, lifestyle train
ing is a key development area that offers insights on how players can develop
good habits and build an effective daily routine, to support optimal short and
long term performance levels. It is important that internal education courses
are given with consistent regularity (e.g. monthly presentations, workshops,
etc.) and that these emphasise the meaning and consequences of training and
lifestyle principles (i.e. understanding the ‘why’ and ‘how’) rather than on prac
ticing the principles themselves (i.e. knowing the ‘what’) to increase compe
tence and to avoid nurturing a dependency culture.

Psychological wellbeing and performance mindset

From an early age, young players typically show high motivation levels to play
soccer, which in addition to genuine passion for the game ties into a strong
sense of belonging. Common risks that can have an impact on motivation in
clude deselection following a performance driven philosophy, bullying, and in
juries. Failure and/or pressure to perform can further increase insecurity and
harm an already fragile state of mind. Players who fail to successfully cope with
such experiences will eventually drop out of the club and potentially the sport,
as they have lost all desire to continue to pursue a career in soccer. To prevent
such outcomes, investing in a long term strategy of handing players effective
coping mechanisms and thus building mentally resilient players should be a key
priority for academies. Following an increased awareness to safeguard and pro
mote psychological wellbeing, practitioners should strive to ensure an academy
environment that always protects principles such as respect and equality re
gardless of personality, ability, and background. Additionally, a mental health
offcer and sports psychologists can be appointed to further maximise mental
support.
One contemporary threat that seems to present itself with increased regu
larity among gifted young players is a lack of relentless determination. One of
the main barriers between academy teams and a frst team is the consistency
in performance output. Being the best for one day is insignifcant to being the
best every day. While moving up through the age groups, youth players try to
mimic and mirror themselves to senior players as much as possible in terms
of behaviour and style of playing. However, a potential turning point in their
development occurs when they start focusing more on the perceived benefts
of being a frst team player, rather than on the sacrifces that are required to
make the frst team in the frst place. This misconception breads a potential
mismatch between their expectations and their reality: they confuse what they
believe the life of a player is like (e.g. the minute proportion of a player’s life
that appears on television and social media) for what a player needs to do (i.e.
adopt a full time performance lifestyle and mindset). Unfortunately, in some
cases, this mismatch is intensifed by the increased support (e.g. better facilities
52 Alex Berger et al.
and equipment, and improved contracts) and attention players are given (e.g.
media exposure and player agents) while progressing through the ranks.
This has the potential to create an unrealistic perception of their own status
and an inappropriate sense of entitlement that is toxic for the team culture
and their own development. As a result, some senior talents develop a lack
of urgency to prove themselves, consequently failing to deliver consistent
high level performances and denying themselves the opportunity to bridge
the gap between academy and senior soccer. While a lack of intrinsic moti
vation will never lead to a durable career, practitioners are urged to inspire
rather than motivate their players, by leading by example and reinforcing the
message that talent will only get a player in the club, whereas consistency
will get a player in the team. Additionally, media training and mentoring
programmes linking senior players to academy talents, to increase a sense
of awareness and reality, might be effective strategies in installing a perfor
mance mindset.

Conclusion
Developing the modern day professional soccer player requires deep under
standing of the phases of development, as well as the key physical qualities
required to excel at professional level. Practitioners must be aware of the
various challenges players will experience along the way including maturation,
psychological wellbeing, and balancing education. Putting it all together from a
programming perspective is key to the long term athletic development of each
player in the developmental pathway. Finally, ensuring that developing players
goes beyond just the feld and gym, as overall development as a person will help
them pre, during, and post career as a professional soccer player.

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3 Needs analysis and testing
Jarred Marsh, Alex Calder, Jordan Stewart-Mackie
and Martin Buchheit

Overview of testing
Systematic testing of human physiology has been used for decades to deter
mine the physical state of athletes and their readiness to train or compete in
their chosen sport. Historically, the pursuit of understanding how our bodies
function under exercise began in the early 1900s when Nobel Prize winner
and experimentalist August Krogh began investigating the active role of cap
illaries during muscle contraction and exercise [1]. Similarly, published work
assessed muscle activity and running performance to determine the secrets
behind elite runners’ success [2, 3]. However, while the early work has been
criticised almost 90 years later [4], the research of these early pioneers cre
ated a need to understand the physiology of the human body and its response
to exercise.
Over the next ten decades, investigation of the human physiology and phys
ical capacities has evolved signifcantly. From early analysis of anaerobic work
and recovery [5], predicting VO2max through the Beep test [6], and Yo Yo test
[7], to most recently the development of the 30 15 Intermittent Fitness test
(30 15IFT ) [8]. As our understanding of physiology, and our response to exer
cises, evolve, so too must the exercise tests that are designed to determine
our physical state. While many of these early testing protocols were originally
designed to assess members of the general population, the desire to improve
physical performance in professional athletes has created the need for more
sport specifc testing procedures. It is through these procedures that we can
develop performance baselines for our athletes and teams.
Developing the performance baselines of athletes allows practitioners and
coaches alike to more accurately prescribe training programmes to develop
major physiological qualities. However, it is important to determine what test
ing procedures can and should be used, and which key areas should be assessed
within the testing and training environment.

Performance, monitoring, and injury risk

Understanding the principal role of physical testing is important when outlining
the best practical approach. Historically, the testing procedures have evaluated

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200420 3
58 Jarred Marsh et al.
players’ physical ftness through assessing isolated physiological categories, such
as aerobic capacity, strength, agility, speed, and power. Traditionally, coaching
staffs would assess how effective players were within isolated tests, and, in turn,
use this performance data to establish individual performance benchmarks and
tailor training programmes.
However, with the advancement in sport science and medical assessments,
these tests have evolved to evaluate both performance and injury risk [9]. Un
derstanding the individual player’s capacity can also highlight their physical limi
tations at that stage of the training programme. For example, if a player scores
lower on the preseason Yo Yo IR2 test, than the mean value for the squad,
should they train differently? If so, should they train more or less than the rest
of the squad for the preseason period? Lower physical capacity might reveal that
the player is unable to compete at the same level as their teammates and there
fore will need to be managed until their capacity improves. In the same manner,
a player who presents a signifcant asymmetry or imbalance in various tests can
potentially have an increased risk of injury [10]. This should be considered when
planning the individual training load.
Through assessing training load, we can determine an individual player’s read
iness to train. This refers to a player’s current physical state and is used to
determine their training load for the upcoming session. Assessment procedures
and measurements such as Counter Movement Jump (CMJ) height, wellness
questionnaires, hamstring and adductor strength, and biomarkers such as heart
rate variability, IgA, and cortisol can all show an athlete’s level of residual fatigue
and their readiness to train [11–14]. These testing data can allow coaches and
practitioners to make more informed decisions around training sessions and
individual player involvement.

Preseason testing
Historically, teams have opened their preseason training period with physi
cal testing. While competition calendars vary across the globe, most teams
would generally have a minimum two to four week ‘off season’ where players
would be able to rest and regenerate physically and mentally. Players are
often issued with training programmes to complete on their own in a bid to
stay ready for the upcoming preseason training period. Some players could
potentially hire practitioners within their respected club, or more commonly,
consult externally to coach them through their off season period. However,
with more competitive games being scheduled (i.e. international duty, cup
games, tours, etc.), into an already congested calendar, the off season period
inherently becoming shorter. Players may then choose to rest completely in
a bid to avoid burnout [15]. As a result of undertraining, players may return
to preseason training in a detrained state and, therefore, have an increased
risk of injury [16]. Additionally, coaches and practitioners need to investigate
whether it is safe to conduct testing on the frst day of training or spread
the testing procedure out over different periods of the pre season phase.
 Needs analysis and testing 59
Specifcally, scheduling testing across the frst few weeks of the preseason
period allows players to get back into training frst and build some chronic
load (tolerance), prior to maximum testing.

When to test
Spreading testing protocols across the pre season poses a dilemma to a
technical team. The coaching and performance staff will be eager to know
the physical state of the players, in order to appropriately design and im
plement training prescriptions in the short preparation period prior to the
commencement of the season. By performing submaximal testing and screen
ing on the frst day of pre season (e.g. anthropometrics, submaximal aerobic
assessment, etc.), the performance staff are able to determine some baseline
data while identifying and addressing injury risk. Furthermore, conducting
ftness and strength and power tests that require maximal effort may aid
practitioners in initial prescriptions. Conducting maximal ftness tests, such
as the Yo Yo and repeat sprint ability tests, give practitioners knowledge of
specifc cardiovascular and muscular capabilities of the players [17, 18]. There
fore, early knowledge of maximal output tests can help practitioners gather
insight to individual players’ maximal thresholds, such as maximum heart rate
(HRmax), maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), and maximum velocity (Vmax).
With maximum thresholds, specifc prescriptions can be put in place (based
of a percentage of the maximum output), to enhance likelihood of desired
adaptations. Similarly, conducting maximal strength tests can also help practi
tioners prescribe exercise variables via percentages of their 1 repetition max
(%1RM). Practitioners will be able to effectively programme throughout the
entirety of the pre season phase with early knowledge of submaximal and
maximal testing protocols. However, conducting a battery of tests within the
frst week of pre season has its limitations.
Delaying the commencement of pre season tests that require maximum
efforts from players provides many benefts in the long term. The above
mentioned maximal tests, such as the Yo Yo and repeat spring ability tests, of
fer many useful pieces of data, however, need to be scheduled with caution. As
mentioned previously, scheduling maximally demanding tests on within the frst
week of pre season comes with potential risks, due to the unknown ftness sta
tus of players post off season. For instance, a lack of off season training compli
ance could result in players arriving to the frst day of pre season in a detrained
state. As an example, exposing players to maximum outputs, such as Vmax,
without the presence of a high chronic workload (accumulated sprint distance
over four weeks), could increase the risk of injury [19]. Thus, maximum testing
procedures need to be scheduled with consideration to players’ training and in
jury history, as well as the proposed pre season loads and objectives. While this
process may seem drawn out, allowing more time for testing reinforces player
safety by reducing injury risk, thereby enhancing player availability at a key stage
in the preparation period. While maximal output testing can still take place in
60 Jarred Marsh et al.
the pre season, it is recommended that submaximal demanding tests are com
pleted frst, with adequate time for players to adapt to the initial pre season
training stimulus prior to the remainder of the testing battery.

Testing for injury risk

Another important aspect is the ability to interpret data to establish individual
injury baselines. Inevitably, players may sustain injuries or illness throughout
the season and these baseline data is used as a guideline to help the medical
and performance staff build the conditioning of the player back to their pre
injury baseline values (see Chapter 9). These data will also help practitioners in
accurately determining the ftness status of players through the season. The
performance staff should plan for retesting periodically throughout the season.
It is important to use the initial baseline data as a starting point in building the
players’ physical capacity and robustness over the coming months. Assessing
the players’ progress from this initial baseline will determine the success of
the strength and conditioning programme and need for potential adjustments,
should the players not achieve the desired outcomes. The performance staff will
need to determine the most appropriate time to retest the team. For example,
certain tests may warrant weekly monitoring (assessing anthropometrics and
readiness to train), six week intervals (i.e., post preseason), or three month
intervals (i.e. quarterly). There are, of course, different aspects to consider
when scheduling the testing procedures, as not all tests need to be conducted
in the same period. However, targeting the correct physical testing process at
the right time is integral in achieving the desired outcome and actionable data.

Performance tests

The approach
Once establishing the needs analysis of the cohort, positions and individuals,
practitioners can make clear judgment in test exercise selection. It is important
to approach the test exercise selection with a systematic process (Figure 3.1).
As aforementioned, practitioners need to carefully select testing protocols that
are measurable and that can appropriately transfer to the performance of the
team. Hence, outlining the overall objective of the exercise chosen to test. For
example, practitioners should ask the following questions;

– Why are we conducting this test?

– What are the metrics being collected and what does that mean for perfor
mance and/or injury risk?

Practitioners should understand the validity and reliability of the chosen tests,
to ensure accurate data collection is taken place. Allowing the same practition
er(s) to conduct allocated testing exercises increases the likelihood of validity,
 Needs analysis and testing 61

Define objective

Choose appropriate
Refine process
methods

Select valid/reliable
Evaluate outcomes materials and
equipment

Assign personnel
Implement
roles and
instructions
responsibilities

Figure 3.1 A systematic approach to solving problems and questions within a perfor
mance department of an elite soccer organisation.

via a decrease in user error. However, the department should all be observant
of the implementation, in the circumstance that someone else must conduct
the testing protocol. Furthermore, practitioners should feel confdent that the
interpretation of the results is concise, allowing for appropriate delivery to
coaching staff and other stakeholders. Developing a testing battery that is valid,
reliable, and re testable allows practitioners to effectively analyse the results,
but more importantly, prescribe appropriate interventions. The ability to re
test, with similar (if not, same) environments and procedures, re affrms practi
tioners of the effectiveness of their training prescriptions.

The parameters
Fundamental principles of testing performance parameters should refect fve
key components:

Relevant | reliability | representative | real | relatable

All these components will dictate the level of specifcity and sensitivity a test has
and how conducive that test is to determine what matters.
62 Jarred Marsh et al.

Low High
Sensititvity Specificity

High Low
Sensitivity Specificity

Figure 3.2 The sensitivity specifcity quadrant.

Specifcity and sensitivity are inversely proportional which means the higher
the level of specifcity a test has the less sensitivity a test will have and vice
versa (Figure 3.2). As a prerequisite of a testing battery design, we must have
a clear understand of where each test chosen lies on the range of specifcity
and sensitivity.
Understanding how test sensitivity can be affected over time will be an impor
tant consideration for practitioners to ensure testing protocols are optimised
to meet the objective outcomes. Multiple factors such as training periodisation,
training status, and maturational infuences will impact the sensitivity to detect
meaningful changes in testing parameters. Understanding the sensitivity ele
ment of a test may infuence how practitioners choose to utilise different tests
throughout different stage of a calendar year.
Some tests may provide high levels of effciency during pre season, as op
posed to in season and, as a result, practitioners may choose to select tests that
have varied levels of sensitivity to detect changes overtime.
The reliability of the numbers produced represents the ability to provide
similar outcomes from day to day without any external interventions. Under
standing the importance of maintaining some level of control of variables, when
testing within a high fuid environment, is essential. In the elite soccer environ
ment, not everything can be controlled to meet the standards of best practice.
However, we must strive to deliver the highest degree of reliability by con
trolling the controllable that can minimise variability within our testing environ
ment. The quality and accuracy of sport performance testing will always carry
some level of instability, due to the condition in which testing data is obtained.
If we as practitioners can ensure the conditions remain somewhat similar, even
within a highly fuid environment, data provided will still be informative and
applicable relative to the specifc environment.
The accuracy and reproducibility of a testing battery will be dependent on
the level of competence the practitioner has in conducting, analysing, and ex
trapolating testing data. The consistency and quality of the testing data is only
 Needs analysis and testing 63
as good as the practitioner performing the tests and therefore its importance
to consider the feasibility of delivering certain tests based on staffng technical
competencies and experience. There are also a number of limiting factors in
reproducibility and accuracy tests based on the athletes themselves. Athletes
training age, gender, training status all can affect both the reproducibility and
accuracy of testing data.
The reporting and visualisation of testing data will ultimately be highly
varied across organisations, based on the processes and systems in place. The
key piece in dissemination information is clarity and consistency of data and
output. Streamlining players’ performance profling and benchmarks into readily
accessible and user friendly constructs will facilitate more effective discussions
on how the data can infuence training inventions and periodisation models.
Developing a testing battery with performance markers with target objec
tives should not only optimise transfer from training to game performance but
also help gain ‘buy in’ from players and coaching staff. Performance markers that
have great relevance to specifc soccer actions will facilitate engagement and
understanding from the key stakeholders.

Test exercise selection

When investigating specifc physical parameters, test exercise selection is in
tegral. Each test will present different data which should be used to develop a
baseline data set for the individual player. The results will also illustrate their
comparison to the rest of the squad, comparison to their positional group,
the potential risk of injury, and current physical progression. Consideration
for timing and specifcity of tests is vital. Some examples of various testing
categories are below.

• Anthropometric Profle [20]

• Isokinetic Testing [21]
• Muscular Strength [22]
• Power Output [22]
• Change of Direction [23]
• Blood Markers [24]
• Speed Testing [22, 25]
• Repeat Sprint Ability [18, 26]
• Submaximal Aerobic Capacity [24]
• Maximal Aerobic Capacity [27, 28]

The testing procedure, test exercise selection, and coordination of which of

the players will be involved in testing needs to be carefully planned. It is also
advisable to take into consideration which tests result in altered/greater vari
ance or reliability during any given time of the season. Hence, the importance
for scheduling and execution of tests in relation to the periodisation model.
Discussion within the performance and medical departments is paramount to
64 Jarred Marsh et al.
ensure the overall training process is not affected, as well as all players being
cleared to participate.
To determine the individual targets for these tests, practitioners must un
derstand the physical demands for each player. There is a myriad of factors that
can determine what the general target for the squad should be, such as league
match demands and the club’s desired playing style. However, there are also
individual targets that we should aim for, such as position requirements and
individual player characteristics, such as age and injury history.

Needs analysis
The game of soccer has evolved signifcantly at its highest levels, and the phys
ical and technical demands of professional football matches have increased
dramatically [29–31]. Between 2006/2007 and 2012/2013, there was a signif
cant increase in high intensity running outputs during matches of the English
Premier League. Comparing the 2012/2013 season to the 2006/2007 seasons,
positions ranged anywhere between 24% and 36% increase in high intensity
running distances. The greatest differences were identifed in defenders (cen
tral and full backs) and central midfelders, with a range of 30%–36% increases
[30, 31]. Furthermore, other explosive outputs, such as sprint distances in
creased ~50% between the 2006/2007 and 2012/2013 seasons, with full backs
illustrated the greatest observation with a 64% increase [30, 31]. Although the
physical outputs of the sport have shown increases, so have some technical
elements. In both World Cup fnal, and English Premier League matches, in
creases in the number of passes were observed [29–31]. It has been indicated
that these trends may have been due to the enhanced physical preparation
(resulting in improved physical capacities), as well as players entering the top
divisions of soccer with higher levels of physical ftness [31]. Thus, with the
speed and technical demands of the game increasing yearly, the testing battery
should be designed around enhancing players’ physical attributes to meet the
needs of the sport.
With the subsequent increase in match intensity and inherent physical de
mands, there has also been some fuctuation in the rate of non contact inju
ries. Although hamstring injuries have increased at a rate of roughly 4% over a
13 year period of European soccer seasons (2001–2014) [32], a further investi
gation was made and suggested that overall injury rates in European soccer has
decreased slightly [33]. However, these fndings specifcally highlight a decrease
in ligament injury rate and re injury rate, whereas no decrease was noted in
muscle injuries [33]. Therefore, it was suggested that injury rate reduction
strategies may be effective given the understanding of how the modern game
is played.
With the increase in the number of sprints being performed, there is an
inherent risk to the hamstring muscle [34]. Historically, muscle and tendon
injuries are the most common type of injury [35] (see Chapter 9). Specifcally,
 Needs analysis and testing 65
the thigh is the most common injury site in soccer [36–38], of which the ham
string has been the most common injury site [35, 36, 39–41]. Understanding
the relationship between high speed running volumes and the injury risk in
the hamstring muscle group creates the need for practitioners to evaluate the
variety of testing protocols for posterior chain tolerance [42, 43]. Thus, the
increased physical demand is directly linked to increased risk of injury. Practi
tioners should include tests that evaluate both high speed running demands as
well as localised injury risk in elite soccer.
With an identifed physical evolution of soccer, establishing match demands
that are specifc to our respective leagues is important. The physical require
ments of various national leagues, around the globe, vary dramatically. The
technical, tactical, and physical aspects of each league, along with the character
type of the players involved, all have an impact on the match demands of each
league [44]. For example, the English Premier League is renowned for being one
of the most physically demanding leagues in the world [44]. The playing style in
English soccer is one of taller, more physically robust players who can dominate
the ball at high match speeds, resulting in a fast paced, aggressive competition.
On the contrary, the Spanish leagues are classifed by players who control the
game through individual technical quality and more ball possession [44]. How
ever, players in some African leagues generally may not be as technically astute
as their European counterparts due to the lack of grassroots development, but
are more mobile and possess more speed and power [45, 46]. This may create a
faster, more transition based style of play due to possession being turned over
more frequently.
Each league around the world will have differences in the overall style of play.
This will have an impact on the game model of the teams’ managers, which, in
turn, will have an impact on the physical demands of the players in the teams.
Each playing position has specifc physical demands, that are infuenced by var
ious facets, such as tactical formation [47, 48]. For example, manager A may
want to play a 4 3 3 system with his full backs advancing high up the pitch in
the build up phase to support attacks. The head coach/manager may also want
them to recover at speed back to their defensive shape during a defensive
transition. This circumstance would require the full backs to have a strong
aerobic capacity to recover quickly, as well as formidable speed endurance to
be effective on multiple transitions [48]. Conversely, manager B may play with a
4 2 3 1 formation with his team playing a lone striker and a high line press. This
situation would require the striker to be able to make repetitive, short sprints
to squeeze the opposition defenders and force them to concede possession or
play a long pass.

Categories and rationale

A manager or club’s playing philosophy and game model will ultimately dictate
the physical qualities that will need to be trained (see Chapter 11). Once we
66 Jarred Marsh et al.

• Team needs
Position • Injury history
• Style of play • Tactical • Physical
• Game model formation capacities
• Style of play • Anthropometry

Cohort Individual

Figure 3.3 Testing categories with associated infuential attributes.

understand the physical demands of the game model, we can break the testing
categories down into the following sub groups:

• Cohort
• Position
• Individual Player

Cohort
The cohort or group testing should address the needs of the sport, organi
sation and group, ftted to the environment (Figure 3.3). Within the cohort,
the players can be categorised into more medium sized, positional groups –
Goalkeepers, Defenders, Midfelders, and Attackers. Positional categorisation
will aid practitioners in programming specifc test exercises for the demands of
each group. To understand the Cohort testing procedure, practitioners need to
align with the physical requirements of the game model set out by the manager
and/or club (see Chapter 11). For example, Manager B may want to play with a
four man defensive line who are both physically strong in both aerial duels and
one on one defensive situations. As a result, it would be important for the de
fensive cohort to perform maximal strength testing to determine their baseline
values. It is important to note, that in this above mentioned scenario, it is not
suggested that the defensive cohort be the only group subjected to a specifc
type of testing. More so, the suggestion is made that given the style of play
taken into account, some performance benchmarks should be set for different
cohorts within the organisation, based on the club/manager’s game model.

Positional
In the same manner, the cohort can be broken down into position specifc
testing. Using the above mentioned example, Manager A wants to use his
 Needs analysis and testing 67
full backs in both attack and defence, requiring them to excel in multiple
physical attributes. These players will not be assessed in the same manner
as a centre back or defensive midfelder, as they will potentially result in less
total distance or high speed running (HSR) distances covered compared to
the full backs, during match play. Therefore, allowing practitioners to com
pare the data collected in terms of positional group targets and the group
mean values.

Individual
Finally, testing should take individual traits and attributes into account when
allocating variables and testing protocols. There are a number of key consider
ations when assessing the player in isolation and comparing them to the team
or their position. Firstly, it is important to know the physiological status of
the player and what may limit their testing performance or participation in the
testing. A player’s age can have an important impact on their ability to produce
speed or power [49, 50]. Older age can also pose a non modifable injury risk,
specifcally for the hamstring group in elite soccer players [51, 52]. An older
player, though potentially technically and tactically well versed, may not be able
to reach their previous best in a variety of performance based tests, such as
repeat sprint ability [50, 53]. In a similar manner, a younger player may not be
able to produce power due to the maturation process [54, 55] (see Chapter 2).
Genetics and ethnicity may also have a similar impact on the anthropometric
profle of a player. As such, we need to look at the player in isolation (age, ge
netics, ethnicity, etc.), and compare them to their own previous testing data to
assess them effectively [56].
Knowing a player’s training history is necessary for practitioners to apply
effective and safe prescriptions. Players may be acquired by the club in transfer
windows or have via free agency prior to joining the team. Incoming players
may have recently been exposed to adequate training stimulus or, conversely,
neglected training due to a variety of reasons. Therefore, practitioners should
prescribe with caution, as neglecting training history information, could place
the player at a higher risk of re injury and result in poor testing data. On the
contrary, players arriving to new clubs with a desired training history allow for
practitioners to accurately allocate a testing battery and immediately prescribe
a progressive training stimulus. In any scenario, it is highly suggested that prac
titioners carefully assess players’ training history prior to prescribing testing
protocols (Figure 3.4).
Lastly, when assessing an academy player who has recently been promoted,
they may not excel in the testing battery, compared to the senior members
of the team. While academy/youth player may be accustomed to the testing
procedure, they may not produce the same results due to maturity, strength
defcits or mental stress caused by moving into the new environment. Having
a database of the testing data from their time in the academy will be a bet
ter reference point than older, more experienced players in their position.
68 Jarred Marsh et al.

• Sprinting
• Jogging
• Kicking
• Change of direction (COD)
• Balance
• Lower-limb co-ordination
Cohort • Jumping
• Injury trends of soccer

• Reactive agility
• COD at high speeds
• Accelerations
• Hand-eye co-ordination (Goalkeeper)
• Energy systems capacities
Positional

• Risk of injury (based on injury history)

• Dominant muscles used
• Concussion risks
• Movement evaluation
Individual

Figure 3.4 Needs analysis based on the groups: cohort, positional, and individual.

Therefore, it is imperative that practitioners working within an academy en

vironment align testing procedures with the frst team to allow for an easier
transition when players are called upon.

Limitations
As the quest for greater understanding of how to make athletes perform better
grows, so too does our assessment and criticism of previous ‘common prac
tices’. As many of the common understandings of physiology, such as VO2max
and plateau, have been criticised, so have many feld based ftness tests [4, 57].
Specifcally, it was suggested that the Modifed 505 (M505) test and Change
of Direction Defcit (CODD) have limited practicality in assessing the change
of direction ability in youth footballers [25]. Further research has challenged
change of direction assessments, as movements are seen as pre planned, and
 Needs analysis and testing 69
not taking sport specifc movements into consideration [58]. Investigators also
found that Beep test performance can signifcantly be affected by only 30 min
utes of cognitive work, questioning it’s true validity [59]. In relation to soccer,
testing batteries have been challenged due to its lack of transference to actual
technical performance on the pitch [60]. Instead, practitioners should be as
sessing physical qualities that will have relevance in a training setting and provide
the coaching and performance staff with informative data to help improve over
all performance of the team.
Ultimately, the how, what, when, and why of testing needs to be a col
lective decision, made by the coaching and performance staff. Practitioners’
understanding of players, the characteristics of their respective league, and
desired match model, will provide a clear understanding of the physical test
ing processes.

Types of tests
The types of tests can be broken down in a variety of ways. In the attempt to
simplify the rationale for exercise selection, the testing protocols can be cat
egorised by objective and group (Figure 3.5). The categories that tests will be
identifed in this chapter as either injury risk or performance tests. Further
more, the groups for categorisation are as aforementioned: cohort, positional,
and individual.

Cohort
Whilst is seems evident that soccer is an aerobic dominant sport, there is a
great emphasis on testing the aerobic capacity to develop a physiological profle
(Figure 3.6) [61, 62]. However, during the early 1990s, researchers identifed
the need to test players’ endurance performance via intermittent exercise pro
tocols [63]. The overall objective of testing endurance performance in soc
cer players it to measure individuals’ VO2max in a feld based setting. The gold
standard of VO2max measurements is obtained via a laboratory, however, in an

Injury Risk Performance-based

• Assessing individual risk of injury • Often established in pre-season as

• Often localised muscle groups baselines
• Can include subjective outlooks • Performance markers are set as
• IE assessing postural dysfunction goals for objective
in movement screens • Should relate to locomotive
behaviour on field

Figure 3.5 Types of tests based on the objective. Injury risk tests assess the likelihood
of injury risk within a player. Performance based tests assess output related
qualities of a player.
70 Jarred Marsh et al.

Injury risk
• Hamstring group
• Adductors
Performance
• Energy systems capacity

Figure 3.6 Cohort considerations when selecting tests from the outlined objectives:
injury risk and performance based tests.

Injury risk Nordic force

Adductor squeeze

Various hand-held
dynamometer
Performance Aerobic capacity fitness test Yo-Yo

30-15

Beep tests

Time trials

Figure 3.7 Examples of tests with cohort related benchmarks.

elite soccer environment, this procedure is not feasible. Therefore, a variety of

feld based intermittent tests were introduced, including the Beep test, Yo Yo
test, and 30 15IFT (Figure 3.7) [6, 8, 17, 57, 63].
After decades of applying the Yo Yo intermittent tests, researchers were
able to collate the results and establish differences between sports and levels
of competition [17, 64]. Thus, creating some overarching, cohort performance
benchmarks for practitioners. Similarly, a variety of ‘Beep tests’ were applied,
with the same objective, to differentiate results between levels of competi
tion [65]. The most common versions of the ‘Beep tests’ are the Maximum
Multistage 20m Shuttle Run Test (MMSRT) and the Interval Shuttle Run Test
(ISRT), both resulting in a predicted VO2max for individuals [65]. Recently, the
30 15IFT has been popularised in a team based setting to obtain individuals’
VO2max [66]. Likewise, with the Yo Yo and ‘Beep test’ variations, the 30 15IFT
shows to be valid and applicable in a team setting environment with estab
lished benchmarks for a variety of sports [8, 57, 67]. Although the Yo Yo,
3015IFT, and ‘Beep test’ variations are effective for collecting various ftness
markers from players, simple time trials can be prescribed to obtain maximum
aerobic speeds (MAS) [28]. Specifcally, time trails for any distance between
 Needs analysis and testing 71
1200 and 2200 m has indicated to be effective in a team setting [68]. Applying
a fve, six, or seven minute time trial is a simple and quick method to obtain
individual MAS results in a team environment. Additionally, the reproducibility
of simple time trials is high. Furthermore, normative data for MAS results,
across a variety of sports and levels of competition, is readily available in
current literature [69]. Therefore, time trial tests may be more appealing to
those practitioners with lack of time and/or resources. Without exhausting
the test exercise selection process for practitioners, the main identifed co
hort (team based) testing protocols to date are the Yo Yo variations, ‘Beep
test’ variations, various time trials, and the 30 15IFT. The determining factor
for practitioners during the selection process is purely dependent on their
environment and organisation’s objectives.
In terms of testing for injury risk in elite soccer, it is evident that the num
ber one injury site is the hamstring group [32, 33]. Therefore, it is imperative
to test localised hamstring strength on a team level. Research indicated that
elite soccer players illustrating below 337N of eccentric knee fexor force (via
the NordBord) are at a signifcantly greater risk of hamstring injury [70]. Ad
ditionally, the same notion applies to the adductor muscle group. Research
concluded that a hip abduction imbalance favouring the preferred kicking limb,
along with high levels of hip adductor and abductor strength (measured in
pre season) signifcantly reduce the risk of hip/groin strains [71]. Similar to as
sessing knee fexor strength outputs, practitioners should assess adductor and
abductor force outputs and establish desired thresholds based on the norms
outlined in current literature [72].

Positional
Additional tests, outside the well established feld based protocols, can be im
plemented with the desired outcomes altered based on the positional groups
(Figure 3.8). As identifed decades ago, positional roles have different work

Injury risk
• Goalkeeper - Shoulders, upper limbs, adductors
• Defenders - Head, Adductors
• Midfielders - Adductors, Quadiceps, Hamstrings
• Attackers - Hamstrings, Adductors
Performance
• Goalkeeper - Vertical power output
• Defenders - Power output
• Midfielders - Aerobic capacities
• Attackers - Repeat sprint ability

Figure 3.8 Positional considerations when selecting tests from the outlined objectives:
injury risk and performance based tests.
72 Jarred Marsh et al.

Injury risk Shoulder isokinetic force

Concussion tests

Performance Vertical power output Countermovement jump

Reactive strength index (RSI)

Repeat sprint ability Time trials sprints for distance.

Various work:rest ratios

Figure 3.9 Examples of tests with positional related benchmarks.

rates during match play, therefore, it seems as though some testing should oc
cur that considers these various work rates [73]. Although some of the physio
logical profles of positional groups show little to no differences, it is important
to note that the outputs of match play remain different positionally, at all age
groups [47, 48, 74]. Due to the noted differences in physical outputs during
match play, such as high speed running and/or sprinting, positional benchmarks
can be put in place for a variety of tests. Specifcally, when implanting a repeat
sprint ability test, it would be suggested that practitioners expect players who
sprint more throughout the game, to excel in a sprint related testing protocol
[75]. Other results obtained from a repeat sprint ability test, such as fatigue
index, will vary dependant on the position, training stimulus, and desired play
ing style [75]. Other testing protocols, such as strength/power testing, have
shown to result in positional differences [76, 77]. Therefore, it is strongly rec
ommended that positional benchmarks, in relation to the club’s game model,
are implemented when investigating additional testing protocols (Figure 3.9).

Individual
If a particular test provides no valuable information regarding physical profling
to infuence training programmes or establish baselines to work from in the re
turn to play process, then it has no purpose. This is especially important when
it comes to individual testing and how results are monitored throughout the
season (Table 3.1).
 Needs analysis and testing 73

Injury risk

• Previous injury
• Pre-injury baselines

Performance

• Age
• Playing status/time

Figure 3.10 Individual considerations when analysing test results from the outlined ob
jectives: injury risk and performance based tests.

In individual cases, particular tests may closely relate to previous injury,

and close monitoring becomes increasingly important to minimise the risk of
re injury (Figure 3.10). Specifcally, knowing the previous injury is an impor
tant risk factor for injury, individual benchmarks need to be established for
those with previous injury history [78] (see Chapter 9). For example, a player
with a history of hamstring strain injury (HSI) would be carefully monitored
in objective markers and integrity of movements, such as Nordics. Although
strength may not need to be fully restored when returning to training, it
is suggested that exceeding pre injury results will best prepare the athlete
for competition and reduce the likelihood of injury [79–81]. Furthermore,
frequency for testing and monitoring a player with recent injury history will
be increased.
In conjunction with injury risk, individual test results will aid practitioners in
developing appropriate training prescriptions to address the individual’s weak
nesses. When interpreting testing results on an individual level, it is important
that practitioners assess non modifables (outside of injury risk) that potentially
inhibit performance outcomes. Specifcally, age can be a non modifable factor
that relates to decreases in performance outputs [49, 50, 82]. Therefore, prac
titioners must interpret results with caution when identifying players’ weak
nesses. For example, as players age, their maximum velocity outputs may show
a gradual decrement from season to season. Additionally, players that are not
being exposed to playing time (for a variety of reasons) may show decrements
in performance tests. Increased involved of playing time has shown to favour
the increase (and maintenance) of strength and sprint testing abilities in soccer
players [83]. In these circumstances, practitioners must account for these dec
rements when analysing testing results.
Sample pre-season testing battery
74

Table 3.1 Example of testing battery in elite soccer

Jarred Marsh et al.

Type Category Test Description Benchmark Re-test Notes

Anthropometric Individual Body fat, This testing is for preseason, in Body fat 2 3 times Requires additional staff, including
profles height, season and post season to monitor <10% nutrition
weight changes in body tissue related to
performance and health.
Injury risk Lower limb NordBord Localised muscular testing for 337 N When Useful tool for minimising
hamstring group. Ability to needed hamstring issues. Highly
categorise injury risk players. recommended moving forward
Injury Risk Lower Groin Localised muscular testing for Add: 370 When Useful tool for minimising
Limb squeeze/ adductor groups. Ability to N needed adductor issues. Highly
pull (Force categorise injury risk players. Add: 385 recommended moving forward
Frame) N
Performance Aerobic 30-15IFT This sub max ftness test is designed VIFT: 19.5 every 3+ Positional outcomes should be
to evaluate individual maximum weeks set
aerobic speeds (MAS).
Performance Anaerobic RSA Assessing the ability to recover <15% every 6+ Will need to be max effort to
phosphate between sprints as well as Fatigue weeks minimise pacing strategies
recovery reproduce the same amount of index
test metabolic power required.
Performance Horizontal Broad Jump This test is an assessment of >240 cm Every 3+ Establish individual power profles
Power posterior chain power output. weeks
The distance (cm) will be
measured for test and retest.
Performance Vertical Vertical jump Measure of vertical power output. >50 cm Every 3+ Establish individual power profles
power Three reps completed, with the weeks
best score being recorded.
 Needs analysis and testing 75
Coach’s insight

Martin Buchheit

Soccer specifc tests – the overwatered plants of sports science

I remember testing one of our best South American players one day. We were
doing CMJs as part of the pre-season screening. As my colleagues were explain-
ing the protocol to the squad, he stopped us straight and said: ‘you guys don’t
understand football, we never jump from two feet like this, this is just good for
volleyball!! Did you see my last header and the incredible goal I scored? I jumped
from one foot!!’

An anecdote from the feld, and true that in soccer you often don’t jump from
both feet, so why perform CMJs? Explaining the reasons as to why the testing
protocol is approached in a certain way to some players is imperative to creat
ing increased ‘buy in’. However, despite a practitioner’s best efforts, the player
may still not give 100% for a given test as they may lack belief in the process.
For this reason and others mentioned below, sport specifc testing, and even
training, has become a trend in the performance science and soccer strength
and conditioning worlds. Tests that replicate the key movements of players in
their soccer context are believed to provide more motivation to players and
more relevant information to practitioners. Specifcally, training mimicking the
match demands is believed to be superior to generic training in the name of
better transference of the expected physiological adaptations. However, practi
tioners must understand their real value, and keep in mind the true objectives
of testing and training. Testing is about profling players frst, to then provide
the most relevant training stimulus (prescribe and orientate training contents)
in relation to this profling. Training is frst about improving the overall physical
performance of soccer players, which can be achieved by improving physical
capacities, but also increasing technical/tactical effciency, and increased robust
ness to minimise injury risk. The impact that changes in ftness can have on
performance is also highly contextual and player dependent.

Take locomotor patterns during a football match, how long do they walk for?
70% of the time? So based on this, your specifc testing should examine walking
patterns, and training should include a lot of walking, right? Over reliance on
sport-specifc testing and training may in fact derail us from achieving our goals.

Soccer-specifc testing
In 2013, an editorial from Martin Buchheit and Alberto Mendez Villanueva was
published, in which the limitation of soccer specifc testing was discussed [60].
The provocative title was ‘Football specifc ftness testing: adding value or con
frming the evidence’. The example of people getting overly excited to test 5–10
m performance only and using the Yo Yo or other protocols even including the
76 Jarred Marsh et al.
ball as a proxy of acceleration capacity and soccer specifc high intensity run
ning performance capacity, was used respectively. The new technology used to
perform non specifc tests today can in fact help us to improve our capacity to
profle players and, in turn, offer better individual training plans.

Testing for speed

The frst point in the editorial was that when testing speed, using only 5–10 m
performance in the name of specifcity (player doesn’t always reach max speed
and conversely repeat >100 accelerations during matches), did not allow for a
complete profling of a player’s potential [60]. In fact, the 5–10 m test on its own
may only confrm what coaches already know (and see every weekend when
the player is or isn’t able to overtake opponents over short spaces). The 5–10
m test may be only useful when used in combination with other speed meas
ures including maximal velocity and/or further profling (F/V). In short, since all
players may not run 40 m at full speed very often (or never, for some) during
matches, 40 m sprints are rated as poorly specifc by a lot of practitioners. In
contrast, using split times or advanced modelling techniques, this type of test
can provide an incredibly valuable level of information, such as prioritising the
type of training required for each player, i.e., more oriented towards force vs ve
locity development. Also, assessing maximal sprinting speed is imperative when
analysing external demands during matches (i.e. to express running demands in
relation to maximal velocity when using global positioning system [GPS]).

Testing for strength

While there are hundreds of tests available to sport scientists to assess strength
and power [84], jump tests are probably those that carry the greatest level of vari
ations and opinions [85] about how they should be performed. Is it more insightful
to measure the height of a one legged jump ending with a header, that coaches and
players can already examine during matches, or uncover precise neuromuscular
performances using a dual force plate? While the frst provides only anecdotal evi
dence that may motivate players to execute the test with full intention, the second
likely provides a myriad of crucial information on how the jump is performed, and
in turn, about the lower limb muscle characteristics. This includes many variables
from explosive concentric capacity, to braking and landing force and of course all
the possible asymmetries of those parameters. Tested regularly, CMJs (and many
other types of tests using force plates) can be used as incredibly powerful and useful
fatigue monitoring tools [86]. The one legged jumps still have a place in the testing
batteries of course, but again, the absolute performance (height or length of the
jump) in itself is meaningless – it’s only by comparing both limbs performance that
some information can be gained – and if all this can be measured on a force plate,
this opens the door for greater insights of for the CMJs.
As for speed, any strength/power tests should be viewed as tools to pro
fle players; very often moving away from sport specifcity is the best way to
achieve this.
 Needs analysis and testing 77
Testing for ftness
Similarly, if considering soccer specifc ftness evaluations such as the Hoff test
or the FootEval (which both consist in repeating high intensity actions with the
ball) [87–89], what is the actual information that could be derived from the
results? And what is new information in comparison to what coaches, again,
can see every weekend from the bench? More importantly, the performance on
these tests is multifactorial, and likely includes a mixed contribution of aerobic
function, anaerobic capacity, recovery abilities, changes of direction, neuro
muscular capacities, and technique. Therefore, since the same overall perfor
mance can be achieved while taxing all the above mentioned capacities to a
different extent, players with completely opposite profles can in fact reach
the same performance on the test. A highly technical player may compensate
for his lack of ftness and outperform a ft, but less skilled player, for example.
This makes it impossible to uncover which of these capacities would need to be
improved and which are already suffcient. From that, what are we prescribing
for training?
It seems, therefore, that removing the technical component is the frst step
for more relevant ftness assessment. While numerous incremental tests with
out the ball such as the Yo Yo tests or the 30 15IFT are popularised for various
reasons, such as the effort looks specifc to the sports, and performance can be
used as a proxy of overall high intensity running performance, only the 30 15IFT
provides simultaneous information about a players’ locomotor profles and
training prescription [8, 66, 90]. Importantly however, the above mentioned
critiques about the limits of tests with multifactorial determinants apply for the
30 15IFT too (i.e. the same performance can be achieved while taxing different
determinants to different extents). Therefore, to further improve player ft
ness profling, the 30 15IFT can be completed with measures of maximal aerobic
speed (using an incremental continuous test such as the Vam Eval or a 2 km all
out run); in this case, the comparison of the 30 15IFT performance with MAS
helps to isolate the high intensity/supramaximal and change of direction compo
nents from the aerobic power measure (with the greater the difference in speed
between both tests, the greater this latter capacity).
Further than allowing profling players to guide training priorities, ftness tests
should also be able to be used for training prescriptions. Using MAS only is insuf
fcient to accurately prescribe high intensity interval training (HIIT), and other
measures such as lactate thresholds may only be appropriate to programme sub
maximal intensity runs, which represent very little (or sometimes even nothing) of
conditioning programming practices in soccer. The fnal performance at the Yo Yo,
even if converted into a running speed, cannot be used for training prescription
since its relationship with MAS is not proportional. In contrast, the speed reached
at the of the 30 15IFT is the perfect reference running speed when prescribing HIIT
with short intervals within the anaerobic speed reserve range, since is directly re
lated to both player’s maximal aerobic speed and maximal sprinting speed.
Finally, as for speed and strength/power testing, the more relevant approach
to ftness testing is to use tests that have as few as possible physical determinants
78 Jarred Marsh et al.
(frst exclude all technical aspects), or at least, it’s important to know them well
enough so that the test can be completed with others to fne tune the profling
(e.g. adding a measure of MAS to the 30 15IFT ). Finally, since HIIT requires it
to be tightly individualised, tests that allow prescription in addition to profling
should also be preferred [91].

Conclusion
While trying to replicate the sport when testing, is it possible to provide more
information than what the sport is already providing us with? Whenever it is
about speed, strength, power or ftness, tests should be viewed as tools to
profle players – and not to confrm the evidence; very often moving away from
the so called sport specifcity is the best way to achieve this. The current writ
ing piece, of course, only is aimed at describing the overall idea of favouring
non specifc testing; the choice of the actual tests should always be left to the
practitioners, who may select them based on their ‘specifc’ context.

References
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4 Strength, power and injury
prevention
Mike Beere, Christian Clarup, Cody Williamson
and Adam Centofanti

Importance of strength and power in soccer

There is great variance in the physical qualities required for successful soccer
performance [1, 2], and the increasing physical requirements in elite soccer
[3, 4] suggest that the inclusion of strength and conditioning (S&C) practices
would be benefcial to help players cope with this demand. Research indicates
that soccer performance requires a level of contractile strength which can be
improved through S&C practices. Lower limb strength training has been shown
to have a positive infuence on soccer specifc movements such as sprint speed
and jumps, therefore, seen as important factors in physical success [5–7]. The
basic demands of many sports require athletes to rapidly exert high forces to
accelerate, decelerate, or change direction [8–10]. During these events, greater
force is applied to the ground and greater velocity is generated [11, 12]. Physical
qualities such as strength and speed have been shown to be a highly impactful ca
pacity that can transform soccer performance [13]. Therefore, the development
of lower limb strength, is critical to improving athletic development and underpins
both individual and team sport performance [9]. As such, in elite soccer, strength
development is frequently prioritised by practitioners aiming to improve perfor
mance and prevent injuries [14, 15]. It has been highlighted that 86% of practitioners
working in senior male professional soccer determine strength training to have a
“very important” or “important” beneft to improving soccer performance, with all
practitioners including lower limb strength training in their respective programmes
[15]. Elite soccer players compete over long competitive seasons, with multiple
games per week [16, 17]. Given that decisive games with larger consequences, such
as play offs, knockout stages of competitions or cup fnals often take place at the
end of the season, it is vital that key physical qualities are maintained, performance
is high, and injuries are minimised throughout the entirety of a competitive season.
Practitioners must therefore strike a diffcult balance between training to improve
performance capacities and providing adequate rest and recovery to ensure opti
mal performance on a weekly or bi weekly basis.
The infuence of injuries in professional soccer is signifcant, with relation
ships between reduced injury rates and improved team performance (increased
average points per game and higher league ranking) being evident [18]. Due to
the negative effects that injuries have on team performance [18], the large

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200420 4
84 Mike Beere et al.
fnancial cost (whereby the average cost of a hamstring injury can be €500,000
per month [19]), and long term player health [20, 21], injury prevention strat
egies are seen as an essential part of sports performance [22]. Additionally,
many practitioners are judged on injury rates and keeping players available for
match selection, hence it is of paramount importance. Moreover, the majority
of coaches, staff, and players (>90%) questioned in a recent research suggest
that it is the ftness coach’s responsibility to ensure “injury prevention pro
grammes” are implemented [23–25]. Although the cause of injury is not always
known and can be multi factorial in cause, there are several potential factors
that may increase its incidence [26]. Injuries are often related to non modifable
and modifable, and intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Non modifable factors are
those that cannot be regulated or altered by the practitioner, such as athlete
age, sex, and injury history [27]. Modifable factors that include player training
load, warm up preparation, muscular imbalances, and neuromuscular strength
defcits can all be targeted with interventions and regulated by the practitioner
[28, 29] (see Chapter 9).
The role of muscle strength and muscle imbalances as risk factors for lower
limb injuries has been widely discussed [30–33]. In fact, muscle imbalances have
previously been ranked as the third most important intrinsic risk factor for in
jury in elite soccer [32, 33]. Adequate training to improve muscular strength has
been reported as the main measure for reducing these imbalances and reducing
injury risk in soccer players [34, 35], and has been shown to reduce injuries to
less than 1/3, and over use injuries almost halved [36]. A recent study into pro
fessional practices in soccer has shown that the main focus of S&C programmes
was to “prioritise performance enhancement strategies” rather than “prior
itising injury prevention or reduction strategies” [15]. The physical demands of
professional soccer are continually increasing [3, 4]. Consequently, improving
the ability not only to tolerate these demands but also to enhance performance
can bring signifcant benefts to the club. It could be noted that reducing a play
er’s risk of injury could, in turn, be a performance enhancement strategy. Spe
cifcally, if a player spends more time training and available for match selection,
due to a reduction in their injury risk and increase in work capacity, then this
should be seen as a performance enhancement strategy. Whilst the reduction
of injuries is an important factor in success, pushing the boundaries of physical
performance to meet the growing demands should be a key focus of perfor
mance practitioners in any sport, including soccer.

Strength – injury prevention and availability

Success of a soccer team is underpinned by a multitude of interrelated factors,
one of the most important is undoubtedly player availability. Availability is one
of the primary goals of the high performance team (strength and conditioning
coaches, physiotherapists, sports medicine physicians, and alike) (see Chapter 1).
Low injury rates within a season would be looked upon favourably when de
termining the success of an overall programme; however, it is important to
consider the underpinning factors which determine availability. Durable and
 Strength, power and injury prevention 85
resilient players keep themselves on the pitch, week in, week out. We can gain
insight into the durability and resilience of the player by analysing training ex
posure, missed sessions, and modifed sessions. Match minute exposure across
seasons can also provide vital information. With easy access to such informa
tion in the modern era, clubs can analyse match exposure when looking at
potential signings as a part of their overall screening process.
It is imperative clubs have a holistic and objective framework for player
recruitment. This will help the coaching staff, in collaboration with the per
formance team, to determine the relative risk profle of a given player. This
objective framework for player recruitment can also incorporate data on the
physical demands of player positions, the style of play, and the league(s) that the
team is competing in. It is worth noting that although there will be some cross
over between case profles, certain leagues may expose athletes to different
physical demands [37]. An in depth analysis of what the key performance indi
cators (KPIs) are for each position, from a physical standpoint, may help guide
programming and also determine whether a given player is the right ‘ft’ for
the club. High performance staff can also identify key performance inhibitors
which may hinder an athlete’s ability to undertake the desired role within the
team, and prevent ‘square peg, round hole’ scenarios. Therefore, communication
between coaching staff, leadership, and the high performance team is a vital
component to the delivery of the holistic and objective framework.
It is well established in the scientifc literature that age and prior injury his
tory are strong risk factors for future injury [38–40]. These non modifable risk
factors should be expressed to the coaching staff when developing a risk profle
of a given player. Chronological age is straight forward; however, injury history
can be identifed via a thorough subjective assessment performed by the perfor
mance team’s medical staff. An extensive injury history (soft tissue, recalcitrant
problems, chronic injuries etc.) in conjunction with retrospective analysis of a
player’s exposure to games and minutes across several years can help gain in
sight into player durability. Therefore, the medical staff can identify any defcits
or areas of concern and present a player risk profle to the club’s stakeholders.
This can aid the recruitment decision making across the season and assist with
prospective player signings.
Internally, there is an equally unique range of considerations for the coaching
staff and performance team. With the emergence of elite academy systems,
integration of developing players into frst team environments also needs to be
discussed. Assessment of biological maturation and identifying the early versus
late maturing players can help assess their preparedness for the transition, and
how coaching and performance staff can safely manage the player’s integra
tion [41]. Strengths and weaknesses, individual characteristics, and idiosyncra
sies should be documented also. In recent research, soccer players with a fast
muscle fbre typology displayed a 5.3 fold higher risk of experiencing a new
hamstring strain injury compared with slow typology players [42]. Fibre type
profling as a novel risk factor may help the sports medicine community better
manage explosive athletes with unique muscle performance qualities. Although
the focus of this chapter is on strength, recruiting a list of players, that do not
86 Mike Beere et al.
have the capacity to deal with the stressors of the competition, will result in dif
fculty to maintain low injury rates, regardless of the injury mitigation strategies
put in place by the performance team [43].
We must acknowledge the importance of load management in maintaining
low injury rates. There has been an explosion of methods used in professional
sport to track and manage load [44, 45]. Such methods include but are not lim
ited to; wearable technology and survey analysis (see Chapters 6 and 7). To keep
injury rates low, special considerations to these metrics can highlight acute or
unprecedented spikes in load which may put an athlete at heightened risk [46].
This is especially important in the presence of congested match fxtures for
players with increased minute exposure, as well as monitoring and maintaining
loads of those who are not playing regularly via top ups and on pitch extras (see
Chapter 10). Meticulous planning of training sessions with clear objectives can
also help reduce training related injuries because of programming errors and
will avoid creating excessive fatigue leading into games.
Understanding the physical requirements of each position, which may change
with formation and tactical style, is of paramount importance [47]. Within the
soccer medicine community, there is a plethora of research analysing the com
mon injuries seen within the sport [48–50] (see Chapter 9). This understanding
of physical stressors associated with the game, and injury analysis, can help
triage assessments and interventions that are driven by the performance staff.
Considerations to specifc injuries that a player has suffered across their career
should also be noted; when incomplete rehab occurs, compensations develop
as players continue to train and play with injuries.
Perhaps one of the most important tools to identify potential issues, and/or
highlight defcits, is via a targeted soccer specifc screening process commonly
performed at the beginning of pre season (see Chapter 3). Identifying defcits in
muscle groups and side to side asymmetries can provide vital information for
the high performance team to help guide programming and identifying target
areas for individual players. Pre season testing also provides baseline objective
data which can aid the rehabilitation process when injuries do occur as men
tioned above. Although general programmes have been shown to be effective in
reducing time lost due to injury [51], at the elite level, it is evident that individ
ualised programmes will have better outcomes and promote athlete adherence
to prescribed interventions. Similarly, it is now common practice for practition
ers to prescribe individualised conditioning interventions, based on a players’
ftness status to help mitigate overall risk of injury [52, 53] (see Chapter 5).
Eccentric hamstring strength [40, 54], adductor:abductor strength ratios
[55], and quadriceps strength [56] are examples of potential muscle strength
measures that may provide useful data for the performance team. It is pertinent
to acknowledge that clubs and respective clinicians will have access to vary
ing degrees of resources and technology, which will impact the testing battery
which the performance team decides to implement (see Chapter 3). Even with
limited resources, it is possible to develop an effective pre season screening
between the medical team and performance staff. Testing options that require
 Strength, power and injury prevention 87
little equipment could involve the single leg bridge test [57] and/or hip mus
cle strength assessment using a sphygmomanometer which has been shown to
be valid and reliable [58]. Additionally, various testing procedures (e.g. perfor
mance and feld tests) can provide quantitative and qualitative information for
the clinician (see Chapter 3). Filming specifc movement tests in the sagittal and
coronal plane can provide useful information for potential energy leaks and
movement ineffciencies, such as excessive anterior pelvic tilt during sprinting
[59]. Utilising strategies that address lumbopelvic defcits and promote effcient
mechanics during high velocity locomotive activities is developing promising
research; however, it is recommended to approach with caution [60]. Move
ment mechanics, and their interdependent relationship with ftness fatigue con
tinuum, should always be considered when determining the aetiology of new
or recurrent injuries [61]. To avoid ‘paralysis by analysis’, it is imperative that
the testing performed is relatable to soccer and ensures that the information
gained from the testing directly infuences programming. If timing and resources
permits, it is useful to have additional targeted testing for identifed high risk
players who have been hampered by injuries or a specifc injury in the past. It
is crucial for baseline testing to be performed, and the medical team has an in
depth understanding of the player’s injury history. A comprehensive programme
can be developed to address identifed defcits and target desired muscle qual
ities in or around previously injured tissues. Exercise selection should also ad
dress the multiplanar nature of athletic movement in soccer.
Individualised programmes to address target areas should be the corner
stone of injury mitigation interventions, although the infuence of a structured
strength and conditioning programme, that aims to promote athlete develop
ment, will often address many of these issues anyway. Periodising speed work
and exposure to maximum velocity is a potent intervention for altering ham
string muscle architecture, alongside isolated hamstring strength exercises
[62–64]. Therefore, the perennial interplay between performance training and
injury mitigation strategies is self evident. It is imperative that the performance
staff work collaboratively when designing the overarching programme that aims
to drive performance metrics, combat injury prevalence, and promote player
availability.

Assessing strength
Assessments of basic physical components, such as strength and power, are
considered highly important within sports that require high amounts of acceler
ations and change of directions [65, 66]. Therefore, an appropriate and relevant
testing battery for strength and power should be established and used in elite
soccer clubs. Various test types, like repetition max (RM), isokinetic dynamom
etry, handheld dynamometry, variations of jump testing (e.g. the countermove
ment jump, CMJ), and isometric testing of maximum strength (e.g. the isometric
mid thigh pull, IMTP) have all been established and described in the literature as
methods used for assessments (Figure 4.1) [65, 67, 68].
88 Mike Beere et al.

Repetition max (RM) Back squat

Strength Trapbar Deadlift
& Power
Isokinectic dynanometry Biodex
Tests
Isometric mid-thigh pull
(IMTP)
Jump varations CMJ
Broad Jump

Hops Triple hop

Crossover hop

Isolated strength protocols Adductor (groin squeeze)

Hamstring (Nordic force output)

Figure 4.1 Example of common strength and power tests performed in professional
soccer.

The different tests can be helpful for the practitioner, due to different reasons
such as, monitoring of an acute response to training, measuring, the chronic re
sponse to a training stimulus, identifying individual weakness and strength, com
paring data to normative data, and planning individualised training programmes.
It is critical for the practitioner to select a test that is appropriate and relevant
when assessing the athletes. High levels of strength have been associated with
lower risk of injuries [9, 66], and high levels of power have been associated with
improved speed and change of directions [69]. Therefore, appropriate testing of
these variables could give useful insights of relevant physical qualities of the elite
soccer player. The 1 RM back squat test is often recommended as a useful tool
for testing maximal strength in soccer players [10, 67]; however, from a practical
and technical aspect, some soccer players can struggle with the back squat ex
ercise due lack of powerlifting skills or mobility [70]. Additionally, other testing
forms might give useful information regarding levels of maximum strength.
Isometric testing or a different selection of exercises could be an alternate
solution to test maximum strength. For example, multiple movements in team
sports, like sprinting, jumping and change of directions, are often performed
unilaterally and should be taken into consideration when designing a strength
testing battery. Therefore, one should always fnd a test that suits the specifc
group of athletes, as opposed to selecting only one, out of habit/tradition. Upon
determining if a test is useful, the practitioner must establish the validity, relia
bility, and sensitivity of the selected test methods [71]. It is of high importance
that tests are valid and adequality sensitive to detect meaningful and systematic
changes at both group and individual level [71, 72]. When the practitioner is
ready to implement testing, it is important to avoid testing just for the sake of
testing. A practitioner working in elite soccer should ask the following ques
tions when deciding on strength testing parameters:
 Strength, power and injury prevention 89
• Is it practical to do conduct the testing under question?
• Are the results meaningful for the players and technical staff?
• Will the data be used for programming?
• Is retesting feasible throughout the season?
• Is the selected test assessing relevant data regarding match performance?
• Will testing outcomes have a substantial positive effect on athletic
performance?

Proceeding the strength testing selection process, practitioners must evaluate

the athlete’s physical capacities to establish baselines, strength profles and de
tect possible defcits. Strength profles like the Dynamic Strength Index (DSI)
provide a ratio of the peak force the athlete can produce in both isometric and
ballistic testing. The DSI provides a strength and power profle of the athlete,
informing practitioners of individual’s force velocity capabilities [68, 73]. Estab
lishing a sound strength power profle of individuals can eliminate the simplistic
notion that “stronger is always better”. Even if the athlete has suffcient levels
of strength, this might not be the inhibitor of performance. Therefore, a more
holistic approach to the strength training should be implemented. It must be
noted that soccer players can be fast, with out being powerful, which might not
be desirable.
As aforementioned, high levels of muscular strength have a positive effect on
the rate of injuries, thus emphasising the importance of relevant strength and
power testing. With the current understanding of muscle injuries in elite foot
ball (see Chapter 9), relevant testing and consistent training for isolated areas,
such as eccentric hamstring exposure, is highly recommended [74, 75]. Specif
ically, key metrics to aim for have been thoroughly discussed in the literature
to date [54, 76–78]. Identifying isolated strength defcits allows practitioners to
create strength profles, alongside other relevant data. Establishing strength
power profles, paired with locomotive profles (game data), can aid practition
ers when determining training interventions, altering priorities, and designing
individual training programmes. This holistic approach will result in an effcient
prescription for the individual player, resulting in overall increases in physical
performance.
In elite soccer environments, with a high frequency of competitive matches,
limited periods for strength and power training must be taken into consideration
when planning for desired adaptations. Therefore, when testing, a time effcient
and practical approach is necessary. Relevant strength testing data provide
profcient information to the practitioner, when it comes to designing training
programmes, both on and off the pitch. Additionally, the results obtained from
strength testing will aid the practitioner in adjusting the modifable aspects within
the training schedule. With the chaotic nature of soccer, unexpected events can
occur. Therefore, it is necessary for a practitioner to be adaptable when plan
ning any strength training or testing. Establishing baselines and collecting various
strength power data is extremely valuable, helping practitioners make effective
and effcient decisions when considering the status of a player.
90 Mike Beere et al.
Modules of strength-power (force-velocity curve)
The force velocity curve is a physical representation of the inverse relation
ship between force production and velocity of movement (Figure 4.2) [79, 80].
Understanding the interaction between force and velocity, and their infuences
on exercise selection, is vital for any practitioner. For example, it is essential
that practitioners understand the physiological and biomechanical differences
between prescribing a 1RM deadlift and 5RM jump squats – as one will pro
duce higher forces and lower velocities than the other. Failure to understand
the relationship and its importance will likely lead to less than optimal training
prescription. Dynamic, explosive, powerful qualities such as rate of force de
velopment (RFD) and explosive strength have been suggested to better predict
athletic performance [81]. Training modalities to develop RFD should be tar
geted by practitioners working in soccer. Developing the neuromuscular sys
tem, to enhance the capabilities to produce force, is one of the most important
goals of a strength and conditioning programme.
Strength is typically viewed as the ability to lift heavy objects, quantifed as
the peak force or torque, measured during isometric testing or rep max testing
[82]. Maximal strength has a strong correlation with rate RFD and power, and is
a vital component in producing the high levels of force needed in sport [83–85].
Strength is therefore an important, trainable skill that needs to be expressed
during competition. Strength is not only the ability to generate force, but also a
vehicle that carries with it other abilities such as RFD, impulse, momentum, ve
locity, and power. Different levels of strength exist ranging from submaximal to
maximal, with maximal strength being a major factor infuencing performance
[85]. Heavy load resistance exercise results in an increase in the isometric peak
force and can cause a shift in the force velocity curve in untrained individuals
[8, 86]. However, although heavy resistance training can increase the athlete’s
strength reserve and positively impact the RFD, it is likely that with stronger
more experienced athletes, the optimisation of the RFD and subsequent power
development is better achieved with the incorporation of explosive or ballistic

Figure 4.2 Force–velocity relationship applied to training methodologies.

 Strength, power and injury prevention 91
exercises [8, 87]. Therefore, various training methods have the potential to im
pact different parts of the force time and force velocity curves. For example,
heavy resistance training can signifcantly increase the ability to generate peak
force and the RFD when compared with untrained individuals [88, 89]. Con
versely, ballistic, or explosive training can result in increases in the overall RFD
that is greater than what can occur with heavy resistance training or during an
untrained state. However, ballistic training cannot increase the overall maximal
strength levels to the same extent as heavy resistance training. Therefore, a
mixed training approach is often recommended when attempting to maximise
the RFD and power output [87]. Protocols containing both high velocity and
high force training produce better results than training each aspect alone, but
a proper sequencing must be used to maximise mixed training stimuli [90, 91].
Research has shown that training maximal strength before maximal velocity
provides the most benefcial adaptations, and this may be due in part to delayed
gains in performance and shortening velocity [91].

Power prescription
The implementation of power based exercises within a professional soccer set
ting can be executed in a multitude of ways. As aforementioned, training different
areas of the force velocity curve can be advantageous towards athletic develop
ment, injury reduction and overall performance. Plyometric based exercises can be
prescribed during on feld warm ups (see Chapter 5), however can also be utilised
during gym based sessions either pre or post training [15]. It is recommended to
perform plyometrics when players are in a rested state; however, logistically this
may not be possible and some plyometrics may be performed following feld ses
sions or in the later part of the training week. Ideally, plyometric based activities
are appropriately progressed over time during the season, yet when performing
in a team setting, athletes may be at different levels, so caution is advised with re
gard to the intensity of plyometric prescription. Certain players may have existing
pathologies that prevent them from performing more intense plyometric progres
sions on feld, so careful consideration is needed when prescribing for the team and
allowing simple regressions for individual players. Additionally, fxture congestion,
player fatigue/readiness play a crucial role in the prescription of plyometrics and may
need to be more gradual in design than an individual training in an off season period.
Alternatively, prescribing plyometric work during pre or post training during gym
settings may be more appropriate for the individual, as well as enabling more appro
priate rest times that may not be possible on feld (Table 4.1).
Other power based exercises such as step up jumps, squat jumps, lunge
jumps and Olympic lifting derivatives etc. are examples of exercises that can be
implemented into gym sessions, either exclusively or as part of a contrasting se
quence with a particular strength exercise [80]. Depending on the goals of the
holistic strength and conditioning programme, individual objectives, and phases
of training, power based exercises can be incorporated into gym sessions to
achieve the desired adaptations for specifc areas on the force velocity curve.
92 Mike Beere et al.
Table 4.1 Example of an on feld plyometric prescription

Plyometric exercise

Double leg pogos forwards and backwards 2 × 10

Single leg pogos forwards 1 × 10 each side
Broad jump single effort 2 × 3
Counter movement jump single effort 2 × 3
Skip bound for height 2 × 20m
Skip bound for distance 2 × 20m

Exercise selection in soccer

Key exercises
There are a variety of exercises at a practitioner’s disposal when it comes to
strength development. Understanding which exercises are essential, and have
the most positive affect on strength adaptations, is important for any elite
soccer team. The demands of the game, common injury sites, and individual
characteristics assist in mapping out what each strength session will look like.
There is a plethora of content to be found online with regard to strength
training for soccer players, however understanding what is commonly used in
professional soccer settings and why certain exercises are used over others
is key. A recent survey of 51 practitioners working in elite soccer (the UK
and the USA) highlighted the most common exercises used in professional
soccer (Table 4.2) [92]:

• Trap Bar Deadlift (TBD) (hex bar deadlift) is most used exercise (51%): Re
search has demonstrated that the use of a TBD results in greater force,
power, and RFD and has a greater correlation with vertical jump due to
similar body positions when compared to traditional squat or deadlifts [93].
Hex bar jumps have been shown to elicit greater jump height, peak force,
power, and peak RFD across varying loads when compared to jump squats.
In the authors’ experience, soccer players also struggle with hip and ankle
injuries and subsequent lack of range of motion, that often lead to a poor
technical ability in the traditional barbell squat exercise. These limitations
can often be reduced by utilising the TBD exercise.
• Split stance exercises such as rear foot elevated split squats (RFESS) were
frequently reported exercise utilised in soccer practitioners programmes
(n = 20, 39%)
 Strength, power and injury prevention 93
Table 4.2 Key exercises frequently utilised in professional soccer

Exercise

Strength Plyometrics

Trap bar deadlift (TBD) Multiple hops/jumps

Split stance (e.g. RFESS, lunges, step ups) Box drills
Romanian deadlifts (RDL + derivatives) Reactive jumps in place
Nordic hamstring exercise (NHE) Bounding
Copenhagen adductor holds Vertical jumps
Hamstring eccentric slide outs Horizontal jumps
Calf raises Depth jumps

• While Olympic lifting exercises have a great value in improving athletic

qualities, they are not often incorporated in soccer practices, and less used
than previously reported in other sports such as Rugby Union (used by
90% of practitioners) [94], Rowing (87%) [95], NFL (88%) [96], and NHL
(91%) [97].
• Other frequently used exercises included the Romanian or stiff leg deadlift
variations (n = 22, 43%), Nordic hamstring curls (n = 15, 29%), and hip thrusts
(n = 13, 25%). Numerous other exercises were also ranked in coaches main
fve exercises, including
• eccentric hamstring curls,
• calf raises,
• lunge patterns,
• isometric hamstring holds,
• step ups,
• Copenhagen adductor holds,
• single leg jumps, and
• derivatives of Olympic weightlifting, such as jump shrugs, hang cleans,
and drop snatches.
• In addition, plyometrics are frequently and commonly prescribed in strength
and conditioning sessions, for improving RFD, improving reactive strength,
improving stiffness, and preventing injury.
• In this research, 45 out of 51 (88%) coaches reported using eccentric ex
ercises, with 40 (78%) using eccentrics for preventing injuries. These re
sults support those previously reported in the literature where 85% of
practitioners believe that eccentric exercises can help prevent lower limb
injuries in soccer players [24]. Eccentric muscle actions involve the active
94 Mike Beere et al.
lengthening of muscle tissue against an external force or load [98], in con
trast to isometric and concentric muscle actions which involve no change
in muscle length or the shortening of muscle tissue, respectively [99]. It has
been reported that skeletal muscle can produce more relative force during
eccentric muscle actions compared to isometric and concentric actions
[100], and as such, the use of many eccentric exercises are gaining popular
ity during strength and conditioning sessions.

Injury prevention exercises

Eccentric exercises have previously been ranked as the most effective way to
prevent non contact injuries in soccer players [32]. It has been suggested that
eccentric exercises may prevent injury by improving the muscles’ ability to absorb
more force before failing [101]. While research and practice based evidence back
up the idea that eccentric exercises are important for injury prevention in pro
fessional soccer players, the uptake of the Nordic hamstring exercise protocol is
surprisingly often poor in elite soccer teams competing in the UEFA Champions
League [35]. Ultimately, the range of exercises utilised demonstrates that there is
a requirement for athletes to be competent in several exercises to assist in per
formance and reduce the most common injuries that occur in soccer. However,
what is also clear is that fundamental exercises such as TBD, RDL, and squat
patterns are consistently reported in many practitioners’ sessions.

Application of strength and power training

Scheduling
Scheduling appropriate strength and power sessions for a soccer team can be
a complex task, with multiple factors infuencing when, what, and how much
strength training is prescribed. There are various ways in which strength sessions
are implemented by clubs around the globe. However, commonly team sessions
are performed on a match day 4 (MD 4) or match day 3 (MD 3), which falls in
line with the acquisition phase of feld based training (heaviest loads of the week)
during a seven day microcycle (see Chapter 10). With each club and player having
their own history of strength training or culture around strength development,
practitioners often must adapt to achieve the greatest compliance. Therefore,
selecting the most important exercises to achieve the minimum effective dose
will be required. Depending on the quantity of sessions during the week or best
opportunities based around fxtures, it may be advisable to micro dose a strength
stimulus prior to feld training spread across the week (Table 4.3).
The content for each gym session often changes, with teams either opting for
a total body gym session, on both days incorporating upper and lower body, or
separate sessions of upper body and lower body exclusively. Additionally, when
incorporating total body based gym sessions, selecting exercises that suit the
type of feld work completed or alternatively, in preparation for the proceeding
Table 4.3 Gym session scheduling example for a seven day microcycle

Recovery Key Key Taper Taper GAME Recovery

acquisition day acquisition day
Day Code MD+2 MD 4 MD 3 MD 2 MD 1 MD MD+1
Session Type OFF Intensive Extensive Reactive speed Pre match Match day Recovery/top up
Field Physical Target ACC/DEC Max velocity + high Coordination + Priming Regeneration
speed running agility
Individual prep Individual Individual Individual Individual Individual
prior to activation preparation preparation preparation preparation preparation
Pre training themes Glute + Glute + hamstring Mobility + core Reactions + Match day
adductor stability priming preparation
Gym themes Anterior chain Posterior chain Optional gym or
focus focus top up group gym
Strength, power and injury prevention
95
96 Mike Beere et al.
training session, is advisable. For example, prescribing anterior chain dominant
exercises (e.g. squat patterns) on the MD 4 aligns with intensive nature of the
feld sessions. Furthermore, posterior chain dominant strength exercises (e.g.
RDL and Nordics) prescribed on MD 3 overload the muscle regions associ
ated with high speed running (extensive) [102]. When prescribing exclusively
isolated body region gym sessions during the week (i.e. lower body and up
per body), allocating the lower body gym session could be problematic. There
is no right or wrong answer, with varied preferences for MD 4 and MD 3.
Performing the lower body gym session on MD 4 allows the longest time be
tween resistance training and the match, potentially minimising the chance of fa
tigue leading into match play. However, the immediate onset of residual fatigue
(24 hours post session) may compromise feld based work on the proceeding
day (MD 3). On the contrary, scheduling the lower body gym session on MD 3
may be preferred. However, unlike MD 4, there is a greater chance of play
ers exhibiting delayed muscle soreness closer to match day. Understanding the
implications of both options is imperative in the decision making process and
may help the performance team decide which approach suits their respective
cohort of players and environment. Ultimately, the intensity and response of
soccer specifc training (feld sessions) may limit practitioners with options in
scheduling. Therefore, it is recommended that practitioners are fexible and
agile when constructing gym sessions.
In addition to main team gym sessions, individual strength prescriptions may
be scheduled throughout alternate days (other than MD 4 or MD 3). For ex
ample, players demonstrating undesired levels of localised muscle soreness,
from resistance training, may require an individualised micro dosing scheme.
Specifcally, some of the key exercises (Table 4.2) can be prescribed at the de
sired intensity, with varied volumes throughout the week. Alternatively, per
forming individual strength work post game or on an MD + 1 can prove to be
an effective solution to strength development. However, it must be noted that
fatigue from match play, decreased player motivation, or coach preference may
not allow this to occur. Educating all stakeholders in the rationale for specifc
strength prescription post game may be required to ensure additional work
to be completed.

Fixture congestion
Practitioners may be limited with time to allow for adequate adaptation from
strength training during congested game periods. Fatigue from games and min
imal time between games can be challenges that the performance team will
encounter when looking to provide a strength stimulus for their cohort of play
ers. The lack of strength stimuli during these congested phases may result in
detraining of strength qualities, thus emphasising the importance of desired
strength prior to the commencement of fxture congestion. However, there
may be windows of opportunity for practitioners to micro dose strength stim
uli, to minimise the likelihood of detraining (Table 4.4).
 Strength, power and injury prevention 97
Table 4.4 Example of a strength training prescription during fxture congestion

Taper Taper GAME Recovery Taper GAME Recovery

Day Code MD 2 MD 1 MD MD+1 MD 1 MD MD+1
Session Reactive speed Pre Match day Recovery/ Pre Match day OFF
type match top up match
Strength Adductors Upper Nordics or Unilateral Upper Nordics
option (Copenhagen’s) Body single leg quad (split body or single
post hamstring squat) leg
training/ sliders hamstring
feld sliders

Content
The content of gym sessions in microcycles varies greatly amongst clubs, as re
sources, environment, and equipment play a key role in determining what lim
itations practitioners are dealt with. It is also worth mentioning that there are
many performance coaches across the world that have differing views of strength
training. However, well researched exercises for developing strength and power,
as well as being valid for performance enhancement, will be identifed in further
examples. Although multiple variations of the outlined examples exist, as well
as the inclusion of differing accessory exercises, the aim is to provide a simple,
effective, and minimal approach to prescribing strength training in elite soccer.
The prescriptions detailed are general and must be adapted to the environment
of a practitioner, such as the goals of the organisation, phase of season/training,
individual players and cohort, and readiness amongst other variables.

Two-day split – total body

MD 4
1A – Trap bar deadlift 3 × 5
1B – Bench Press 3 × 5
2A – Rear foot elevated split squat 3 × 6
2B – Dumbbell shoulder press 3 × 6
3A – Lateral lunge 3 × 6
3B – Copenhagen’s 3 × 20sec
MD-3
1A – Single leg RDL 3 × 6
1B – Pullups 3 × 8–10
98 Mike Beere et al.
2A – Nordics 3 × 3
2B – Dumbbell single arm rows 3 × 6
3A – 45 degree back extension 3 × 12
3B – Single leg calf raise 3 × 15

Two-Day split – upper and lower body

MD 4
1A – Bench Press 3 × 5
1B – Pullups 3 × 8–10
2A – Dumbbell shoulder press 3 × 6
2B – Dumbbell single arm rows 3 × 6
3A – Hanging leg raises 3 × 8
3B – 45 degree back extension 3 × 12

MD-3
1A – Trap bar deadlift 3 × 5
1B – Single leg RDL 3 × 6
2A – Rear foot elevated split squat 3 × 6
2B – Nordics 3 × 3
3A – Copenhagen’s 3 × 20sec
3B – Single leg seated calf raise 3 × 15

The above two day split programmes emphasise key areas to address from
a holistic standpoint. In many cases, programmes and exercise selection can
be smaller or bigger depending on a myriad of aforementioned factors. The
primary objective to a comprehensive strength programme is the proper exe
cution of all movements with adequate load to elicit positive change (strength
adaptations). Too often, social media is littered with ‘strength’ alternatives
which emphasise increased complexity, as well as ‘specifc’ exercises to transfer
to feld, and on feld circuits which lack the load to change muscle architecture
and physiology. It is highly recommended that exercise selection and gym based
strength sessions be evidence based and address key areas of physical perfor
mance and injury reduction. With little time and opportunities dedicated to
strength training during the season, practitioners must decide on the most ef
fective exercises to increase player availability whilst improving performance.

Considerations

Limitations
It is well known that soccer schedules are often congested, chaotic, and at con
stant threat of changing due to several factors, such as television coverage, and
progression in one or several knockout tournaments. Issues around fxture
 Strength, power and injury prevention 99
congestion are impossible to change, as the nature of the sport can require teams
to play two to three games per week for much of the season [34, 103]. This is the
case for not only the elite teams playing in European competition, but also in many
domestic leagues around the world, due to involvement in multiple cup compe
titions on top of a 38–46 game league seasons. It becomes diffcult to periodise,
manage training load, and avoid accumulated fatigue, while ensuring that players
remain at an optimal level of physical ftness during the season [103, 104].
A recent survey of 51 S&C working in elite soccer (the UK and the USA)
highlighted most common barriers towards strength training prescriptions [15]:

• Time availability is the biggest challenge facing the implementation of S&C

practices.
• Importance of winning matches overshadows the ability to push the bound
aries of S&C development.
• Lack of staff and lack of or poor facilities are third and fourth ranked bar
riers to S&C practice.
• It is concluded that employing qualifed staff and providing adequate training
facilities should be of high importance to senior club staff. Lack of staff has
previously been highlighted as a substantial barrier to the effectiveness of
any training load monitoring practices in soccer [105].
• In agreement, Weldon et al. (2020) also found that [14]:
• Time/schedule/fxtures were the biggest barrier to practice in elite soccer.
• With lack of equipment/staff/facilities also highly ranked.
• Coach relationships and difference in opinions were also a barrier to
practice.

Cultural differences
Although sound strength and conditioning principles of prescription have been
well documented to improve performance and minimise the risk of injury, there
are also many alternative views to achieve strength stimuli. Across the globe,
different cultures may perceive strength in their own way, which leads players
potentially being misled and adapting to habit. When, or if, these players transfer
to different leagues/clubs across the world, they may fnd themselves exposed
to valid and robust strength prescriptions as discussed throughout. However,
if exposed to alternate approaches, practitioners may be initially faced with
decreased levels of compliance. Misconceptions of strength and power train
ing allows for greater occurrences of complaints in relation to prescriptions
(Figure 4.3). Therefore, it is imperative that practitioners utilise moments of
education with players to illustrate rationale with their prescriptions.
First and foremost, it is imperative to highlight the importance of building
positive relationships with players, as this is the frst step to any good working
relationship (see Chapter 11). Pertaining to certain players having a negative atti
tude towards strength training, having a professional relationship, derived from
respect, allows for greater compliance. Additionally, further education may be
100 Mike Beere et al.

Increased
perception
of soreness

Making
Not soccer
them feel
specific
slow

Common
complaints
in the gym

Too tired Will increase

from the muscle mass
field too much

A particular
exercise
hurts (e.g.
NHE)

Figure 4.3 Common complaints from players, due to misconceptions of strength train
ing in elite soccer.

Reframing language (strength vs range of motion)

Strategies to Education (player, coach, staff)

increase Microdosing across the week

Exercise alternatives
compliance Exercise progressions/regressions
Reduced complexity and volume
Prescribing familiar exercises
Relationship building

Figure 4.4 Strategies to increase compliance to strength training prescription.

necessary for support staff and coaching staff in relation to rationale of strength
training variables and responses. Developing a professional relationship with
players allows for greater understanding of player perspective and thought pro
cesses, potentially infuenced by previous experience. During unwanted periods
of low compliance, practitioners may have to adjust training variables in order
to develop trust. Practitioners may provide familiar exercises to player’s pre
vious exposures that illicit desired outcomes, amongst other strategies (Figure
4.4). Although alternative exercises to the practitioner’s exercise menu may not
be preferred, one should initially dedicate the outcome to improving compli
ance, with the long term objective of providing appropriate stimulus.
 Strength, power and injury prevention 101
Applying best practice or a performance teams’ ideal prescription may not
always be possible in a professional setting. However, with continued efforts to
design programmes based off evidence based principles, as well as keeping an
open mind to individual preferences and experiences, optimal compliance and
performance enhancements can still be made. As performance departments con
tinue to evolve and more research is done in the feld of sports science, so too
will the awareness of best practice strength prescriptions in elite soccer. It is the
objective of this text to continue to educate and provide a resource of the current
evidence based principles to strength training, as well as provide strategies to
apply in a real world setting.

Conclusion
Strength is an integral piece of the performance programme for elite soccer
teams. Understanding its role in performance, injury prevention and overall
availability, is essential for any practitioner working at the elite level. As
sessing strength and power will assist in profling players and can infuence
prescription on and off the feld. Knowledge of the key exercises used, as
well as the benefts associated, will result in the most effective programme.
Scheduling strength training during a week can vary greatly, depending on a
variety of factors such as fxtures, player readiness, feld load, and individual
preference. Many barriers and cultural differences exist when it comes to
strength training prescription. Knowing your cohort of players, their expe
riences, training age etc. will assist in the design process. Finally, effective,
adaptable, and simple prescriptions are paramount to the overall effective
ness of programming.

References
1 Little, T. and A.G. Williams, Measures of exercise intensity during soccer training drills
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2 Owen, A.L., et al., Heart rate responses and technical comparison between small-vs.
large-sided games in elite professional soccer. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning
Research, 2011. 25(8): p. 2104–2110.
3 Barnes, C., et al., The evolution of physical and technical performance parameters in
the English Premier League. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 2014. 35(13):
p. 1095–1100.
4 Bradley, P.S., et al., Tier-specifc evolution of match performance characteristics in the
English Premier League: it’s getting tougher at the top. Journal of Sports Sciences, 2016.
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5 Conditioning
Gary Walker, Mark Read, Darren Burgess,
Ed Leng and Adam Centofanti

Importance of conditioning
Conditioning is a complex process that encompasses the strategic manipulation
of training stress to produce a desired outcome. For elite soccer teams, the
desired outcomes are to maximise overall squad availability, and to optimise
player readiness by ensuring that each player has the physical capability to im
plement the required game tactics successfully [1]. A well planned, progressive
training programme with variation in frequency, duration, intensity, and type of
activity should be implemented to aid these goals [2]. It is typical for elite soc
cer clubs to programme training load using a structured micro cycle to prepare
physically and tactically for match day [3–5]. A micro cycle period is often be
tween three and fourteen days, with natural variation dependant on match turn
around [5,6]. Planning a conditioning programme creates unique challenges for
practitioners to achieve these desired goals whilst balancing the requirements
of recovery, developing physical ftness, and adjusting the training load for fresh
ness before each match [7].
Soccer has been described as intermittent, acyclical, variable, and unpredict
able [8]. The physical demands vary between playing position and competition
level, as well as changing longitudinally [9]. These factors are important con
siderations when planning conditioning programmes for elite teams as well as
contextual factors such as coach philosophy, club culture, and age demographic
of squad. Furthermore, the increasingly available data from sophisticated tech
nology provide critical insights to aid programming.

Conditioning to maximise availability

Player availability is positively associated with team performance [10–13]. In
contrast, injury or illness naturally impacts team selection and match success;
and results in negative psychological effects and the longer term quality of life
for the player [14,15]. Injuries also affect sports teams fnancially through med
ical fees and insurance premiums [16]. Additionally, player conditioning levels
are important modifable risk factors and are part of the injury occurrence
pathway [17]. It has been suggested that keeping players injury free and capable

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200420 5
 Conditioning 109
of playing competitive games every three to four days, throughout their career is
the primary purpose of conditioning [18]. Within a 10 month competitive season
for club and international teams, players can now be exposed to up to 70 matches
and 220 sessions per season [1,19]. Evidence showing the optimisation of modif
able factors is spearheaded by elements of conditioning and several reviews eval
uate the training injury relationship [20–23]. A consensus group broadly defnes
‘load’ in a sport setting as ‘the sport and non sport burden (single or multiple
physiological, psychological or mechanical stressors) as a stimulus that is applied
to a human biological system (including subcellular elements, a single cell, tissues,
one or multiple organ systems, or the individual)’ [24]. It is concluded that if load
is applied in a moderate and progressive manner, and rapid increases in load (rela
tive to what the athlete is prepared for) are avoided, high loads and physically hard
training may offer a protective effect against injuries. It is also advised that load
must always be prescribed on an individual and fexible basis. There is variation in
the timeframe of player response and adaptation to load, and therefore regular
athlete monitoring is fundamental to ensure appropriate and therapeutic levels
of external and internal loads (see Chapter 6). It has become clear that increased
robustness is an outcome of a successful conditioning programme that enhances
the appropriate physical and physiological characteristics to match the demands
imposed on the modern soccer player. Additionally, it is vital that a sound condi
tioning programme is complemented with a effective strength programme to fur
ther enhance physical robustness (see Chapter 4). Furthermore, conditioning must
also be a vehicle to maximise physical performance to increase chance of success.

Conditioning to optimise performance

As forementioned, the goal of conditioning is to optimise performance at a
specifc point in time – i.e. a match. Scientifc research has become important to
prescribe optimal training programmes that prevent both under and overtrain
ing and increase the chance of achieving desired performance [25]. Measuring
performance collectively and individually is vital to this process and even though
soccer is the most popular sport world wide, it is one of the least quantifed in
analysis of performance and the measurement of player contribution to success
[26]. The task of objectively quantifying the impact of individual players actions
during matches remains largely unexplored [27]. However, it is used in a vari
ety of tasks including player acquisition and evaluation, fan engagement, media
reporting and scouting. Soccer analytics is lacking a comprehensive approach
to address performance related questions due to the low scoring and dynamic
nature of the sport [28]. It is suggested that analysis methods that incorporate
several facets of soccer, within a dynamic context, would appear to be superior
and most appropriate to use [29]. Selecting valid performance metrics, espe
cially at an individual player level, provides a signifcant challenge to researchers
and practitioners alike (see Chapter 7) but the measurement of performance
can support the identifcation of talent, opposition analysis to improve match
preparedness and strategies for training intervention [29].
110 Gary Walker et al.

Figure 5.1 Venn diagram depicting a generalised integrated approach to quantifying and
interpreting the physical match performance of soccer players (Adapted from
Bradley and Ade [10]).

An integrated approach to measuring performance contextualises match de

mands by assimilating physical and tactical data effectively (Figure 5.1) [30].
The concept of metric integration is adopted by analytics organisations that
provide performance feedback to clubs and media. These platforms quickly and
accurately provide a large range of match performance data, allowing the si
multaneous analysis of the physical efforts, movement patterns, and technical
actions of players [31]. Examples include the Champion Data player ranking
system in AFL [32] and InStat Index in soccer, recently used to analyse the
association between running and match performance [33]. This automatic al
gorithm considers the contribution of the player to team success based on the
signifcance of their actions, opponent level and the level of the championship
they play in. For the full integration approach (Figure 5.1) to be effective, it is
important for the clubs to consider its own performance quantifcation metrics
specifc to the playing style.

Type of conditioning
Teams should continually evolve their conditioning practice informed by ad
vances in scientifc evidence to enable players to develop elite levels of ath
leticism to support peak performance [34]. To design training strategies that
maximise performance potential, practitioners must not only have a knowledge
 Conditioning 111

Characteristic ATP-PC energy system Lactic acid system Aerobic energy system

> High intensity (85%+ max HR)

>Resting
Intensity of activity High intensity (95%+ max HR) >Used for increases in intensity during
>Sub maximal intensity (<85%+ max HR)
long duration events when PC has not
restored
The duration that the
energy systems are Short duration (1 – 5 sec) Intermediate duration (5 – 60 sec+) Long duration (75 sec+)
dominant during activity

75 sec+ It is the major contributor in events

Total% event duration 0 – 10sec 10 – 75 sec that are of more than 75 sec in total event
duration

>Anaerobic: power and speed

>Anaerobic: power and speed >Muscular power (when repeated efforts
>Muscular strength (1-3sec) are made during activity. >Aerobic capacity/CV endurance
Fitness components >Muscular power >Muscular strength (isometric >5sec). >Local muscular endurance.
>Dynamic flexibility. >Dynamic flexibility. >Static flexibility
>Agility >Local muscular endurance
>Agility (only if fatiguing)

Abbreviations – HR – heart rate; CV – cardiovascular; ATP-PC – adenosine triphosphate-phosphocreatine

Figure 5.2 Overview of the relationship between different physiological systems and the de
velopment of different ftness components. (Adapted from Morgans et al. [38]).

of the physical demands of the sport but also incorporate knowledge of the
physiological requirements of elite soccer players [35]. The physiological capac
ities soccer players commonly have, which enable them to perform success
fully, include a high level of aerobic and anaerobic conditioning, speed, agility,
strength, and power [34,36]. These capacities are thoroughly investigated and
discussed in previous research, and illustrated in Figure 5.2 [37,38]. However, it
is important to emphasise the complexity of conditioning for the modern soc
cer player. Training programmes need to stress several energy systems, develop
strength and range of movement, and all of which must be incorporated within
a tactical and technical training schedule.

Aerobic capacity
A soccer player’s aerobic capacity is dependent on three elements: maximal
oxygen uptake (VO2MAX ), anaerobic threshold, and work economy [39]. This is
a pivotal conditioning consideration as at least 90% of the energy demands of a
soccer match are aerobic [37]. VO2MAX is positively related to league position,
and increasing VO2max increases the distance covered during a match, linked to
a corresponding 25% increase in ball involvements and 100% increase in number
of sprints performed [40,41]. Extensive research has shown that appropriately
planned training can improve aerobic capacity by affecting multiple factors, in
cluding the strength of the heart muscle, concentration of haemoglobin, capillary
density, and activity of aerobic enzymes which can aid recovery between ex
haustive power demanding sprints and high intensity bouts during matches [41].
Conditioning soccer players specifcally to improve these capacities can use
112 Gary Walker et al.
various methods including traditional running drills, specifcally designed drib
ble tracks and small sided games (SSGs) [39,42]. Additionally, SSG training can
maintain cardiorespiratory ftness whilst eliciting a high level of enjoyment [43].
Where the body uses both aerobic and anaerobic systems to produce energy,
the intensity of activity will determine which system is prominent. Components
of anaerobic capacity have the biggest impact on the outcome of the match and
are characterised by repeated short high intensity activity [44]. To achieve a
high capacity in these key elements, the anaerobic energy systems, including the
ATP PC and anaerobic glycolysis, need to be highly conditioned, affecting ftness
components including speed, strength, power, and agility (Figure 5.2).

Speed
Sprinting is one of the most important activities in soccer, and although sprint
volume (total distance accumulated >25.2 km·h−2) only constitutes approxi
mately 12% of the mean total match distance covered (position dependant),
straight sprinting has been identifed as the single most frequent locomotive
action in goal situations performed by either the scoring or assisting player
[45,46]. Therefore, improving sprint performance is critical. This can be achieved
through specifc sprint training coupled with strength and power training, but
ultimately there is no substitute for running fast progressively and regularly.
Exposure to maximal running speed is widely regarded as a method to improve
physical performance and reduce the risk of injury, most prominently hamstring
related [47,48].

Agility
Specifc to a sporting context, agility is defned as a rapid whole body move
ment with change of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus [49] and is
infuenced by many factors including speed, strength, power, co ordination and
running technique. Suggested to be one of the key performance indicators [50],
players can carry out more than 1,200 changes in direction during the game
[51]. The training of agility can be progressed through technical drills, pattern
running, and then reactive agility training as part of both separated conditioning
elements or integrated soccer work through SSGs. There is no ‘one size fts all’
approach to how elements of conditioning are developed, and the programme
will be dictated by a multitude of factors principally led by the head coach (see
Chapter 11). Overload of each element can be achieved through different meth
ods in the previously mentioned forms of pure conditioning, position specifc or
technical tactical drills, intertwined with a carefully planned strength and power
programme to complement and support these feld loads.

Training approaches to conditioning

There is no one distinct way to develop players conditioning levels on the feld.
Over time, there have been a multitude of approaches utilised by professional
 Conditioning 113
soccer teams to optimise conditioning, with advantages and disadvantages to
each of their approaches. Finding the balance between technical/tactical de
velopment, and physical conditioning during training, can be a diffcult task if
there is not a clear approach to what the team needs. Performance staff will
often need to adapt to the coach’s preferred style of conditioning, whether
this be isolated conditioning and soccer drills, or a more integrated approach.
Ultimately, it is part of the role of a performance team to identify strengths and
weaknesses of the approach taken, and provide appropriate recommendations
to achieve optimal conditioning, without compromising technical/tactical devel
opment. Being adaptable is an essential attribute for any practitioner undertak
ing this role of applying conditioning concepts to align with tactical objectives.
The following approaches are some of the more common place training meth
odologies utilised in soccer across the globe (Figure 5.3):

• Isolated
• Hybrid
• Integrated

Isolated approach
The isolated approach to training in soccer usually involves separating soccer
drills and physical drills with the objective of prioritising one of these objectives
at a time (physical, technical, or tactical). This type of approach can be simpler
in design, however, has the potential to compromise one of the objectives due
to its isolated approach. Separate conditioning blocks, if managed appropriately,
can lead itself to being a very effective modality to improving the team’s physical
condition. The same can be said for tactical drills whereby there is no restric
tion for the coach, enabling them to really emphasize specifc elements, if nec
essary, without any physical objective. Although many drills will often overlap
objectives by default of the sport, there does not tend to be much deliberate
practice of concepts being integrated together. Whereas the focus leans more
towards achieving one objective unrelated to the specifc game model. With
every approach, there is a spectrum as to what level of isolation or integration
there may be. However, the isolated approach focuses on individual concepts
without addressing the sub principles that lead into a particular concept. For
example, a general possession grid designed to keep the ball without any spe
cifc principles being addressed prior to match play, followed by a 5 10 minute
physical prescription.

Hybrid approach
The hybrid approach aims to incorporate both isolated objectives as well as
integrated objectives. This approach can have a big fuctuation in terms of in
tegration and isolation, however, tends to focus on being integrated with the
supplementation of isolation. Having an integrated mindset towards training
prescription and drill design enables the team/staff to still focus on game model
114 Gary Walker et al.
principles. However, with the advantage of isolating concepts as they see ft to
achieve global objectives. An example of a hybrid approach is high speed run
ning prescriptions at the end of a session. If the desired meterage is not attained
during the session, or as part of the holistic plan towards physical develop
ment, extra controlled high speed running is prescribed. This mixed method
approach if planned appropriately can be an excellent collaboration between
game model development and physical development. It requires effective com
munication between performance and coaching staff to determine where/if iso
lated drills may be required for a training session. Depending on the desires of
the coaching staff, conditioning can be incorporated into a technical drill to lift
its intensity and allow for a conditioning prescription, in conjunction with game
model development. For example, three team possession grid focusing on the
sub principle of reactive collective pressing after ball loss. Following each set of
possession, players perform two linear runs before returning to the drill for the
next set. Extended rest may be required to ensure intensity remains high; how
ever, using the runs between repetitions increases the physical demand, whilst
attaining some high speed running that may not have been achieved.

Integrated approach
The integrated approach to training in soccer uses the game model as a basis to
drive training drills, whilst also incorporating the physical element to each drill.
This approach requires a lot of planning and excellent communication between
technical and performance staff, to ensure each drill is meeting all objectives.
Tactical periodisation has helped teams plan their technical/tactical drills across
the week, to suit the physical objectives required for each day, ensuring physical
adaptations occur. For this approach to be most successful, it is imperative that
the performance staff have a clear understanding of the coach’s game model, as
well as technical skills required for specifc drills. Utilising wearable technology,
such as global positioning systems (GPS), to catalogue each drill is a great tool
to gain thorough understanding of the physical output achieved in each drill.
Where the integrated approach can fail is when neither the physical or tech
nical/tactical objective is achieved during a particular drill, which is often the
result of poor planning, or lack of understanding of a particular variable (physi
cal, technical, and tactical). A common error in the integrated approach can be
when the objective of hitting maximum velocity exposure in training is not met.
If the incorrect drill is chosen to achieve this objective, the player may achieve
neither the physical nor technical/tactical objectives. This can occur if there is
poor implementation of the ball at the wrong time or distances not adequate to
achieve desired speeds. The advantage of the integrated approach is the repeated
practice of principles related to the team’s game model, whilst also striving to
achieve physical intensity during technical/tactical drills leading to more positive
performance transfer in a match context. Drills as simple as a passing sequence in
a warmup, will be based around sub principles related to the team’s game model,
which contribute to achieving the physical theme objectives for that day.
 Conditioning 115

Isolated

Hybrid Integrated

Figure 5.3 Training approach to conditioning.

The warm-up
The warm up is an important time slot for practitioners to prepare their play
ers, as well as developing physical attributes. There are several elements of the
warm up that practitioners need to consider when structuring the variables of
exercises prescribed.

Elements of the warmup

The warm up in soccer provides practitioners with an opportunity to

1 develop physical traits or characteristics,

2 set the tone for the session to follow,
3 implement aspects of injury prevention, and
4 introduce skill session themes.

Ideally, the practitioner is provided with the session details to follow so that the
warm up can be tailored to suit the themes of the skills session. For example,
if the session is to involve SSGs, then it is best the warm up includes aspects of
agility and reaction time. Regardless of the specifc themes of the skills session
to follow, the warm up represents an ideal period for the players to be exposed
to fundamental movement patterns such as acceleration, deceleration, change
of direction, and essential collision work.
Sample:
A typical warm up for a SSG session might look like

• 0-10 minutes – Muscle activation and individual prep – typically this

may happen indoors and possibly involve dynamic resistance work (us
ing bands) and basic injury prevention exercises (e.g. ankle mobility/
proprioception);
116 Gary Walker et al.
• 10-15 minutes – dynamic movement based actions such as walking lunges,
carioca, leg swings, run throughs etc. this section can involve basic ball
passing/dribbling to apply specifcity to the warm up; and
• 15-20 minutes – ballistic movements such as sharp accelerations/decel
erations, plyometrics, change of direction (COD). This section ought to
include the ball and include similar movements to those which will occur
later in the session.

Ideally, warmups should not last more than 15 20 minutes, depending on the
manager/head coach preference and the session to follow. It is crucial that the
practitioner understands the preferences of both the manager and players and
tailor the warmups accordingly. If, for example, a manager/head coach prefers
shorter warmups without the use of the ball, then practitioners should look
for other opportunities to develop physical traits, perhaps indoors prior to the
warmup during ‘activation’ sessions.

Drill design
Practitioners will often make suggestions to soccer specifc drills to aid in the
physical preparedness of players. Variables within soccer drills can be altered
to create various physical adaptations. Utilising match data can help guide
practitioners with feedback on the intensity of specifc drills. Thus, practi
tioners can provide coaches with recommendations on how to alter drills
to illicit desired physical adaptations. However, as aforementioned, coaches/
managers may not always adhere to the recommendations, resulting in addi
tion prescriptions by practitioners. Prescriptions can be with or without the
ball, dependant on many variables, and implemented in different portions of
the training session.

Peak match intensity and drill design

Although activity profles have been well documented throughout various lev
els of competition in soccer [52], various novel methods have been used to
investigate the most demanding passages of play. A rolling duration method to
determine peak intensities throughout match play has been used to investigate
a variety of sports (Figure 5.4) [53–55]. Specifcally, when investigating profes
sional soccer, identifying the most demanding passages of play can be used to
assist coaches and practitioners in prescribing training intensities [56,57]. The
most demanding passages of play vary dependent on several factors, including
contextual elements (score line, tactics, formations etc) as well as position,
physical qualities, and environmental factors. However, by constructing activity
profles categorised by position, period of play, and tactical formation, practi
tioners and coaches are better informed on the individual physical demands
of match play [56]. Furthermore, the outlined activity profles can aid prac
titioners and coaches in prescribing and modifying training variables to elicit,
 Conditioning 117

Figure 5.4 Extracted GPS data from a 1st half (45 minute period). A 5 minute rolling
average applied to speed (m·min−1) and acceleration (m·s−2). The red dot in
dicates the peak intensity for a 5 minute period during match play for the
associated variables.

or even exceed, true “game like” intensity. Thus, creating desired conditioning
adaptations of the appropriate energy systems (as aforementioned; Figure 5.2).

Running only conditioning prescriptions

Performance practitioners should consider the following variables before incor
porating running as a conditioning stimulus into a team’s training programme:

1 Timing – time of week, month, and season

2 Individual player training loads – do all players require extra work or
a select few
3 Manager/player biases/preferences – do the players and/or manager
‘buy in’ to extra conditioning with or without the ball?

Once the above points have been considered and extra conditioning is agreed
to, where possible, performance staff should ensure the conditioning is specifc
to the players and, ideally the individual positional requirements of each player.
For example, the ‘outside’ players (full backs, wingers) ought to perform sepa
rate conditioning to the ‘inside’ players (central midfelders, central defenders).
The work to rest ratios of each position should be established, preferably dur
ing the hardest parts of the game (peak match intensity), and the conditioning
drills should be based on these requirements. The next decision to decide is
whether to incorporate the ball into the prescribed conditioning work.
118 Gary Walker et al.
Conditioning without the ball
Conditioning without the ball offers several advantages, such as;

• set times/distances,
• competition between players, and
• specifc – majority of individual running is without ball at feet, during
match play

If work without the ball is preferred, the conditioning should focus primarily on
high intensity and/or sprint running. These sessions should be:

• Specifc – both in terms of distance (i.e. replicate/overload match dis

tances and number of efforts covered in specifc positions) and work to
rest ratios (i.e. replicate/overload the work and rest periods each position
demands in the match)
• Periodised – these sessions need to be appropriately progressed and placed
in the calendar so as not to negatively infuence training or match outputs.

EXAMPLE

An example of a conditioning session, without the use of a soccer ball may look
like the following.

• Session Title – High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) mid season top up
for central midfelder.
• Parameters –
• 1:3 Work-to-rest ratio. (to match game demands)
• Speed (approximately) = 6–7 m·s−1
• Total High-speed distance [HSR] (>5.5 m·s−1) = 300 m
• Total Time = 3 mins
• Details –
• 2 × 60 m@8.5 s work and 24 s recovery
• 2 × 50 m@7 s work and 21 s recovery
• 2 × 40 m@6 s work and 18 s recovery

One of the advantages of this type of session is it can be manipulated to achieve

various physiological demands. For example, the above session can be manipu
lated to be more aerobic in nature, such as the following.

• Session Title – HIIT pre season aerobic top up for Central midfelder
• Parameters –
• 1:1 work-to-rest ratio (to match game demands)
• Speed (approximately) = 5–6 m·s−1
• Total High-speed distance [HSR] (>5.5 m·s−1) = 450 m
• Total Time = 3.5 minutess
 Conditioning 119
• Details –
• 2 × 60 m@11 s work and 11 s recovery
• 2 × 50 m@9 s work and 9 s recovery
• 2 × 40 m@7 s work and 7 s recovery

Conditioning with the ball

Some coaches insist on using the ball during conditioning sessions. This type of
conditioning can be more specifc to the game and more enjoyable to players.
The above sessions can be altered to include the ball via:

• Adding passing/shooting after various distances (e.g. for the 60 m runs –

sprint 30 m, pass into a target then sprint 30 m to return to start
• Adding skill execution (passing, juggling, etc.) during the recovery periods
in between sprint bouts

EXAMPLE

Fullback extensive top up:

• 2 × 5 Overlap with cross + recovery run to defensive position (Figure 5.5). 60 s

recovery between reps, 2 minutes recovery between sets.

The use of SSG for conditioning

Some coaches prefer to perform all conditioning with SSGs. This type of condi
tioning offers many advantages including the inclusion of tactics, skills and deci
sion making during the conditioning process. However, this type of conditioning

Figure 5.5 Extensive top up conditioning: fullback position specifc.

120 Gary Walker et al.
requires careful planning as often these games result in lower sprint/high speed
numbers than players experience during matches. The following sections will
cover the technical, tactical, and environmental constraints used to increase the
physical demands of SSGs.

Constraints and drill design

Just as technical staff will use constraints in the design of drills to achieve tech
nical and tactical objectives, applying constraints to drills can also aid in desired
physical adaptation [58]. Rather than solely isolating soccer drills and condition
ing drills, integration via the modifcation of constraints can lead to achieving
physical objectives in conjunction with technical and tactical goals. Figure 5.6
highlights key constraints that can be modifed to elicit desired physical objec
tives [42].
One of the most important physical components of training is the level of
intensity, therefore the signifcance of using constraints to raise intensity is
fundamental to the physical development of professional soccer players [46].
Understanding of peak match intensities can create a blueprint for drill design
to ensure players are performing at peak match intensity for targeted varia
bles (average speed and average acceleration) [55,57]. Using the peak match
intensity data points can be a reference for drills to whether they result in
true ‘game like’ speeds. However, it may not always be appropriate to train
at, or above, the peak match intensities. Specifcally, the taper phase of the
microcycle may contain drills that focus on more tactical/technical elements,
requiring multiple stationary periods where coaches are instructing on tac
tical implications leading to the upcoming opponent. Therefore, comparing

Drill Dimensions - small, medium, big

Constraints
Numbers - 1v1 -11v11 or uneven

Task constraints (rules) - ball touches, zones, pressing rules,

offside, scoring strategies
Work : Rest - intensive or extensive prescription

Equipment - balls available, big vs small goals vs no goals

Opposition - Positional weighing. I.E. Defenders vs midfielders

Support players - such as bumpers/neutrals

Figure 5.6 Examples of constraints within technical drills.

 Conditioning 121

Figure 5.7 A 5v5 small sided game example.

peak match intensities to drills is best suited for the physical acquisition days
of the microcycle (Figures 5.4 and 5.7).
Additionally, the level of coach drive can also elicit different outcomes to the
physical output. Specifcally, coach encouragement has shown to increase the
physical output of players compared to no coach driving intensity [59]. There
fore, there is great importance of the practitioner’s collaboration with technical
staff when it comes to drill design, as each constraint can have a tactical element
attached that may or may not ft in with the club’s/team’s game model or phi
losophy of play. Understanding various elements of technical drills is essential
in achieving desired physical objectives. The following questions can aid in the
design of drills:

• What is the main conditioning objective? Aerobic, anaerobic?

• What physical variable are we looking to overload?
• Are we overloading a drill at peak match intensity or beyond?
• What type of training day is it? Intensive/extensive, etc.?
• What level are the players at physically? Is it appropriate for the cohort of
players?
• What are the technical, tactical, and psychological implications of each drill?
122 Gary Walker et al.
Table 5.1 Example of constraints within a 5v5+Goalkeepers drill

5v5 + Goalkeepers (GK)

Constraints
Dimensions 50 m × 35 m
Work: Rest 4 × 4 min: 90 s
Touches on ball Two touches max
Offside No offside
Defensive strategy Must press the ball
Restarts Always from GK – 3 s max
Support players None
Equipment Multiple balls on side of goal
Support staff Serving balls to GK

Drill comments

Average acceleration greater than peak match intensity

Great aerobic and anaerobic conditioning stimulus (increased time above 85% HR
max)
Increased technical demand with increased technical actions
High player enthusiasm and motivation

Common errors with drill design

Figure 5.8 highlights common errors that can occur with drill design in profes
sional soccer. Without astute understanding of drill constraints and the affect
they have on the drill being designed, the desired physiological adaptations may
not be achieved. For example, if the SSG highlighted in Table 5.1 (5v5+GK) is
played for 2 × 8 minutes instead of the recommended 4 × 4 minutes, players
will be exposed to a different training stimulus. Although it still achieves the
same total volume from a duration standpoint (16 minutes), the intensity of
these games will likely be compromised and played under the desired intensity.
Similarly, decreasing the dimensions of this drill from 50 m × 35 m to 35 m ×
25 m will reduce the game speed and overall playing area per individual player.
Coach intervention or the stop starting of a particular drill is commonplace in
soccer, and often a very valuable and necessary process to ensure drill stand
ards remain high, and learning takes place. However, it must be understood
the potential negative affects this can have on the physical response of drills,
particularly if the drill is designed to achieve a conditioning stimulus.
 Conditioning 123

Common errors with drill design

• Timings - work:rest inappropriate to maintain intensity

• Stop/starting drill - too frequent stop starting of drill by
techncial staff during games decreasing physical response
• Dimensions - inappropriate dimensions to achieve desired
physical adaptation
• Rules - touch limit inapprorpiate to lift and maintain
desired game speed
• Staffing - not enough avaiable staff to serve balls for quick
restarts
• Equipment - insufficient balls to maintain game speed

Figure 5.8 Common errors with the drill design process.

Barriers to performance and conditioning

As aforementioned, the overall aim of a successful conditioning strategy is to
maximise player availability within the squad, ensuring that each player has the
physical capability to implement the required tactics within the game model of
the head coach, while optimising a players’ readiness for each match to allow
the player to demonstrate this capability. Therefore, to successfully manage the
training requirements of a squad of players throughout a season, it is impor
tant to structure training appropriately using strategies to identify the individual
needs of players, ensuring that those requirements are scientifcally planned and
delivered within the constraints of the annual fxture schedule [1]. It is therefore
vital for the practitioner to consider several sources of objective and subjective
information on a daily, weekly, and time phase period, in order to design the
ideal training programme given the considerable number of constraints that ex
ist. These considerations are summarised in Figure 5.9, and include understand
ing your cohort of players, knowing how hard to train at specifc times of the
season, the head coach’s mentality to ftness and conditioning, together with
the environment that you are training in [1]. There is often no right or wrong
answer to this and is particularly contextual, with successful outcomes combin
ing objective data, experience, and intuition, blending both art and science to
fnd a training ‘sweet spot’ for each player.

Knowing your Cohort of Players

The main consideration for the practitioner when understanding the con
straints and barriers to performance is fully understanding your players within
a squad. Each player has a unique set of physical strengths and weaknesses,
together with their individual characteristics, such as age, injury history, and
player life cycle, which can impact upon their future risk and performance. For
example, it is known that older players with previous injury are at increased
124 Gary Walker et al.

Figure 5.9 Identifying the constraints and barriers to performance within a professional
soccer environment.

risk of sustaining a future injury [60,61]. Successful performance teams routinely

perform a ‘needs analysis’ of each player from a holistic technical, tactical, physi
cal and mental perspective using both objective assessment and subjective infor
mation to identify these strengths and weaknesses (see Chapter 3). Importantly,
this must be aligned with the game model of the head coach, identifying the
positional role requirements for each player in all phases of the game (attack,
defence, and transitional moments, both in and out of possession). By undertak
ing this process, each player can then be provided with a personal development
plan by which the multi disciplinary high performance team can begin to more
effectively plan and periodise training. For example, a needs analysis can be used
to identify a mismatch between a young full back with only moderate aerobic
capability in a team in which the head coach wants him or her to perform con
tinuous overlapping runs in attack. By combining objective data collection with
subjective information, the performance practitioner may prescribe individual
position specifc high intensity aerobic training at the appropriate time to im
prove the players aerobic capability in performing match specifc actions, to aid
their on feld performance.
The next major consideration is to understand each players’ individual situ
ation within a playing squad. For example, whether they are a starting player,
substitute, non starter, or injured or suspended which may provide additional
conditioning opportunities. By adopting a holistic monitoring system, the per
formance practitioner can identify the acute training and match load that the
 Conditioning 125
player has experienced together with the chronic load over a particular period.
Key questions to ask include the following:

• What was the players most recent match or training load?

• What has been their match/training load density in a particular period?
• How much time for training is there until the next match for each player?

The fnal barrier to performance at the individual level is identifying where each
player is at on any given day and how they are responding to the imposed de
mands that have been placed upon them. This can be ascertained by performing
daily and weekly objective and subjective monitoring assessments to determine
each players’ time course of recovery (see Chapter 6).

Knowing How Hard to Train

Elite soccer players are required to produce successful performances across
many weeks and months throughout a season, and not just peak for a small
number of competitions as in other sports. In team based sports such as soc
cer, however, the end stage of the competitive season usually consists of the
most important matches in both league and cup competitions. For this reason,
practitioners are required to optimise the preparation and performance of play
ers on a weekly basis, yet deliver them in the best condition to compete for
the major prizes at the end of the season. In designing an appropriate training
plan, it is important to consider the ftness fatigue model, which proposes
that different training stressors result in different physiological responses
[62]. These stressors result in two after effects, ftness and fatigue, and their
interaction can positively or negatively infuence performance. Understanding
this model, together with each player’s individual response to the training
stimulus will further allow the practitioner to optimise player preparation and
performance.

Head Coach’s Philosophy

The head coach’s philosophy to ftness and conditioning is a vitally important
consideration when designing a team training programme. It is fundamental to
understand the game model of the head coach, with a clear understanding of
the physical requirements by position for each player within the team. This
can be quantifed using external load metrics to identify the total distance,
high speed and sprint running requirements during a match. Furthermore, this
should be broken down into the specifc movements that are required in offen
sive, defensive and transitional moments, that are performed both in and out
of possession. This will provide the practitioner with a guide as to the most
important physical actions and parameters to replicate and overload in training
sessions. Following this, communication between the head coach, technical and
conditioning staff is extremely important when subsequently planning training
as there are several philosophical approaches to soccer conditioning.
126 Gary Walker et al.
Environment
The environmental situation can also act as a signifcant barrier to the per
formance of a training programme, notably the altitude and temperature that
training is performed at. Several acute physiological changes are associated with
exercise at altitude, particularly in athletes that are not acclimatised [63]. These
changes have been demonstrated to impair aerobic performance and high
speed running in both youth, male, and female soccer players [64–66]. Further
more, it is reported that in hot conditions, the performance of high intensity
running of players is reduced and that fatigue is associated with hyperthermia
and dehydration [67]. The practitioner working in those environments should
determine the amount of time that their squad of players will have to encounter
the environmental conditions for, before devising an appropriate training and
nutritional strategy for each situation.

Finding the Sweet-Spot

There is no perfect programme or ‘one size fts all’ approach for designing con
ditioning plans for elite soccer players but the goal for the practitioner is to fnd
the training sweet spot for each player within the squad. It is likely that this
blend of art and science will require the combination of objective and subjec
tive information, together with experience and intuition; however, a number of
guiding questions can assist in this process:

• How ft is ft enough?
• How do you know?
• Are the players physically capable of executing the game model of the head
coach (technical and tactical) for >90 minutes and for multiple matches per
week?
• Are the players physically and mentally ‘ready’ for the next match?

Within this process, it is vital to be data informed, collecting meaningful ob

jective information about each player’s training load (both acute and chronic),
together with their response to the imposed demands (see Chapters 6 and 7).
With the increased utilisation of technology within elite soccer, monitoring
each player’s response may involve physiological, autonomic, biomechanical,
and musculoskeletal objective markers, but it is important to maintain human
interactions with players and to speak with them about how they feel within the
training environment.
The ‘holy grail’ for the performance practitioner is to determine the optimal
dose of training for each player to allow them to be available for matches, with
capability to execute the game model whilst being in an optimal state of readi
ness to perform successfully.
 Conditioning 127
Practical application
One could be forgiven in thinking that the element of ‘conditioning’ for a team
sport, such as soccer, is a relatively straight forward entity. Nevertheless, the
topic is far more complex than we might frst think and subsequently requires
a much deeper understanding of the individual make up of each team and fur
thermore the status of each player as we transition from day one of pre season
through to the fnal competitive game at the business end of the year.

Starting point
As aforementioned, once presented with a large majority of the variables which
may dictate the base of a periodisation model, a backroom staff can begin to
construct an effective strategy to prepare players from a technical, tactical,
and physical standpoint. With enough detail, it becomes possible to plan and
prepare not only for the immediate future but also for the longer term in the
form of a mesocycle or macrocycle. Practitioners must pick a theoretical start
ing point to begin exploring the variety of conditioning practices available for
soccer, and as a result, it would be only appropriate to begin at the start point
of every season; the pre season.
This specifc time of the year lends itself to being possibly the best time to
programme any form of ftness and conditioning. We are effectively not only
dealing with a ‘blank canvas’ of readiness states across a group on return from
an off season break, but also this time of year can be portrayed as far less cha
otic than the in season period, where we must deal with multiple competitions
and many more extraneous variables. Despite this, the ability to have all players
at a similar ‘readiness state’ should not signify that we can comfortably lump all
our athletes on an identical conditioning programme expecting identical results.
Instead, we should look to prescribe workloads in a relative manner to allow
our players to develop in the most optimal way for their individual physical
make up, whilst avoiding any incidents of overreaching and subsequently over
training (see Chapter 8). With reasonable resources and staffng, it should be
possible to group athletes into varying subunits to cater to their individual and
positional needs. These subgroups could be dependent on a large series of fac
tors such as age, training history, skill level, and, of course, conditioning status,
normally quantifed via a range of testing modalities on the return from the pre
scribed off season. Through doing so, we avoid the ‘one size fts all’ approach
to conditioning, and instead incorporate a manageable level of individualisation
within the wider context of preparing to meet the overarching team goals for
the season to follow.
Once in suitable subgroups, most clubs will begin with a general preparatory
phase, whereby players are re introduced to the fundamental demands of the
game carefully, and basic aerobic qualities will be developed to be able to cope
128 Gary Walker et al.
with the demands of a more specifc preparatory phase which will subsequently
follow. The total length of such a phase is highly variable depending on the
length of pre season but could be anywhere between fve days to three weeks.
From this point forward, there are many ways to construct the remainder of a
pre season conditioning plan for a team, with some clubs opting for traditional
large volumes of work in the initial stages of the mesocycle in order to ‘push’
physical ftness levels after a period of inactivity, whilst other approaches will
work on more of a careful graduation of training load through the allocated
pre season period to prolong physical status throughout a 10–11 month season.
Regardless of which, a large majority of teams will facilitate their conditioning
philosophy through a linear periodisation model and will commonly transition
from more of ‘larger volume based’ aerobic style blocks in the initial weeks, to
more of a position specifc based ‘explosive’ and ‘realisation’ phase immediately
prior to the beginning of competition and at the end of pre season.
One conditioning method which is becoming more popular, and one which
would suit this ‘big to small’ linear transition model through pre season,
is the implementation of large to small sided games. The transition from a
quantity of large sided games (LSGs) through to medium and then chrono
logically, small, offers a transition model of differing physical qualities, which
could be treated as possibly the most ‘specifc’ conditioning modality. An LSG
format can be portrayed as a conditioning modality which brings about a sim
ilar rate of perceived exertion (RPE) as a medium or small format, however,
will yield much greater total and higher speed running distances for every
minute played, but at a lower heart rate. Essentially, a lower intensity yet
volume producing aerobic workout. In contrast, from both a technical and
physical standpoint, the smallest format of games (4v4–5v5 including GK’s),
can be observed to have a much greater occurrence of explosive and intense
technical actions when contrasted to its larger counterparts. As such, there
is a fair argument to suggest that by beginning pre season with LSGs, when
there is a greater requirement for a strong aerobic and volume foundational
base, before then transitioning through and to a form of more ‘intense’ SSGs
could be a protocol worth considering regardless of the standard of soccer.
Away from the extensive literature and data which has been completed sur
rounding this area of physical performance and conditioning, there are also some
parallel thought processes which should be considered to help the understand
ing of why such a method may be useful for a pre season period. As discussed
earlier in this chapter, there is an ever growing need to prescribe work in a rel
ative manner to our players, and through the early implementation of LSGs, we
partially address this issue directly, even if only on a positional basis. Secondly,
another consideration as to why to begin with LSGs in comparison to a SSG,
is the reduction in shooting, which, when returning from a period of reduced
activity (sometimes 4 6 weeks), could be advantageous as to not be faced with a
‘spike’ in acute load from a shooting perspective, and be faced with a form of re
petitive overuse injury. The same can be said about plyometric exposure when
the stimulus is downregulated for some time due to a similar period of inactivity.
 Conditioning 129
Table 5.2 A sample template of constraints for a pre season ‘games based’
conditioning programme

Small-sided games – Medium-sided games Large-sided games

4v4-5v5 (inc GK) – 6v6-8v8 (inc GK) – 9v9-11v11 (inc
GK)

Duration 90 s – 3 min 3–6 min 8–12 min

Repetition 4–8 3–6 2–4
Total volume 12–24 min 18–36 min 14–48 min
Frequency + X1 2 per week (four X2 per week (four X2 per week
volume total sessions) total sessions) (four total
sessions)
Other Coach Coach Coach
encouragement, encouragement, encouragement,
Competition Competition Match format
format, limited format
touches (1–2)

Finally, through beginning with a structured and planned 11v11 approach, we are
essentially engineering in reverse from the frst pre season friendly match which
commonly consists of players having to complete somewhere in the region of
45 minutes of match play. For that reason, by following a potential programme
like that seen in Table 5.2, we could comfortably work towards a total volume
of 30–40 minutes of 11v11 in smaller repetitions to best prepare for this frst
‘big’ physical acute load of the season.
The second phase of pre season essentially consists of players beginning to
play friendly matches to gain match exposure. Many teams will progressively
build their athletes through a process of 45 to 90 minutes of match load over
a three to four game schedule. As a result, depending on the length of a given
pre season, in conjunction with a well planned conditioning model, it is fair
to assume that a large group of players within a squad will be at a relatively
similar place from a ftness perspective. However, as a squad transitions from
this ‘match exposure’ period into a competitive game schedule, the ability to
prescribe specifc practices to two to three subgroups and/or utilise an LSG
to SSG protocol as aforementioned becomes far more challenging. Specifcally,
the selection of players moves from an all inclusive ftness driven approach, to
almost exclusively being led by results and performance. Consequently, this
evokes a far less linear process of match exposure, and can result in two to
three subgroups forming, into a large spectrum of ftness states across a team.
130 Gary Walker et al.
The ‘Grey Zone’
A typical ‘in season’ mesocycle seen across large parts of Europe can be a need
for teams to compete every 72–96 hours, depending on the number of competi
tions exposed to [68]. The result of such a schedule is that ‘acquisition/condition
ing days’ essentially being replaced by the game day itself. The main playing squad
falls into a routine of the most important physiological stimulus now being that
of the actual match [69]. What this means is that the playing group is effectively
moved towards a ‘High Low’ loading model, whereby they are either stimulated
by a Match Day, or preparing for the upcoming fxture through a range of recov
ery modalities (see Chapter 8). This is essentially a maintenance model and the only
opportunities to implement any conditioning opportunities would be either when
a player is suspended, a non selected player or in the later stages of competitions
when perhaps there is a slightly less congested period of matches.
However, if we take the previous example, there is one stand out opportu
nity to implement ‘conditioning’ elements into a week, and that is of course with
the players who are restricted match minutes, either due to non selection or
a lack of playing time (<30 mins). Unlike the ‘High Low’ model which starting
players may be exposed to, those athletes left on the fringe of a squad require a
far more complex level of ftness application, and it is up to the physical perfor
mance coaches to best align all players (see Chapter 10).

The Match Day ‘Top Up’

Although one of the most important and hectic days of the week from a frst
team perspective, the match day itself provides many small pockets of oppor
tunity ideal for the ‘underloaded’ athlete and should be seen as an opportunity
missed if not utilised maximally. This theory holds even more weight during
congested periods when the availability of a high training stimulus for the
whole group is signifcantly reduced. Nevertheless, several practical and logis
tical considerations may modulate what specifc activities can be performed
directly after a match ends, and as such it is imperative that we touch upon
these to highlight how best to approach the conditioning possibilities [70].
As in almost every sport, professional soccer fxtures are played either at
home or at a venue away from the club’s facilities, and in the case of the latter;
it can be assumed that an extent of travel is required. In turn, it can be assumed
that many away trips will be concluded by a return journey taking place im
mediately post game. This of course provides a challenge to the physical per
formance coach who must fnd the optimal way to deliver a training stimulus
before re joining the rest of the staff and players. Supplement this initial time
constraint with the possibility of a restricted use of the playing surface or even
detailed tactical debriefs, and the practitioner is left with a very small window of
opportunity. To add even further context, guidelines from the English Premier
League and several other leagues throughout Europe state that it is not permit
ted for players to train on the same pitch that the game was played on for any
 Conditioning 131
more than 15 minutes after each game [71]. Therefore, we can safely assume
that practitioners should be focusing their ‘top up’ conditioning practices to
wards strategies that have a duration of between fve and ten minutes.
This limiting time factor, in addition to the other uncontrollable restrictions,
such as constraints on the usage of specifc areas of the pitch and even con
fnes of specifc movement patterns by ground staff, essentially dictates that the
Match Day Top Up needs to be short, effective, and most likely in a linear fash
ion. This may best suit different forms of high speed running, repeated sprint,
or even maximal speed exposure. Any other work generally includes a form of
change of direction which may not be deemed ‘acceptable’ on an opposition or
even home grounds playing surface.
Where and when practical, practitioners may fnd it useful to implement differ
ent conditioning strategies for each positional subgroup. Figure 5.10 presents one
method which looks to address this through using a variety of distances and tempos.
Anecdotally, this type of work completed at around 70% effort, followed by
periods of extended active or passive rest (typically up until the start of the
next minute, for example, 8 s work; 52 s rest) allows for high quality of move
ment whilst also achieving large volumes of high speed running, without the
promotion of an injury risk. In addition, and although trivial, tempo runs also
allow for the entire ‘subgroup’ of top up players to complete the same total
duration of exercise vs all players completing an identical exercise prescrip
tion but perhaps a different number of reps. Furthermore, Table 5.3 outlines
just some of the positional differences between such an approach and how it
may be prescribed.

Figure 5.10 Position specifc high speed running protocol.

132 Gary Walker et al.
Table 5.3 Post match top up – position specifc tempo run prescription example

Wide defender

Shuttle distance Duration Rest HSR yied per Prescription

rep
105 m 16 s 44 s 80–90 m 1 × 10 or 2 × 6

Central defender

Shuttle distance Duration Rest HSR yied per Prescription

rep
52 m 8s 52 s 35–40 m 1 × 10 or 2 × 6

Alternatives for volume

It could be acceptable to purely focus on ‘off the ball’ exercises to directly address
any defciencies in higher volume training loads for the non playing subgroup; how
ever, as with any type of physical preparation work, it is important to understand
how and when is the best and most appropriate time to implement such methods.
If we are to consider these conditioning exercises, it is imperative that we account
for not only training quality and intensity but also player enjoyment and ‘buy in’,
especially with this group of players who may be at a different motivational state
compared to those who are included and involved in regular match play.
An example ‘off the ball’ exercise modality which could be useful to implement
for such a purpose would be in the form of aerobic blocks, which are essentially
continuous bouts of running at a given submaximal intensity. A representation
of such a modality was researched and illustrated that ‘aerobic interval training’
in the form of 4 × 4 minutes continuous running at 90%–95% maximal heart,
performed twice per week and as an extension to regular training, signifcantly
improved an array of physiological parameters in addition to in game physical
outputs after only eight weeks [72]. Furthermore, without the authors reporting
how much extra work was summated using such practices, it could be speculated
that somewhere in the region of an additional 1000–1200 m total running dis
tance may be covered during each block of four minutes, which would signifcantly
elevate the volume parameters accumulated for each training session. The same
principles can be attributed to long distance tempo runs and even repeated sprint
exercise modalities, which both have the capability to improve aerobic base whilst
eliciting additional running demands. Nevertheless, all such modalities in general
fail to meet the intermittent and varying speed characteristic of soccer, and as
 Conditioning 133
such it is fair to conclude that choices to implement these modes of training
should be based only on practical necessity [73].
A fnal thought to consider on a topic already highlighted within this chapter is
the use of SSGs. This type of conditioning modality tends to have an inability to
meet the ‘volume’ demands from a distance and high speed running perspective
required for the non playing subgroup. However, it could be feasible that through
a careful manipulation of certain conditioning constraints, there may be a possibil
ity to provide a stimulus which is more suited to replacing the demands missed via
‘non selection’. Specifcally, a research study suggested that using a 200 m² play
ing area per outfeld individual instead of a 100 m² alternative induces additional
volume load based metrics such as total running distance and distance spent at
higher speed thresholds [74]. As such, this type of manipulation of constraints
could be extremely advantageous for physical performance coaches in search
for the perfect modality to apply to our ‘non starters’. Although such conditions
would need to be carefully planned to not create working areas which are unre
alistic for the players to perform in, whilst maintaining the required intensity and
motivation.

Conditioning during congested periods

Table 5.4 portrays a potential method of how it may be possible to prescribe
certain physical stimuli to a group of players even when faced with a congested
fxture period. Understandably, the ‘match day’ itself will essentially be the most
physically demanding exposure throughout the week and will accommodate two
working days of a microcycle such as that highlighted. Thereafter, and depending
on the working philosophy of a backroom staff, the day following a match and
the subsequent one after as ‘non acquisition days’. On these specifc days, players
should be persuaded to do very little due to them being situated directly within
a cycle of recovery. There may also be an opportunity to complete some form of
off feet physical work such as upper body strength and/or even where desired, it
may also be feasible for athletes to perform some form of low intensity steady
state aerobic work on one or two of these days if an athlete feels it may help re
duce markers of fatigue or soreness.
Accordingly, if continuing to follow the schedule proposed in Table 5.4, we
are essentially left with only two acquisition days of which could be utilised to
integrate a form of physical development. After a thorough recovery period of
48 60 hours, players are required to re group for MD 2 and train in prepara
tion for the upcoming fxture. Subsequently, this is almost the only opportunity
to implement any form of conditioning work into a session and the warm up
can play a signifcant role in offering an opportunity to implement such. On the
assumption, 15 minutes will be attributed to the warm up phase of a session;
after an effective ‘Raise’, ‘Activation’ and period of Mobility work, practitioners
are potentially left with somewhere in the range of fve to seven minutes of
duration to utilise for the development of physical capabilities.
In addition to the warm up on MD 2 being a possible window of opportu
nity for implementation of physical work, there is also an argument to further
 134 Gary Walker et al.
Table 5.4 A proposed schedule for conditioning and athletic development stimuli during a
two game week separated by four days*

Match
Match day MD+1 MD ¯ 3 MD ¯ 2 MD ¯ 1
day
Conditioning
stimulus

Small medium
sided games
Recovery + Regeneration (low level steady state aerobic work if desired)
(underloaded)
Match Exposure (100% Volume + Intensity)

Match Exposure (100% Volume + Intensity)

Reactive/
Acceleration cognitive
stimuli

Maximal speed
Priming +
exposure (for
Potentiation
reduced minute
Rest day
Athletic development stimulus

activities
players)

Movement Movement
quality quality

Running based
Mobility
plyometrics

And/or

Change of
direction

Deceleration

On pitch
strength
Qualities
Dependent on match minutes.

increase the physical stimulus of such training sessions via the implementation
of small medium sided games. Through doing so in perhaps an underloaded man
ner, with a greater number of teams (three teams for one pitch), a smaller playing
area and perhaps no limitation on the number of touches, we might be able to
provide an environment which induces a small quantity of aerobic conditioning,
without causing excessive tiredness or fatigue for the upcoming match day.
Ultimately, the prescription of conditioning is very complex and much more
diffcult than what it may frst seem to those entering the industry. As a practi
tioner, it is imperative that we continue to look for new ways to deal with the
multiple subgroups which make up a squad of players; however, the fundamental
takeaway should be that we must strive to provide as much individualism as
possible, especially if we are to give our athletes the best possible environment
to perform and remain robust and injury free.
 Conditioning 135
Conclusion
The importance of conditioning in professional soccer cannot be understated,
and is a prerequisite to high performance, injury prevention and increasing
overall player availability. Maximising physical output from drills and warm ups
becomes important for the physical development of players and must be uti
lised as an opportunity to increase physical capacities, where appropriate. Drill
constraints can be implemented to increase the physical demand of drills; how
ever, it must be a collective decision with coaching staff as to the implication
that these constraints can have on technical/tactical behaviours. Knowing your
cohort of players, the environment, the head coach’s philosophy on training,
upcoming fxtures, and the training loads of past, present and future will heavily
infuence how conditioning is applied in your setting. Where possible, applying
a more individualised approach to conditioning is considered advantageous. It
is recommended that an evidence based approach, combined with craft knowl
edge and an understanding of training culture be used to formulate best practice
conditioning principles to the holistic programme.

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74 Castillo, D., et al., Infuence of different small-sided game formats on physical and phys-
iological demands and physical performance in young soccer players. The Journal of
Strength & Conditioning Research, 2021. 35(8): p. 2287–2293.
6 Player monitoring and
practical application
Andrea Riboli, Lewis MacMillan, Alex Calder
and Lorcan Mason

Overview of monitoring
Within current professional sport, the monitoring of athletes has become a cor-
nerstone of the daily training schedule. The monitoring systems implemented
by the performance and medicine departments within clubs are dependent on
its ability to reliability and accurately quantify the training dose and the indi-
vidual response to the training dose of each player. This information, in turn,
is then used to inform and assist the actions that are taken in terms of future
planning of the training process to maximize player availability and performance
through understanding the complex relationships between the training dose,
performance outcomes, injury, and illness [1–6].
Specifically, soccer is vastly moving towards a higher physical and technical re-
quirement. Moreover, players are faced with an even more congested schedule,
especially for those competing in both national and international competitions.
These factors lead to an even more complex and challenging training load man-
agement. For instance, teams playing in national championships, national cups,
and international competitions (e.g. UEFA, CONCACAF, and AFC Champions
Leagues) are faced with a very congested fixture schedule with often three
matches per week. Additionally, also the transition periods (i.e. the off-season
periods) are reduced for players competing with their national teams (i.e. in
international tournaments such as World-, Europe-, Asian- and African-Cups).
Therefore, coaches and sport scientists often have to be agile in their periodisa-
tion to account for match schedule; the competitive schedule negatively affects
the training availability (e.g. due to a greater amount of recovery sessions for
players who play the whole match), reducing the time for performance develop-
ment and testing procedures.
The abovementioned complex scenario demands the need for coaches and
practitioners to create a consistent analysis of information collected during
practice (e.g. pre-training, post-training, on-field practice, and gym sessions).
Meaning, that a detailed comprehension of the information collected daily dur-
ing both training and matches should be integrated to inform performance and
medical staffs about player readiness, performance development, and the reha-
bilitation process, when required. Therefore, in elite soccer, the performance

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200420-6
140 Andrea Riboli et al.
and medical staff need to comply with objective and subjective information to
maximize player’s performance development, whilst minimizing the risk of injury.

Why we track and monitor

Approach to the problem

Tracking and monitoring players’ well-being, training status, dose, and response
can be accomplished a variety of ways [5, 7]. However, as practitioners, we
must understand the rationale as well as the validity and reliability of the ap-
proaches. It is suggested that when attempting to answer questions within the
performance departments, practitioners employ a systematic approach.
Figure 6.1 illustrates the appropriate steps, via a systematic approach, to de-
fining procedures within a performance department. Developing and fine-tuning
protocols via a systematic approach will help increase sustainability, organiza-
tion, and effectiveness within a multi-disciplinary team [8]. When monitoring
players, it is integral that all members of the performance and medical depart-
ments work cohesively in a systematic manner to effectively execute strategies
and protocols.

Define objective

Choose appropriate
Refine process
methods

Select valid/reliable
Evaluate outcomes materials and
equipment

Assign personnel
Implement
roles and
instructions
responsibilities

Figure 6.1 A systematic approach to solving problems and questions within a perfor-
mance department of an elite soccer organization.
 Player monitoring and practical application 141
The training processes
The ultimate/continuous aim of the training process is to progressively develop
the required qualities of the sport (soccer) in order to improve performance
[2]. This is achieved via the balance between the application of an appropriate
training dose and the time afforded to facilitate adequate recovery for sustained
adaptations [9, 10].
In essence, for adaptations to occur, an overloading training dose must be ap-
plied to the individual and homeostasis must be disturbed resulting in reduced
performance (fatigue) [11]. If appropriate recovery is afforded, adaptations oc-
cur which are protective against further fatigue arising from a similar training
dose [12–14].
In essence, the training-recovery cycle can be partly explained based on three
governing theories [15]:

1 Selye’s general adaptation syndrome theory [11], which describes the body’s
response to a stressor/stimulus.
2 The stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory [16–18], which proposes
that the accumulation of fatigue is in proportion to the duration, volume,
and/or intensity of the stressor/stimulus.
a Furthermore, the frequency of subsequent stressors/stimuli is also cru-
cial in order to optimize performance outcomes, with any subsequent
training occurring during the supercompensation phase [14, 19–21], if the
subsequent stressors/stimuli is applied too soon – the additional fatigue
may accumulate which results in a prolonged return to homeostasis
and reduced performance [19, 22, 23]. However, when the subsequent
stressors/stimuli are applied at the appropriate time, during the super-
compensation phase, performance can be enhanced [10].
3 The fitness-fatigue model [15, 24, 25], which advises that training doses
which minimize fatigue accumulation while also maximizing adaptation will
have the greatest transfer to performance outcomes.

However, to fully explain the training-recovery cycle, practitioners must also

account for the multitude of additional internal psycho-physiological responses/
adaptations that also occur during training which dilute the accuracy of quan-
tifying the training response [26–28], resulting in the complex relationship be-
tween the training dose, performance outcomes, injury and illness [29, 30].
Therefore, a multi-dimensional monitoring approach to evaluate the individual
response to the implied training stressor has become an essential part of in-
forming the training process.

Subjective-objective/internal-external
A key component of any successful monitoring system is its ability to quantify
the training load accurately and reliably. In soccer (along with many sports),
142 Andrea Riboli et al.
training load can be categorized as either external or internal [31]. External
training load refers to the physical work that players are exposed to via spe-
cific training prescriptions. The training prescriptions set by practitioners and
coaches elicit a desired physiological response and adaptation, resembling the
internal training load [32]. Internal training load often refers to the psycho-
physiological response that players/athletes experience in reaction to managing
the requirements provoked by the external training load [31].
The collection of these measures form the foundations of a training process
framework informing the monitoring process [27]. Ultimately, it is the athlete’s
internal load that determines the stress that governs the individual response to
the implied external load training stressor [27].Within the external/internal cat-
egories, measures can be collected subjectively or objectively (Table 6.1). Sub-
jective measures refer to the myriad of internal factors that potentially reflect
mental load, such as fatigue, effort, stress, motivation etc. [33]. Furthermore,
subjective measures have shown to be a vital assessment for determining the
relationship between injury and performance [34, 35].
Even though internal load measures are associated with adaptations, it is
imperative that we understand and quantify the external loads that contribute
to an athlete’s internal response. Due to advancements in technology, the
process of measuring external loads has become widespread across the sport-
ing landscape [36] and is quantified depending on the context of the sport or
mode of training [37].
The advantage of monitoring external loads is that it allows the practitioners
to prescribe training more precisely in advance of the session being carried out

Table 6.1 Examples of external and internal measures, separated by subjective and
objective categories

External

Subjective Objective
• Coaches interpretation • Global Positioning System (GPS)
• E.g. performance output/rating • Video tracking
• Force plate data
• Gym monitoring equipment
• e.g. velocity-based training
• Body weight markers
• Biomechanical analysis

Internal

Subjective Objective
• Wellness questionnaires • Heart rate monitoring
• Rate of perceived exertion (RPE) • e.g. training data, and heart rate
• Pain scales variability (HRV)
• Blood markers
• e.g. creatine kinase
 Player monitoring and practical application 143
based on the valid and reliable variables collected during previous sessions and
the athlete’s prior response to the external load that was prescribed [38]. As
mentioned, how external load is collected and prescribed is context-specific.
However, in field-based team sports, the most commonly used technologies
include both local and global positioning systems, along with accelerometers,
inertial measurement units, and camera-based measurements [2].
Detailing each of these systems and their variables is beyond the scope of this
section; however, they have been extensively researched within the literature
[36, 39–43]. Nonetheless, it is not necessarily how (i.e. the technology used)
the external load is quantified but rather the why (i.e. what is this tool used? Is
it valid? or Is it reliable?), and that is to inform the training process in order to
achieve the desired adaptations imposed by the external load prescribed [27].
As a result, these adaptations, either positive or negative, are what correspond
to the internal load [26, 27].
In view of that, when monitoring athletes, it is recommended that measures
of internal load are used as the primary means of determining the training out-
comes (adaptations) [27]. This is since the internal load borne by an individual
athlete corresponding to a specific external load will vary depending on the spe-
cific contextual factors, along with the nature of the sport [27, 44–47]. Hence,
in a practical sense estimating one’s internal load response prior to training or
performance is at best, what all great practitioners have, an educated guess!
Nonetheless, internal load can be psychological/subjective or physiological/
objective in nature [1, 27, 28] with the methods of assessment being context-
specific [27] based on the nature of the sport and when used in combination
reflects the type of fatigue experienced which will enhance a practitioners un-
derstanding of the internal load experienced to better inform the training pro-
cess [26, 27]. However, it is important to note that when it comes to the level
of evidence of objective and subjective measures, current research [48–50]
demonstrates that there is little relationship between objective and subjective
measures and suggests that subjective measures of internal load were more
stable and responsive to training load.

Assessing fatigue
As aforementioned, the key to any monitoring system is to find the appropriate
balance between an athlete’s level of fatigue and their ability to perform [10, 15,
24–27], while also taking the numerous contextual factors that influence this
equation [27]. Fatigue as a concept is extremely difficult to define due to its
multifaceted origins [2] with numerous definitions proposed in the literature
[6, 51]. Despite this ambiguity, there is mutual agreement that a central com-
ponent of fatigue is the failure to produce or maintain the required force or
power output for a given task that was previously attainable resulting from both
central and peripheral factors [51], including activation of the motor command,
propagation of the action potential through the descending motor pathway,
myofilament excitation-contraction coupling, and the status of the intracellular
milieu [52], which can persist for days at a time if not addressed [53].
144 Andrea Riboli et al.
However, despite this agreement, there is a failure to acknowledge the men-
tal component of fatigue which must be considered [51, 53] due to the sugges-
tion that when fatigue is reported as a symptom by an individual, it can only be
evaluated by self-reporting and categorized as a trait characteristic or state var-
iable [53]. Despite this, physiology remains the central focus of the numerous
models proposed to define fatigue [51, 53, 54], all of which fail to account for the
perception of effort required to maintain the required force or power output
for a given task (i.e. the definition of fatigue) [55]. To address this omission of
perception of effort two main concepts have been developed: the Psychobio-
logical Model of Fatigue (PBM) [55] and Integrative Governor Theory (IGT) [56]
which are defined below; however, it must be noted that there is some criti-
cisms of these concepts [57]. Nevertheless, quantifying an athlete’s fatigue sta-
tus and its time-course remains a central component of any monitoring system
[56, 58]; however, it must be noted that there is no current gold-standard of
measurement and misconceptions are still prevalent within the literature [27].
To account for the ambiguities of the definition, of fatigue, the term ‘Readiness’
has been utilized in athletic populations [1, 59] and has been defined as a state
‘where an athlete has no impairment of physical performance, no mental fatigue
or excessive psychological distress’ [3].

Understanding the physical demands of soccer

The quantification of physical demands has become crucial for leading the
performance development towards an evidence-based practice. Coaches and
practitioners can collect and track a variety of information about the individual-
and team-based training loads during both training and matches. In practice,
daily training load management is manipulated accordingly with the demands
imposed on each player across the day-to-day training routine. To quantify the
locomotor demands, semi-automated video-based tracking technologies and
global-positioning system (GPS) are frequently utilized [60, 61]. Understanding
of the interplay of an athlete’s internal and external training loads is imperative
when attempting to monitor fatigue and optimize performance. The informa-
tion gained by GPS may allow for better analysis and planning of training loads
[61, 62]. However, subsequent match-play data may provide a greater under-
standing of the specific demands during official matches (see Chapter 7).
Locomotor demand can be defined as the work completed by the players,
measured independently of their internal characteristics and physiological re-
sponses [37, 38]. In top-class soccer, semi-automated video-based tracking
technologies, GPS and inertial sensors such as accelerometers, magnetometers,
and gyroscopes allow us to measure the total distance, the distance covered at
different running speed and the distance covered accelerating/decelerating [38].
Tracking technologies, such as GPS and semi-automated video-based tracking
technologies, allow us to determine the locomotor demands imposed on each
player during daily routine (see Chapter 7). However, to better understand the
complexity of individual physiological responses to training [27], we must not
 Player monitoring and practical application 145
forget the importance of the physiological measurements (i.e. internal load)
[27] and the individual cardiorespiratory and metabolic capacities [63–65] that
are still lacking using tracking technologies.

Validity and reliability of tracking technologies

The validity of an instrument reflects the ability to accurately measure what
the device intends to measure [66, 67]. The reliability refers to the reproduc-
ibility of a value on repeat occasions [66, 68]. Despite validity and reliability, it
was also demonstrated that such differences using different tracking technolo-
gies could still exist [69]. Therefore, practitioners should be aware that these
differences may affect the between-systems interchangeability [69]. In real-life
soccer-specific context, GPS and semi-automated video-based tracking technol-
ogies are often utilized during training and match, respectively; this may affect
data comparison. To overlap these differences, an accurate between-systems
comparison should be performed for providing specific calibration equations
as previously proposed for both integrating different tracking technologies [69]
and using match demands as a reference for small-sided games [70].

Monitoring strategies

The use of force plate testing

The force plates are a useful tool in screening, profiling, monitoring and rehabil-
itating elite athletes, especially across competitions and leagues with irregular
and congested competitive schedule [71]. The counter movement jump (CMJ)
is the most detailed test with an easy setup up and great athlete compliance.
Additionally, several research projects stated the validity and reliability of CMJ
[72, 73]. In sports with congested fixture schedules, CMJ has been reported
as the test upon which other results could be compared [71]. When deeper
analysis is required, single leg jumps (SLJ) assessment is strongly recommended.
SLJ and/or SL-CMJ are useful to assess bilateral asymmetry and as an important
benchmark during rehabilitation process (see Chapter 9). The squat jump (SJ)
creates the opportunity to test neuromuscular power during concentric phase,
testing the rate of force and power development without the effect of eccen-
tric and elastic activation as a boost for neuromuscular effort. The drop jump
(DJ) provides information about amortization and the individual ability to jump
after a landing phase; however, the DJ has been reported as less reliable and it
requires a greater familiarization process [73].
Through force plates testing procedures, stakeholders should manage the
training process regarding the individual neuromuscular capacity determined
towards the medium to long term training periodisation. A battery of different
tests such as bilateral and single leg CMJ, SJ, etc. should be administered reg-
ularly (e.g. monthly or weekly) to assess progress on prescribed goals deter-
mining possible potential injuries or negative deviations. The results obtained
146 Andrea Riboli et al.
throughout the season should be compared with the individual’s previous data
to determine possible positive or negative effects by individual standard devia-
tion, coefficient of variation and smallest worthwhile change [74, 75]. As such,
more information collected during in-season and off-season period provide a
more valid and reliable benchmark to assess individual positive and negative
changes in neuromuscular training status.
Several variables can be utilized to determine different neuromuscular as-
pects. The jump height is somewhat representative of generic athletic ability
and relatively easy to administer, given the simplified motivation for athletes.
The reactive strength index modified is a more robust indicator of jump per-
formance inclusive of jump height and contraction time considering both con-
centric and eccentric phases. The Eccentric Utilization Ratio (EUR) between
CMJ and SJ heights is highly recommended to determine the effect of training
on muscle-contraction force excluding pre-activation during eccentric pre-jump
phase [76]. EUR results can be a useful tool to discriminate neuromuscular, power,
and strength requirements, therefore informing the training prescriptions. The rate
of force development (RFD) demonstrates the effectiveness of the neuromuscular
power during both concentric and eccentric phases. In the context of rehabilitation
processes, between-limbs differences, landing analysis and CMJ depth during both
bilateral and SL-CMJ and/or SJ tests should be utilized to determine the effective-
ness of return to play process. Consequently, helping the performance and medical
staff to review objective data together to create collaborative, deliberate plans, thus
ensuring coherence across training prescription for both health and performance
purposes. In conclusion, a strong neuromuscular testing battery (i.e. a composite
score of several neuromuscular tests) should help practitioners to collect informa-
tion for players’ profiling across the season. However, due to the very congested
environment in elite sport, CMJ with reactive strength index (RSI) modified (i.e.
jump height and contraction time) and/or rate of force development analysis may
be a useful and a less-consuming tool to create a consistent neuromuscular assess-
ment across the season. Single leg analysis and other tests (e.g. SJ, DJ, etc.) may help
further analysis and can be utilized in some key-periods during the season or when
particular deeper analysis is required in some players.

The rate of perceived exertion

The physiological demand, also referred as ‘internal load’, can be defined as
the summation of the physiological stimulation/stress imposed during training
activities [38]. This can vary accordingly with the locomotor demands imposed
(e.g. total load, sets, and repetitions) and with the type of training performed
(e.g. strength or endurance exercise) as well as environmental factors. The
heart rate (HR) is one of the best objective ways to quantify aerobic training
intensity [77, 78]. Monitoring players’ HR during training can lead to an indirect
measure of energy expenditure and reflect the rate of the maximum oxygen
uptake [79]. However, HR could fail to describe the individual subjective per-
ception of exercise efforts [37].
 Player monitoring and practical application 147
The rate of perceived exertion (RPE) can help the understanding of stress
each athlete perceived in his/her bodies during exercise, with the assumption
that an athlete might be able to adjust their training intensity using their own
perceptions of effort [80, 81]. Therefore, the RPE is a rating of the overall dif-
ficulty perception of the exercise bout obtained ~30 minutes after the comple-
tion of the training session [82].
It was demonstrated that the RPE correlated to the average HR and acute
changes in HR during steady-state exercise [81], high-intensity interval cycling
[83] and soccer-specific drills [79]. In soccer, it was demonstrated large to very
large correlations (i.e. ranging from 0.50 to 0.85) between HR responses and
RPE-based approach; similarly, the HR-RPE relationship showed very large to
nearly perfect association (i.e. ranging from 0.75 to 0.90) in endurance athletes
[84]. A subsequent review [80] reported large to very large correlations between
RPE and HR, blood lactate, %VO2max, VO2 and ventilation rate [80]. Therefore,
the RPE is extensively used during practice to inform about individual perceived
and physiological responses to exercise at different playing levels [37].
The overall quantification of training load using RPE can be described also
through the session-RPE (sRPE). The sRPE is calculated by multiplying RPE (1–10
scale) by the duration of the exercise or activity (in minutes) [82]. The pattern
of the differences between sRPE and the summated HR zone score during aer-
obic exercise was very consistent [85, 86]. Therefore, RPE was proposed as a
valid and reliable measure of exercise intensity [80, 85, 87]. Practitioners may
consider RPE as a valid tool to report and calculate training load during aero-
bic exercise [87]. Additionally, differential-RPE (dRPE) can be supplemented,
alongside traditional RPE methods, to detect isolated individual differences in
perceived efforts [88].
However, RPE and sRPE cannot replace the HR-based methods due to the
complex interaction of many factors that contribute to the personal perception
of physical effort, including hormone concentrations, substrate concentrations,
personality traits, ventilation rate, neurotransmitter levels, environmental
conditions or psychological states [80, 89]. The RPE-based methods can be
considered as a supplemental tool to detect the perception of effort during
aerobic exercise in conjunction with individual physiological responses (i.e. HR
indexes). Amalgamating the various subjective information (i.e. HR and RPE)
may accurately describe actual physiological and perceived training loads and
their interaction to describe possibly the acute and/or chronic adaptations [37].
Conversely, if HR monitors are not available, the RPE method may give an accu-
rate supplemental assessment of aerobic training load [37, 80, 87].

Self-report measures of wellbeing

One method of assessing readiness is through the use of athlete self-reported
measures (ASRMs) [1, 49, 59, 90–92] due to their sensitivity and consistency in
reflecting changes in training load [49, 59]. Athlete self-report measures often
comprise brief, single-item checklists derived from validated questionnaires to
148 Andrea Riboli et al.
assess possible symptoms of overtraining, fatigue and/or other problems [93].
Self-report measures, such as wellness surveys are intended to be completed
daily [94]. Single item refers to the single-question measurement of an aspect
of wellbeing, such as rating general fatigue on a Likert scale, as opposed to a
multi-item measure in which several questions may be used to quantify fatigue.
The most used measures have been muscle soreness, fatigue, sleep quality,
stress, and mood [95]. Other variables such as motivation to training, sleep
quantity, time of sleep, mental fatigue, energy and perceived recovery has been
previously reported [94]. In practice, the performance and medical staff could
use a summed wellness score and/or an average wellness score to inform the
decision-making process. However, there seems to be no clear consensus about
the preferential use of a summarize and/or an averaged wellness score.
Practitioners are often faced with the high-performance management that
usually seems interested in exploring the relationship between pretraining well-
ness and subsequent load output (i.e. the same day) [96–98] and/or the rela-
tionship between training load and subsequent wellness (i.e. next day) [99, 100].
The overall results, from previous research, showed mainly trivial to moderate
associations between single-item self-report measures and the measurements of
workload [94, 99]. Specifically, muscle soreness showed trivial to large positive and
negative associations [94, 96, 101]; fatigue showed no correlations or small to very
large negative and positive associations [94, 100, 102]; sleep quality showed no
correlations or trivial to very large negative and positive associations [27, 100, 103];
stress showed no correlation or small to large positive and negative associations
[78, 96, 99]. Therefore, the main findings showed a paucity of significant associa-
tions between self-report measures and training load. Where associations were
found, the directions of the relationship were negative (i.e. a higher training load,
large wellness decrease). However, despite the interest to determine possible
relationships with training loads, such an association may not be expected to be
especially useful. A possible dissociation between the expected wellbeing-score
and the locomotor/physiological demands may highlight symptoms of fatigue pro-
viding helpful information in clinical assessment and actual training prescriptions.
Self-report measures may help practitioners to improve certain aspects, such as
communication with athletes and within stakeholders (e.g. coaches, practitioners,
and other support staff). The wellness score may be used to modulate the daily
training load management and to individualize exercise prescriptions for avoiding
possible injuries and/or other problems. In elite soccer, players should avoid the
likelihood of missing training sessions and increase the possibility for team selection.
A consistent self-report measurement may help practitioners prescribe individual
exercise programmes before and after each training session, with the overall goal
to avoid time-lost from on-field practice and increasing odds of match-roster selec-
tion. Practitioners should not forget that the self-report measures are influenced by
several psychological and social factors [93]. The nature of the self-reported infor-
mation reflects a complex ‘readiness’, not just a training response. For this reason,
stakeholders should create appropriate relationships within each player, allowing
high individual involvement for accurate self-measure data collection.
 Player monitoring and practical application 149
Table 6.2 Example of a wellness questionnaire (ASRM*)

Scale

Sleep quantity PM to AM
Sleep quality /5
Mood /5
Stress /5
Readiness to train /5
Fatigue /5
Soreness /5
*ASRM: athlete self-reported measure

The use of self-reported measures may add new insights to the more objec-
tive locomotor and physiological measurements. The inconsistent findings about
the relationship between training load and self-report measures, reinforce the
use of wellbeing information to strengthen their use as supplemental tools in
the clinical decision-making process. In practice, the performance and medical
staff may consider wellbeing information such as muscle soreness, fatigue, sleep
quality, stress, etc. for practical and clinical decisions (Table 6.2). This informa-
tion should be added to the objective locomotor and physiological demands for
creating an overall training load description using both the objective measures
(i.e. GPS, HR, etc.) and the perceived wellbeing of each player.

Physical performance analysis

Understanding the activities of match-play is crucial for soccer-specific training
prescriptions [70, 104–106]. The activities recorded during the matches are
used to plan the training workload and as a reference for soccer-specific drills
(e.g., small-sided games), technical-tactical drills and/or individual positional
exercises [70, 107, 108]. The intermittent nature of soccer is characterized
by high-intensity interspersed with low-intensity running activities [109, 110].
Therefore, the understanding of the locomotor and physiological demands dur-
ing both training and matches may inform practitioners about the daily training
load management. Several studies highlighted that professional soccer players
should be trained based on the match physical demands for a successful per-
formance and injury prevention [111–113]. The training prescription may pro-
vide a progressive adaptation up to official match demands contextualizing
soccer-specific and/or general exercises across both the average and the maxi-
mal competition demands [70, 106, 108].
150 Andrea Riboli et al.
Although the most common time-motion analysis has been focused on the
90-min [114], 15-min [115] and 5-min [111] match demands, the attention has
been raised on the most demanding passages of match-play also known as peak
match intensities. [116–119]. During the training process, the relative whole-
match running distances fail to fully account for the worst-case scenario that
occurs during official matches [120] and it may be responsible for underprepar-
ing players for the peak match intensity [117, 119, 121]. This may negatively affect
performance capacity [106, 112, 122, 123] and possibly increase the occurrence
of injuries [124, 125]. The use of a rolling average method, where distance is di-
vided in set intervals from every time point sampled, could be a more appropri-
ate method when quantifying the running intensity periods in team sports [106,
120, 126]. This approach may help practitioners to plan the locomotor activities
during soccer-specific drills (e.g. small- or large-sided games) in accordance with
the peak match intensities [107, 127, 128]. For example, a previous study sug-
gested that if the players covered a specific intensity during the match, these
players might to be trained for similar demands [111]. For this purpose, coaches
may design their training drills (e.g., modifying area per player in small-sided
games) to elicit average [70, 108] and/or peak demands [129]. For instance,
a recent study reported professional players may cover ~200 m (being ~61
m at high-speed running and ~30 m sprinting) in 1 minute [122]. Additionally,
the one-minute periods have been recently described across formation, ball in
play and ball possession to help practitioner for contextualizing the maximal
technical-tactical match demands during practice [130]. This study showed an
increase in maximal relative distances as the time-dependent period decreases
across different metrics within each playing position [130]. For high-speed, sprint
and acceleration/deceleration distances, the 1-minpeak showed fourfold higher
locomotor requirements than whole match (90 min). Interestingly, although the
authors reported no between-formation differences in total distance and the
distance in different speed thresholds, the 1-minpeak for Acc/Dec appears
the lowest in 4-4-2 on average but the highest in 4-3-3 for forwards, central
and wide midfielders [130]. Moreover, the intermittent nature of soccer is also
characterized by game interruptions (i.e. when the ball is out of play,) [110, 131].
During official matches, an average of ~54 to ~57 min ball-in-play (BiP) time
across the whole match time was observed in Italian Serie A, French Ligue 1,
German Bundesliga, FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro tournaments [110, 130,
131]. The official match-play demands which include ball out-of-play time may
underestimate the highest intensity of competitions not preparing the player for
the actual maximum match demands [132, 133]. Therefore, practitioners should
also consider the time with/without ball-in-play for individual match analysis.
The BiP cycles seem to be more appropriate for designing training sessions [132,
133]. Recently, the peak match intensity during BiP for total distance, high-speed
running, accelerating/decelerating and high-metabolic load distance were sug-
gested to gain maximal physical-performance development [133]. Interestingly,
in Italian Serie A soccer players, the BiPpeak was found lower than 1-minpeak for
high-speed running, sprint and acceleration/deceleration [130]. This was due
 Player monitoring and practical application 151
to the distance covered for tactical organization when the ball was out-of-play
after very high-intensity actions (i.e. counterattacks) [112].
Nevertheless, it should be noted that these peak locomotor demands may
occur only once throughout a match so this approach does not reflect the
overall physical demands (especially when it comes to the volume completed
at, or close to such peak demands) [123, 134]. In Australian football and rugby
league, the greatest volume of activity during official matches was at ~60% of
the 1-minpeak demands [104]. Therefore, a detailed description of the match
intensity rather than only 1-minpeak may be useful for exercise prescriptions
during daily routine [104]. The distribution of the match activities during official
soccer matches with regard to 1-minpeak was recently showed for the first time
in Italian Serie A [123]. Interestingly, the most locomotor activities occurred
at an intensity higher than the average 90-min match demand (>90-minavg). In
details, with the exception of the small difference for acceleration, the relative
distance >90-minavg was largely to very largely higher than the 90-minavg for each
metric. The time spent and the distance covered at different percentages than
1-minpeak were calculated for different high-speed and acceleration/decelera-
tion metrics. The time spent and the distance covered at different percentages
of 1-minpeak should be used as reference for the durations, repetitions and/
or sets that should be utilized during practice to recreate or to overload such
sport-specific metrics [123]. As a mere example, ~6 min at intensity higher than
80% of the 1-minpeak for the distance > 20 km·h−1 could be used as a minimal
reference to plan at least 6 repetitions of 1-min using soccer-specific positional
drills [123]. Moreover, the overall training intensity and its distribution across
different percentages that 1-minpeak should inform practitioners for training
load management [123, 130]. Therefore, coaches and sport scientist should ma-
nipulate small-sided games, technical-tactical drills and/or positional exercise to
replicate and/or overload the 90-min average match demands [70, 108, 119] and
the most demanding passages of match play (e.g. 1-minPeak) [130]. However, all
the intermediate intensities between average and peak match demands should
be considered for the overall training intensity [123]. This information may guide
the prescription of training intensity for both the overall training session de-
mands and for each drill prescriptions.

Heart rate responses

The assessment of HR derived measurements including resting HR (RHR), ex-
ercising HR (HRex), HR variability (HRV), and HR recovery (HRR) has also
received some attention within the literature [59, 135] due to their ability to
be utilized as surrogate markers of an individual’s autonomic nervous system
(ANS) and cardiovascular fitness [136] in a time-efficient, inexpensive, and non-
invasive manner [135–139]. However, despite the relative ease of data collec-
tion, HR measures remain cautiously implemented [135, 136] as ambiguity exists
in the interpretation of the data collected [136, 140] due to contradictory re-
sults [138, 140], inconsistent methods [141], and misinterpretation of the data
152 Andrea Riboli et al.
reported within the literature [136]. Also, as the majority of the research has
been conducted in endurance sports [135] the interpretation of the results re-
mains speculative due to the inherent complex nature of team sport [37, 136].
Furthermore, despite the use of HRex & HRR to infer changes in fitness from
standardized protocols [59, 135, 136], morning resting HRV is currently the only
viable option to guide the training process [135, 142, 143] in a non-invasive and
non-fatiguing manner, although it is important to state the lack of sensitivity of
HR measures to perturbations of other internal load measures as HRV is solely a
marker of cardiac ANS function and cannot infer any additional information [144].
Despite this ambiguity, Schneider et al. [135] has provided an excellent overview
of currently utilized HR measures and their context for interpretation in practice.

Tracking/Monitoring injury risk

Unfortunately, training loads can be easily mismanaged and can become a major
cause of soft tissue injuries [145]. When the load demanded exceeds that which
the body can tolerate, ‘overtraining syndrome’, characterized by ‘too much, too
fast’, can lead to an increased occurrence of soft tissue injury and fatigue in the
athlete, so that rest and rehabilitation is required [145, 146]. Conversely, during
rehabilitation, athletes may be underloaded and consequently either unable to
re-entre training with the correct fitness or requiring longer recovery to be ‘fit
to train’. This can be seriously problematic as underloading can lead to a cyclical

Figure 6.2 An investigation of the athlete workload injury cycle, its effects, and modifica-
tion of risk factors (Adapted from Windt and Gabbett [145]).
 Player monitoring and practical application 153
pattern known as ‘chronic rehabilitation’ [147]. Often, in striving to achieve
‘marginal gains’, the athlete workload balance is not successfully maintained,
perhaps seen in the higher rate of injury in football compared to other contact
sports [148]. Therefore, daily athlete monitoring has become a necessity to
reduce injury occurrence and has led to a recent massive expansion in sport
scientist employment in this field in elite level football [149].
The balance of loading is highly individualized due to the influence of many con-
founding variables (reflecting both internal and external stressors) (Figure 6.2).
During adolescence, young athletes enter a critical stage of rapid physical and
psychological maturity. This period is incredibly important for an individual’s
future career as well as their current situation. Unfortunately, little research has
been conducted on workloads, performance and injury in adolescence and early
adulthood – especially in team sports [148]. However, the relationship between
training load and injury has been reported in a variety of adult team sports [150,
151] and has been inferred to be the same in adolescent populations [148]. Yet,
due to the lack of research in adolescent populations, it is unclear.

Training load and injury risk

Injury risk and training load have a paradoxical relationship. While higher train-
ing loads have often been associated with causing injury, it is also observed
that higher training loads can also be associated with protection against injury
[152–154]. The introduction of new models on sport injury risk has tried to
clarify this. Is has been suggested that instead of ‘high’ training loads being prob-
lematic, it is training load errors that cause increased risk [155]. Furthermore, it
was proposed that underloading and overloading were the cause of decreased
fitness, performance, and increased injury risk. This suggests that there is an
‘optimum’ load for an individual and that training load-related injuries are, in
fact, ‘preventable injuries’. Hence, it has become the responsibility of the per-
formance and medical staff in soccer clubs to prevent these injury occurrences
by correctly adding load in a safe way, specific to the player.
Underloading occurs when an athlete does not have a training regime suf-
ficient to maintain or improve the training status across the season and/or to
meet the demands of competition, which leads to increased risk of injury. This
most commonly occurs during a period of training tapering, rest, or rehabil-
itation. Moreover, Selye’s general adaptation syndrome suggests that training
stimuli below ‘optimum’ are insufficient to produce the athletic adaptation nec-
essary for increased performance in sport [156].
Overloading is likely to occur when training regimes exceeds the ‘normal’
range. The associated risk of injury can last up to a month (28 days) and is
known as the ‘injury delay period’ [157, 169]. Figure 6.3 represents an example
of the ‘injury delay period’. Often this occurs during pre-season training during
the prescribed ‘shock weeks’ [28].
Soccer clubs may be hindered in using empirical evidence to evaluate training
loads for several reasons, e.g., lack of resources, time, and buy in from coaching
154 Andrea Riboli et al.

Figure 6.3 Injury delay period. Showing weekly loads and the occurrence of a ‘spike’
(Week 5) causing a ‘delayed injury’ (Week 9) and return to training protocol
(Adapted from Charlton and Drew [169]).

staff [149]. Knowledge of the athlete is necessary to understanding their loading

needs. However, this knowledge must be used in conjunction with empirical
data to support and provide evidence for any prescribed course of action. Re-
cently, there has been an increasing emphasis on monitoring athletes through
training load management [154].

Training stress balance

Originally, Banister and colleagues designed a ‘Training Stress Balance’ (TSB) model
to describe the training-performance relationship and to describe the athlete’s re-
sponse to a specific training stimulus [158, 159]. Akin to the dose-response relation-
ship reported in pharmacology, Banister’s model has the primary goal of reducing
injury risk whilst maximizing performance so that optimum athletic performance can
be assessed between negative (fatigue) and positive (fitness) aspects of training [160].

The Acute:Chronic Workload Ratio

Adapting the ideas from the TSB design, Gabbett and colleagues created the
Acute:Chronic Workload ratio (ACWR) model [157]. This model compares the
acute load (fatigue) to a chronic load (fitness) to create a ratio. Typically, acute
load is the accumulated load of 1-week and is compared to a 4-week rolling
average chronic load [157]. After the initial construction of the ACWR, re-
searchers have investigated multiple approaches to identifying injury risk within
their cohort, including mathematically coupling, exponentially weighting, and
altering the acute/chronic time periods [161–163]. Regardless of the mathemati-
cal alterations to the ACWR, the result provides a ratio which, research shows,
corresponds well with injury risk [161, 164].
 Player monitoring and practical application 155
A ratio between 0.8 and 1.3 was dubbed the ‘sweet spot’ in which athletes
had the lowest risk of injury occurrence [147]. Loads greater than 1.3 (overload-
ing) and loads less than 0.8 (underloading) were associated with higher rates of
injury (Figure 6.4). Thus, a quantifiable way of keeping athletes at a reduced risk
of injury from loading errors was created. This has significant practical use for
the practitioner, allowing timely viewing of current athlete outputs and, accord-
ingly, weekly load alteration to prevent sustained under or over loading.
However, due to the time and cost involved with athlete monitoring, there
seems to be little application of ACWR in soccer academies. This is also appar-
ent in research into ACWR, having almost exclusively been conducted in adult
populations, with only one paper specifically focused on academy soccer [148].
It is also known that age plays a significant factor in an athlete’s ability to cope
with workload [165]; therefore, there is a suggestion that youths may have a
different ‘sweet spot’ ratio compared to adult populations.
Conversely, recent research has disputed the accuracy and practicality of the
ACWR to determine injury risk within sport [166]. Specifically, it has been found
that the use of ACWR using a 4-week average caused spurious mathematical
coupling increasing the likelihood of false positives of athletes being flagged as a
risk of injury [167]. Additionally, a literature review suggests it was an ambiguous
metric that is not consistent or have a unidirectional relationship with injury risk
[166]. In essence, it is important for practitioners to note that the injury risk
is multifactorial, something the ACWR does not take into consideration. The
ACWR is purely a ratio between two numbers, the chronic, and the acute load
of an individual. For example, we have two athletes to consider: Athlete A with
a chronic load of 25 m and athlete B with 300 m of sprint distance (25.2 km).
In their acute week, athlete, A is exposed to 50 m across seven sessions and

Figure 6.4 The sweet spot. Shows reduction in injury risk when the A:C workload ratio
is between 0.8 and 1.3 (Adapted from Blanch and Gabbett [147]).
156 Andrea Riboli et al.
athlete B to 600 m in one session. Both athletes will have a weekly ACWR of
200% and both suggested to be exposed to high risk of injury in the proceeding
3-week period according to the previous research in ACWR. Here we can see
that reliance on purely the ACWR inappropriate management of load can easily
occur. As previously suggested [166], there is far more context that we need to
understand than one arbitrary ACWR. Rather than using the ACWR as a ‘gos-
pel’ for injury likelihood, it should be used within the practitioner’s wheelhouse
of tools to understand load management of athletes. It is vital that practitioners
considering internal risk factors as well as the load itself when understanding in-
jury risk. Furthermore, modifiable risk factors such as aerobic capacity, athletes
chronic loads, and strength capacity have all been found to reduce the risk of
load-related injury risks and deal with fluctuations in load greater than when they
are at high levels [168].

Conclusion
During an elite soccer training routine in a high-performance environment,
coaches and sport scientists must manipulate training load within a very con-
gested competitive schedule. When international competitions are played, the
time for training is reduced and the time available should be used to maximize
the training stimulus. In this highly stressful environment, performance and
health management should be a process in which different stakeholders have
to be involved (i.e. coaches, sport scientists, physicians, physiotherapists, and
players). Practitioners could manage simple tests such as CMJ several times over
the season (e.g. weekly and/or monthly bases); additionally, other supplemental
tests (i.e. single-leg tests, SJ, or DJ) could be scheduled in some key-periods
across the season. This may help to assess individual variations in neuromus-
cular training status and acute/chronic readiness. Similarly, several submaximal
aerobic tests may be utilized to determine training status across the season. Fa-
tigue and wellness scales could be proposed on daily bases for a more individual
subjective assessment. Individual self-report information may be integrated with
objective information (i.e. GPS, HR, and testing results) and used by practition-
ers for a more clinical individual analysis. A comprehensive analysis of subjective
and objective data can provide insight to injury risk and performance readiness
within an elite soccer team. Using well-researched methods, such as the TSB
and the ACWR can provide practitioners with specific parameters to work
within. However, practitioners are advised to proceed with caution as compos-
ite scores only reflect a summary of data points. Therefore, it is suggested that
practitioners working in elite soccer thoroughly inspect raw data points that
construct a composite score, especially when ‘red flags’ are resulted. A consist-
ent use of different monitoring tools may be utilized to maximize performance
development and training availability, especially during very congested fixture
periods. Coaches and practitioners should be aware that individual objective
analyses are crucial for performance development and to possibly avoid injuries
in high-performance environments.
 Player monitoring and practical application 157
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7 Wearable technology
Joshua Rice, Damian Kovacevic, Alex Calder
and Joel Carter

Wearable technology overview

In order to accurately assess and analyse the impact of both training and
matches across the entirety of a macrocycle, the variables within training and
match load must be thoroughly observed. Over the past 15–20 years, new
technology has been developed in the form of sport specifc global positioning
system (GPS), designed with the aim of performing such tasks. The introduction
of these GPS devices, in the 2000s, dramatically increased the provision of data
available to practitioners regarding players’ training and match activity. Com
monly described as ‘sports bras’ by the onlooking public, these vests/perfor
mance garments in fact house the technology, allowing practitioners to monitor
and track players performance. The performance garment, supplied by the GPS
manufacturer, is designed to stabilise the device between the player’s shoul
der blades to minimise the amount of noise associated with various movement
patterns. Each GPS device is designed to acquire performance variables such
as distance the player has run, the intensity/speed of the run, the speed, the
number of sprints, accelerations and decelerations which have occurred along
with integrating with heart rate (HR) collection devices. These data points are
often collated together to form what is widely known in the scientifc literature
as objective training load (TL) [1, 2].
Training load, by defnition, is an input variable that is manipulated to elicit a
desired training response [3]. In addition, it has also been well researched that
individuals respond to this same training load and physical exercise in different
ways [4]. As such, successful training programmes require the systematic ma
nipulation of key training load variables related to the duration, frequency and
intensity of the training stimulus [5]. In order to achieve optimal physiological
adaptation, training sessions need to be programmed and adjusted to meet the
requirements of individual athletes [6]. To achieve the required training load
and training adaptations, the use of wearable technology such as GPS and HR
is commonplace within the elite soccer environment [7]. Although not imper
ative due to some practitioners operating within clubs with lesser budgets (see
Chapter 1), where available, the use of GPS is extremely advantageous in guid
ing the prescription and monitoring of the overall training load/response. GPS

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200420 7
166 Joshua Rice et al.

TRAINING PROCESS

External
training load
Individual
Quality and quantity Organization
characteristics

INTERNAL
TRAINING LOAD
Physiological
Assessment
TRAINING
OUTCOME

Figure 7.1 The training outcome is the consequence of the internal training load deter
mined by (1) individual characteristics, such as genetic factors and previous
training experience, and (2) the quality, quantity and organisation of the ex
ternal training load (Extracted from Impellizzeri et al. [3]).

examines the external load, in conjunction with HR monitors that measure the
internal response to such load (Figure 7.1).
The external aspect of training load refers to the specifc training prescribed
by coaches and practitioners, such as the number of sets/reps of a drill. The
internal training load refers to the physiological stress that is imposed on the
player (see Chapter 6 for more detail). As such, it is this stress (internal load) im
posed on the athlete that stimulates the training induced adaptations produced
from the exercise [8, 9]. It has been noted that practitioners’ most frequent
methods to monitor these changes were the aforementioned GPS and HR mon
itors [10].

Validity and reliability

Player tracking technology is an ever evolving process which is continually de
veloping due to advancements in microprocessors, software, and hardware. As
a result, researchers continue to conduct validity and reliability studies as each
device is updated from suppliers [11–13]. However, due to the time publications
take to be processed and published, GPS devices are utilised within soccer be
fore essential information on precision of measurement is available.
The use of methods to quantify elite soccer training has helped understand
and quantify the following: external training load in the context of periodisation
across the training week [14, 15]; a link between high speed running (HSR)
and injury risk [16]; and dose–response relations between internal load and ft
ness changes [17–19] (Figure 7.2). It appears the improvement in understanding
 Wearable technology 167

Periodisation

Fitness
Injury Risk
Changes

Figure 7.2 Factors that can be quantifed by wearable technology in elite soccer.

surrounding training load has allowed for increased performance and decreased
injury risk of soccer players [20, 21]. Quantifying the external and internal loads
objectively and subjectively provides the practitioner with crucial information on
the individual response to each soccer training session, indicating the need for
individualised training programmes to be developed [22]. In response to both the
volume and periodisation of these training strategies, the body adapts on a cellular
and tissue level. As such, monitoring external loads provides an objective measure
to provide the consequential internal load, in turn, predicting adaptation.
Unlike many linear based sports, such as running and cycling, soccer’s multi
directional nature reduces the likelihood that players receive individual specifc
training loads if not monitored closely [23]. As a result, GPS and HR based
technologies have been widely implemented to attempt to quantify the training
and match load accurately [24–26]. Elite soccer teams have extensively used
GPS tracking devices to provide objective measures of external TL. Therefore,
the importance of the GPS devices to be both reliable and valid is clear for
practitioners working within soccer [11, 12, 25, 27–29].

Heart rate monitoring

Prior to the use of GPS, the primary technology used to quantify training was
via the use of HR monitors. HR monitors have been commonplace in soccer
for the past 20 years [30]. The development of this technology, concurrently
to GPS, has allowed for the external and internal load stressed upon the
body as a result of training to be monitored. The internal response to a given
external stimulus can be infuenced by factors such as genetic background
and previous training experience [22]. These responses have allowed for an
understanding and discrimination between different training drills based on
pitch dimensions [31] and technical/tactical conditions [32, 33] implemented
in training. Team HR systems are predominantly employed to monitor both
the total cardiovascular exertion in the session and the responses to individ
ual drills during the training bout.
168 Joshua Rice et al.
To monitor the internal response of training, HR monitors are used to quan
tify the cardiovascular strain placed on an individual in a response to a given ex
ternal TL [34]. Despite its widespread use in sport, there are several limitations
associated with HR monitoring in sports such as soccer [35]. It has been sug
gested that graded exercise testing (GXT) is the gold standard for measuring an
individual’s maximum HR [36]. However, practicality has been used to question
whether GXT is appropriate, or even feasible, in team settings, and alongside
budgetary constraints. Therefore, there is yet to be a consensus as to the gold
standard methodology to determine maximum HR which is used to create HR
zones for training monitoring. Furthermore, practitioners are currently reliant
on proxy feld measures in determining HR variables, due to the ease of use,
and overall practicality.
The evaluation of training impulse (TRIMP) has been applied by practitioners
for decades [37, 38]. TRIMP is a composite score, attempting to integrate mul
tiple components, which allows practitioners to periodise training loads using
one variable. Originally identifed as the product of mean HR (intensity) and
time exercising (duration), TRIMP has been used to help identify TL in inter
mittent team sports [39]. However, the limitations of TRIMP have challenged
researchers to investigate how zones can be applied to HR data, in order to
better understand the demands of high intensity exercise training [38]. One of
the original HR zone summations illustrated the zones as: zone 1: 50%–60%,
zone 2: 60%–70%, zone 3: 70%–80%, zone 4: 80%–90%, and zone 5: 90%–100%
of maximal HR [40]. Researchers and practitioners have since tried to examine
the most valid approach to identifying HR data and TL. A variety of calculations
have been applied to determine HR zones, such as incorporating the ventilatory
threshold and respiratory compensation points [41]. However, the practicality
of obtaining these markers is questioned, calling for a feasible way of identifying
valid and reliable HR zones. Incorporating the RPE scale (see Chapter 6) with the
above listed HR zones, also known as the RPE method, has shown to be a valid
and reliable measure of exercise intensity [38]. Furthermore, the application of
use for this method in elite soccer is considered an accurate indicator of global
internal TL [42]. However, in order to establish valid HR zones, practitioners
must collect each player’s individual maximum HR. In elite soccer, there are many
different approaches in establishing maximum HRs in the team setting. It has been
suggested that feld based testing, such as the 30 15 intermittent test or YoYo
test (or derivatives of), may be benefcial in collecting maximum HRs [43–45].

Global Positioning System

Soccer teams have extensively used GPS tracking devices to provide objective
measures of external training loads [46, 47]. Therefore, the importance of the
GPS devices to be both reliable and valid is clear for practitioners working
within elite soccer. For example, poor validity in GPS devices have been pre
viously observed when measuring high velocity decelerations (>5 m·s−2) [25].
Therefore, considerations should be made when making decisions based upon
 Wearable technology 169
certain information to ensure accuracy. One method to ensure that informa
tion is both reliable and valid is to quantify the error surrounding each specifc
metric for players.
These GPS devices rely on space navigation that provides the location and
movement of individuals through a radio signal based calculation between the
satellite and the GPS receiver [48]. When the GPS receiver is connected to the
satellite, an accurate location can be seen, allowing for velocity based calcula
tions to be derived [49]. However, to quantify the frequency and magnitude of
multidirectional based movements in all three dimensions (anterior posterior,
mediolateral and longitudinal) GPS systems are required to have triaxial accel
erometers [50]. With the capability to monitor a wide variety of variables, many
studies have attempted to understand the movement patterns employed during
both match and training activities [51]. Variables including total distance, dis
tances measured at various intensities, and whole body load have been shown
to correlate signifcantly with other load based measures such as RPE [52].
As aforementioned, there have been numerous improvements in GPS over
recent times [53]. In general, the measurement precision has improved with the
increased sampling rate. While factors such as processors and the position of
the device of the body remain extremely important an improvement in sampling
rate is still of beneft to the quality of the GPS data. For instance, it has been
illustrated that 10 Hz devices were found to be superior to 15 Hz devices, as
the 15 Hz device used interpolated data which was not ‘true’ GPS sampling
[53, 54]. However, to this date, both 10 Hz and 15 Hz are shown to be incapa
ble of reliably measuring movements above 20 km·h [53, 54]. Additionally, most
metrics have been considered reliable to interpret (within 5%, depending on the
manufacturer); however, it is suggested that practitioners proceed with caution
when analysing acceleration and deceleration movements [55]. Although aver
age acceleration presented reliable data, when recording efforts of acceleration
and deceleration, reliability decreased as the intensity increased. Thus, there is a
requirement to conduct further testing using true higher sampling GPS devices
for further clarifcation.
Finally, when collecting GPS data for both practice and research, it is im
portant that practitioners adhere to recommended guidelines for collection,
processing, and reporting [56]. For example, all devices must be calibrated and
worn in tight ftting garments provided by the manufacturer and athletes should
be encouraged to use the same GPS devices across all sessions to ensure there
are no issues with inter unit reliability [51].

Using the data

Practitioners use GPS technology to quantify and monitor the player’s locomo
tion, including distance, speed, and change of direction–based actions during
training and matches. While there is widespread use of these devices, there is
still much confusion around the most appropriate metrics to use and how to
effectively report and generate the information to provide effective feedback to
170 Joshua Rice et al.
both coaches and players. Most manufacturers offer a long list of metrics that
can be obtained via GPS devices; however, the question of interpretation must
be asked when determining the validity/reliability of those metrics. Of the long
list of metrics, many can be divided into bands (or thresholds) to better assess
intensity of specifc outputs. Specifcally, when investigating velocity based met
rics, many practitioners are interpreting intensity by applying thresholds based
on the individual (relative) or uniform across the cohort (absolute). Although
less frequent, a variety of acceleration and deceleration thresholds have been
identifed in previous literature [57].
Additional wearable technology, such as HR monitors, allow practitioners
to quantify individual players’ responses from allocated training prescriptions.
Like GPS technology, HR monitors have developed over the past few decades,
allowing for more accurate depiction of HR data. Wearable HR monitors are
used in training sessions and match play to examine the internal response. Sim
ilar to GPS metrics, a myriad of data points is available for interpretation, in
cluding some composite scores (dependant on manufacturer). Additionally, HR
monitors can also be applied to monitor HR variability, potentially indicative of
fatigue or overtraining [35].

Speed and acceleration metrics

Depending on the GPS manufacturer, practitioners often have the ability to
develop their own analysis by altering individual thresholds within a variety of
popular metrics. A common quandary for performance practitioners in the
choice between applying relative or absolute thresholds for measuring velocity
thresholds, when detailing external loads. Whilst each approach has its ration
ale, they do have benefts and limitations associated. Determining an approach
between absolute and relative thresholds allow practitioners to carefully dissect
locomotive behaviour from training and games, allowing a greater opportunity
to develop appropriate training prescriptions.

Relative thresholds
Relative thresholds are determined by the player’s capacities to produce cer
tain physical outputs. Although not specifcally quantifed, some of the earli
est relative thresholds, in elite soccer, were established as early as the 1980s
[58]. The frst noted relative thresholds for velocity were determined, via a
walking sprinting continuum, as the following [58]:

• Standing: no locomotor movement

• Walking: forwards, sideways and backwards strolling locomotor movement
• Jogging: non purposeful, slow running where the individual did not have a
specifc goal for his movements, such as to recover on defence
• Running: combined striding and sprinting; running with purpose and effort
• Utility: combined backwards running, sideways shuffing, and jumping
 Wearable technology 171
Due to the vagueness at determining when soccer players move from jogging
to running, or commencing high intensity efforts, it was suggested that there is
a large potential for error if relative thresholds were not used [59]. Given the
need for individuality, defning the onset of the second ventilatory threshold
(VT2) has been recommended in differentiating when one is working in moder
ate or high intensity zones [60, 61]. With that notion, relative positional English
Premier League match profles where established using ventilatory thresholds
(VT1 and VT2), peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), and maximum aerobic speed
(MAS) [62]. Furthermore, utilising additional individual measurements of ftness
capacities, obtained via testing protocols (see Chapter 3), has shown to be advan
tageous in developing relative thresholds in elite soccer [63]. Researchers have
investigated the use of MAS, Anaerobic Speed Reserve (ASR), and maximum
velocity achieved in training (VMAX ), for establishing relative individual thresh
olds in elite soccer [63]. It was noted that although signifcant measurement
bias was found between relative thresholds and absolute (arbitrary) thresholds,
they are both benefcial in interpreting distance covered in specifc speed zones.
However, it was also stated that relative and absolute thresholds should not
be used interchangeably. Overall, the consensus is that applying individualised
thresholds provides additional and practically signifcant information [62].

Absolute thresholds
Absolute (or arbitrary) thresholds are typically fxed values that have been de
rived from research in the feld to quantify general physical outputs for a variety
of velocity and acceleration metrics. Some of the frst arbitrary thresholds for
the walking sprinting continuum were established in the mid 1990s [64, 65].
However, since the introduction of wearable technology, researchers have had
the ability to interpret and establish absolute thresholds with greater ease of
use. Utilising some of the frst accessible GPS devices (1 Hz), researchers were
able to establish some specifc velocity thresholds, categorised by sport [66].
Recently, the verbiage of the running parameters has changed to the commonly
used HSR and sprinting. The threshold for HSR has either been a specifed
range, or a minimum threshold. Specifcally, researchers have specifed HSR,
in soccer, to be accumulated distance between 19.8 and 25.1 km·h [63, 67, 68].
Whereas various research has identifed all accumulated distance above 19.8
km·h is considered HSR [69, 70]. While both approaches are deemed valid, it
is imperative that practitioners are concise when analysing and comparing HSR
parameters. On the contrary, sprinting distance has been consistently identifed
as accumulated distances above 25.2 km·h [46, 63, 70, 71].
When investigating acceleration thresholds, efforts that are considered ac
celerations or decelerations are commonly arbitrarily defned as +3/−3m·s−2 ,
respectively [46]. However, some research has defned multiple categories
within acceleration bandwidths. Some of the bandwidths are simply labelled
as low, moderate, or high, with thresholds of 1–2 m·s−2 (low), 2–3 m·s−2 (mod
erate), and >3 m·s−2 (high) [70]. While the need for accurate acceleration
172 Joshua Rice et al.
measurements has been heavily stressed [72, 73], the quantifcation process for
accelerations comes with limitations. Often, the speed is not known from which
acceleration and deceleration measurements begin [46, 74]. However, when ex
amining exposures at higher thresholds (>3.0m·s−2), soccer players have shown
to produce 26.5–34.9 acceleration exposures throughout a 90 minute match,
dependant on position [75]. The majority, roughly 48%, of high acceleration
outputs are when players are at a starting velocity of 0–1.0 m·s−1, and have
resulted in around 70 s between bouts [75–77]. Another limitation when ex
amining acceleration outputs is the sensitivity associated with the thresholds
and data processing. It has been noted that most differences illustrated be
tween manufacturers was the acceleration and deceleration metrics [78]. Fur
thermore, as the intensity of acceleration and deceleration increased (greater
thresholds), the reliability decreased [78]. Thus, making the recommendation
that practitioners approach with caution when attempting to make compari
sons, especially between manufacturers.
Overall, in a large analysis involving 82 professional soccer clubs, some of the
top ranked variables for analysis included total distance, HSR (distance covered
>5.50 m·s−1 [or 19.8 km·h]), sprint distance (distance covered >7.0 m·s−1 [or
25.2 km·h]), and acceleration variables [57]. Therefore, it is strongly suggested
that practitioners employ a systematic process in the data collection process
and monitor valid/reliable speed and acceleration based metrics (Table 7.1.)

Table 7.1 Examples of absolute and relative speed and acceleration based thresholds

Absolute thresholds

Metric: Total distance HSR Sprint Acc/Dec

Calculation All distance Distance Distance Exposures above
covered covered covered >7.0 or below 3.0
>5.50 m·s−1 m·s−1 m·s−2
(or 19.8 km·h) (or 25.2 km·h) (±3.0 m·s−2)

Relative thresholds

Metric: Total distance HSR Sprint Acc/Dec

Calculation All distance Distance Distance Exposures above
covered covered covered or below 3.0
>100% MAS >70% of m·s−2
VMAX (±3.0 m·s−2)
Acc/Dec = Total acceleration and deceleration exposures.
 Wearable technology 173
Other metrics

Arbitrary metrics
Once practitioners have established what GPS metrics the manufacturer offers,
it is imperative that the validity and reliability are assessed. More importantly,
practitioners must evaluate how they can use the metrics in a manipulatable
manner to positively affect training. Specifcally, GPS manufacturers often pro
vide arbitrary metrics with their system in an attempt to simplify data analysis
for users. Although often considered valid and reliable [79, 80], some of the
composite metrics that manufacturers make available should be approached
with caution. Practitioners should have a true understanding of the calculations
within the composite metrics, such as Dynamic Stress Load (DLS) and Player
Load (PL), before attempting to analyse and alter training variables [81]. For
example, if a player results in a statistically larger output in DLS/PL compared
to the team average, how will the practitioner explain that outlier to the coach
ing staff. Whereas, simplifed metrics, based on measurable units (i.e. distance
related), can be easier to determine and explain outliers.

Average acceleration
Due to the limitations, such as poor reliability, associated with acceleration
threshold measures, researchers have introduced a novel metric to investigate
player locomotion [82]. Investigating acceleration and deceleration as a cumu
lative metric (Average acceleration, AvgAcc) allows for representation of total
multi directional load, thus considered appropriate for the game of soccer [23].
GPS manufacturers often allow the user to export raw data; therefore, extract
ing raw acceleration and converting all data points to positive obtains the vali
dated AvgAcc metric [82]. Although AvgAcc doesn’t refect the high energetic
demands that acceleration thresholds illustrate, AvgAcc does offer an overall
depiction of drill intensity. AvgAcc has been investigated in professional soccer
as a refection of some of the most demanding passages of play [83, 84]. This
metric can help aid practitioners and coaches in establishing intensities of small
sided activities that may not result in high acceleration exposures (>3.0 m·s 2),
due to size constraints [84].

Metabolic power
Although less popular, compared to the aforementioned metrics, metabolic
power (PMET ) can be collected and examined via wearable technology [85].
PMET is representative of locomotive metrics, including speed, acceleration and
deceleration. The notion of PMET is to quantify the concept of ‘high intensity’
via the energy cost of an individual, using W·kg 1 [86]. However, since the in
ception of analysing PMET in elite soccer, researchers have identifed a myriad
of limitations with the method [87]. PMET has often largely underestimated the
actual metabolic demands of soccer specifc drills [87, 88]. Furthermore, the
174 Joshua Rice et al.
high intensity thresholds (>20 W·kg−1) for PMET also showed very large typical
error and a very low intraclass correlation coeffcient [87]. Thus, practitioners
are encouraged to use caution with PMET metrics until further examination of
validity is available in the literature.

Heart rate measures

While the use of wearable HR monitors in elite soccer is common practice,
there still surrounds questions in relation to the use and interpretation of HR
data. HR measures can refect players’ adaptation and training/fatigue status.
However, in order to specifcally identify adaptations, zones (or thresholds)
are established to better categorise intensity. Additionally, when interpret
ing fatigue/training status, heart rate variability (HRV) measures are often
recommended.

Heart rate thresholds/zones

As aforementioned, some of the original heart rate threshold summations illus
trated are as follows: zone 1: 50%–60%, zone 2: 60%–70%, zone 3:70%–80%,
zone 4: 80%–90%, and zone 5: 90%–100% of maximal HR [40]. As suggested
over the past few decades, merely recording HR data points is not suffcient
in analysing effort from training sessions [39]. TRIMP has been established in
the early 1990s to better allow practitioners to investigate HR responses in
sport related activities [39]. TRIMP is specifed from training time and HR data
points (within span) during activity. The original equation is as follows;

TRIMP = duration of training (min) × (HRex – HRrest)/

(HRmax – HRrest)
HRex = Mean heart rate during exercise
HRrest = Heart rate at rest
HRmax = Maximum heart rate

Although the initial TRIMP metric (listed above) seems simple in nature, this
method comes with limitations. Due to mean (HRex) being used for calculation,
there may be under or over estimations when analysing intermittent based
activities, such as soccer drills [89]. Researchers have since established novel
methods to account for intermittent locomotion. A modifed version of the
above mentioned TRIMP, known as TRIMPMOD, was introduced with associ
ated HR zones and exponentially weighted factors [90] (Table 7.2).
Although various zones and methods can be applied when interpreting HR
responses, it is imperative that practitioners monitor HR data in conjunction
with other collection data. The importance of aligning HR data with other in
ternal metrics (e.g. RPE), as well as external loads (GPS), has been noted exten
sively [3, 42, 91, 92]. A thorough analysis of HR and other data points is integral
for both training and match play [93–95].
 Wearable technology 175
Table 7.2 Heart rate zones, corresponding weight factors and training descriptors

Zone % Maximal heart rate Weighting Training type

5 93–100 5.16 Maximal training

4 86–92 3.61 OBLA training
3 79–85 2.54 Steady state training
2 72–78 1.71 Lactate threshold training
1 65–71 1.25 Moderate activity

Source: Modifed from Stagno et al. [90].

Heart rate variability

HRV refers to the amount of fuctuations in the average HR [96]. HRV has
been considered a useful method to monitor the sympathetic and parasympa
thetic function of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) [96, 97]. Decreases in
HRV, when recovering, have been associated with ftter individuals, potentially
predictive of exercise performance [98, 99]. However, post exercise HRV is
infuenced by a variety of factors, creating questions around the practicality
[100]. Monitoring resting HRV can be done frequently, or across set chronic
periods. Either approach has been proposed to be sensitive in interpreting both
positive and negative adaptations [100]. In relation to elite soccer, resting HRV
has been suggested to be the most valuable physiological marker to monitor
fatigue [101]. With the validation and accessibility of smartphone applications to
measure HRV, practitioners should consider methods to establish resting HRV
within their environment [102]. However, understandably, more data collection
requires more manpower and data analysis, and, therefore, may not be applica
ble in all settings.

Practical application of wearable technology in

elite soccer
Arguably, the most valuable use of monitoring external training load via wear
able technologies is when such monitoring modulates subsequent training pre
scription [57, 103, 104]. For this practice to be maximised effciently, the data
that is collected, analysed, interpreted, and reported on must be clear and sim
ple, robust yet concise, powerful (i.e. relevant and actionable), and delivered in
a highly organised, consistent, and timely manner (Figure 7.3) [105].

Collect Analyse Interpret Deliver

Figure 7.3 The process for practitioners in elite soccer examining physiology related
data.
176 Joshua Rice et al.
Delivering the data
It is recommended practitioners endeavour to report exclusively on the most
important and useful metrics specifc to their own, individually unique high
performance programme, and metrics that will ultimately have an actual impact
on the programme [105]. Through being highly judicious with which metrics to
include and/or exclude, subsequent analysis and delivery of said reports may
have a more profound infuence on the programme, an impact which has been
shown to contribute towards:

• The planning of subsequent training prescription, be it monitoring training

loads to increase player ftness (including return to play rehabilitation and
reconditioning), or conversely, tapering loads to manage fatigue and/or mit
igate future injury risk;
• The assessment of individual player intensity and output within training,
relative to the competitive match play demands;
• Guidance during team selection; and ultimately;
• Helping increase on feld physical performance [106].

Reporting
The process of reporting is highly dependent on the coaching department’s needs
and expectations. Specifcally, practitioners should cater the visual content of
the reports to ensure the accurate message is being delivered to the coaches.
As aforementioned, it is of high importance that practitioners frstly examine
and interpret the data for its validity and reliability prior to delivery (Figure 7.3)
[107]. For example, if the coaching and performance departments are wanting
to compare the current training session to its average, in relation to match day
(i.e. MD¯ 3, MD¯ 2, and MD¯1), then the report should refect the current aver
age with the associated average (Figure 7.4).
Categorising wearable data by playing position can help aid coaches in overall
feedback from the session. Specifcally, positionally categorised data sets can
help highlight positional characteristics, and determine whether certain drills
were more demanding for certain positions. For example, if coaches had planned
a ‘patterns to goal’ drill, mimicking offensive transitions up the wide areas of
the feld, full backs and wingers may produce higher intense markers (e.g. HSR),
compared to centre backs and central midfelders. Additionally, coaches may
want to identify where specifc loads were accumulated. For instance, displaying
a breakdown of drills from the training session will help indicate intensities as
well as overall volume allocation.

Goalkeeper reports
Whilst often overlooked due to their lack of running actions compared to
feld players, goalkeepers exhibit a variety of physical actions during match
play [108]. Goalkeepers frequent mostly around their penalty area (~44% of
total match play), yet still manage to demonstrate various explosive movements
 Wearable technology 177

Date: 31-Mar To Game: MD-2

Total Time: 70 mins Duration: 1:01 N:19

Max
HSR Sprint %Max
OUTSIDE BACKS DISTANCE ACC/DEC RPE Speed
(>5.5m·s-1) (>7.0m·s-1) Speed
(m·s-1)
LB Player 1 4539 138 37 47 3 7.8 84%
RB Player 2 3867 125 26 46 4 8.2 87%
LB Player 3 3739 111 28 19 5 7.7 82%
RB Player 4 3134 75 11 10 4 7.2 85%
RB Player 5 3210 17 23 0 6 6.3 70%
RB Player 6 3402 8 17 0 5 5.8 65%
Average 3649 79 24 30 5 7.2 79%

CENTRE BACKS
CB Player 7 2860 384 28 56 6 7.6 88%
CB Player 8 2921 18 25 0 4 6.9 77%
CB Player 9 2980 14 10 5 4 7.1 81%
Average 2920 139 21 30 5 7.2 82%

MIDFIELDERS
DMF Player 10 3651 133 10 0 3 6.9 79%
ATT Player 11 4219 78 19 0 4 6.8 79%
DMF Player 12 3365 33 11 3 5 7.1 81%
CM Player 13 3883 24 14 0 5 6.4 76%
Average 3780 67 14 3 4 6.8 79%

ATTACKERS
WG Player 14 4103 342 28 102 4 8.3 87%
CF Player 15 3605 267 24 32 5 7.9 84%
ST Player 16 3595 238 25 18 6 7.7 81%
WG Player 17 3465 204 20 38 4 7.6 82%
CF Player 18 3354 196 19 4 4 7.2 78%
WG Player 19 3943 160 19 8 4 7.4 85%
Average 3678 234 23 34 5 7.7 83%

Team Average 3628 118 22 7 4.0 7.2 81%

MD-2 Average 4147 195 25 27 5.0 7.6 84%

Figure 7.4 An example of a daily GPS report for a MD¯ 2. HSR = Total distance accumu
latedabove5.5 m·s−1. ACC/DEC=Totalexposuresaboveorbelow3.0 m·s−2. Sprint
= Total distance accumulated above 7.0 m·s−1.

at different angles [109]. Therefore, with the development of technology, it

seems appropriate for practitioners to attempt to quantify load and report
to the goalkeeper coach. Although explosive movements, such as collisions in
Rugby League, have been quantifable via GPS units, goalkeeper related metrics
are still scarce [70, 110]. Due to the explosive, multi directional outputs of
178 Joshua Rice et al.
goalkeepers during match play, it seems appropriate to monitor the amount
of high accelerations/deceleration exposures (>3.0 m·s−2) [111]. Furthermore,
research has indicated that goalkeepers often yield more acceleration/decel
eration efforts in certain training days compared to match play [112]. Addi
tionally, some GPS manufacturers offer the measurement of jump intensities;
however, it is important that practitioners understand the validity and reliability
of accelerometer based tracking [81].

Longitudinal reports
Practitioners are encouraged to provide objective feedback to coaches in re
gard to the training week or build up to games. Regardless of the microcycle
build up preference, dictated by coaching or club (see Chapter 11), all stake
holders of the technical department should be provided with a weekly report

28-Mar 29-Mar 30-Mar 31-Mar 1-Apr 2-Apr 3-Apr

Totals
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Duration 0:55 1:10 1:05 0:45 1:57 5:52
Distance 3816 5482 3625 2523 10900 26346
High
Speed 254 337 120 37 646 1395
Running
Acc/Dec 51 48 21 12 72 204
Sprint
33 83 17 0 123 256
Distance
RPE 6 6 4 3 9

Weekly GPS Report for 28-Mar - 3-Apr

12000 10
9
10000 8
8000 6 6 6
6000
4 4
4000
3
2000 2
0 3816 5482 3625 2523 10900 0
0 0 0 0
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
28-Mar 29-Mar 30-Mar 31-Mar 1-Apr 2-Apr 3-Apr

Distance High Speed Running RPE

Figure 7.5 An example of a weekly report. HSR = Total distance accumulated above
5.5 m·s−1. ACC/DEC = Total exposures above or below 3.0 m·s−2 . Sprint =
Total distance accumulated above 7.0 m·s−1.
 Wearable technology 179
for feedback on whether the resulted outputs refect the proposed training
plan (Figure 7.5). These weekly reports often display daily comparisons to
match play data. Specifcally, research has used percentage of match data to
determine and highlight differences within the acquisition days of the training
week (e.g. MD 4 and MD 3) [113].
Refecting weekly percentage changes for players, across a variety of valid
metrics, can aid practitioners in training prescriptions/recommendations to help
mitigate the risk of injury. When a player is exposed to =>15% increase in train
ing load from the preceding week, research has indicated that the risk if injury
is signifcantly greater [114]. Additionally, research in elite soccer showed that
comparisons to season averages, using four week blocks, have been purposeful
in determining injury risk [115]. Furthermore, illustrations of microcycles can
aid practitioners on selecting appropriate days for scheduling additional training
stimulus and/or recovery modalities (see Chapter 8) [116]. Therefore, it is highly
recommended that practitioners develop a reporting system to indicate weekly
change as well as seasonal comparisons.

Displaying change
Illustrating worthwhile change on one sheet of paper (physical data daily report,
such as Figure 7.4) can be a challenging task for practitioners. Practitioners
often conform to using percentage change, smallest worthwhile change (SWC)
and/or other statistical methods. It is incredibly important that practitioners are
thorough with the comparison process, ensuring the correct message is perceived
by the coaching staff. For example, while a percentage change may be appropriate
for determining differences in total distance, more sensitive metrics may result in
exacerbated comparisons. Using Figure 7.4 in this example, the reported session
is only 12.5% ((3628/4147) 1) lower than the averaged MD 2 for total distance
covered (team average). However, when examining the sprint distance covered
(team average), the same approach yields a percentage difference of 74% ((7/27) 1)
less than the MD 2 average. As discussed previously, GPS related metrics have var
ied typical errors associated. Having knowledge of validity/reliability of GPS related
metrics allows for practitioners to appropriately account for typical errors of meas
urement during the comparison process. Therefore, it is integral that practitioners
thoroughly investigate the various comparison approaches and allow themselves the
best chance to illustrate signifcant differences in metrics used in the daily report.
Note: It is recommended practitioners defne SWC as 0.2 × the between player
standard deviation, until new evidence is shown [117].

Primary barriers of delivery

Researchers identifed, in English professional soccer, that stakeholders within
the coaching process wanted to see measures refecting ‘high intensity actions’
(82%), and ‘work rate/intensity’ (74%), and ‘comparing physical outputs to what
players do in a match’ (59%) [106]. For practitioners, within the same research,
180 Joshua Rice et al.
were primarily sought after observing ‘individual player workload’ (77%) [106].
‘Too much information and poor communication’ have been identifed as pri
mary barriers of use for coaches when attempting to read and review GPS
reports [106]. Coaches are typically more interested in the qualitative infer
ences of the report – specifcally, the fnal outcomes, recommendations, and
injury implications of the dataset – than the minutia involved in the statistical
analysis that was applied to the quantitative data. With that in mind, reports
should utilise appropriate user friendly language when delivering qualitative in
ferences, supported by attractive visual aids to present the associated data. Of
these visual aids, graphical representation of data is typically both attractive and
informative (Figure 7.4).

Applying the fndings in practice

In elite soccer, a popular use of GPS guided training prescription involves pro
gressively programming portions of match demands throughout the course of a
training week. This method of training prescription allows for players to be bet
ter prepared physiologically (i.e. high ftness levels and more resilient tissue) for
the demands of the match. Through a specifc, periodised training programme,
coping with the physical demands of match play – including its peak periods –
should be less confronting for players, physically, (theoretically) less injurious,
and ultimately, result in increased physical performance.
For example, categorised by individual positions, the average ~90 minute
match day output of each GPS metric could be extrapolated by 120%–150%,
with the aim to incrementally accumulate this output (or training benchmark)
throughout the course of a training week. For instance, if wingers typically ac
crue ~1,000 m of HSR in ~90 minutes of match play, then those wingers would
attempt to incrementally accumulate ~1,200 to ~1,500 m of HSR throughout
the course of a training week (excluding the match itself). In this example, the
majority of this weekly benchmark would typically be accrued on the heaviest
training session(s) of the week (i.e. 3 and 4 days until match day, or MD 3 and
4, respectively) [118–120].
It should be noted, higher HSR output within MD 3 and 4 sessions has been
shown to have a positive infuence of subsequent match day performance [121].
This is most likely due to the distant proximity these sessions hold from match
day. With 3 and 4 days until match day, compared to heavy output 1 day out
from match day, players are afforded the time to adequately recover from the
fatiguing training stimulus, and subsequently, express their physical capacities in
competition more purely.
It should be acknowledged that these percentages (i.e. 120%–150%) are highly
arbitrary. Each set of training benchmarks should be specifc to the individu
ally unique high performance programme being implemented at the club (see
Chapter 11). Some clubs may need a wider bandwidth for their benchmarks
(i.e., 80%–150%), whilst others may need lower absolute benchmarks (i.e.
80%–120% at academy level), whereas some may need different benchmarks for
 Wearable technology 181
each individual performance metric (i.e. ~120% for HSR distance vs >200% for
high intensity acceleration efforts vs no percentage based benchmark for more
highly sensitive metrics like sprint distance). Some clubs may preserve static
benchmarks (i.e. benchmarks representing the peak physical output from past
seasons), while others may utilise dynamic benchmarks (i.e. benchmarks rep
resent a rolling average of match day demands, updated after each competitive
round is played throughout the season). In that sense, there is infnite nuance
that must be accounted for when applying this method of guided prescription.
For example, modifcations to training benchmarks are dependent on those
who played for >90 minutes, substitutes, unused substitutes, as well as adjusting
benchmarks during periods of high accumulative acute fatigue and soreness.
Other content considered are some non modifable factors such as periods of
congested fxtures, travel schedules, and the historical load of specifc players.

Utilising live data

Nowadays, some of the more developed wearable manufacturers offer live
tracking, for practitioners to make accurate decisions during training. Live feed
back of physical outputs helps illustrate to practitioners the current intensity of
drills, potential fatigue patterns, speed exposures, and overall goal setting. Specif
cally, if multiple bouts of a soccer specifc drill were prescribed for the session, and
the coaches and/or practitioners notice a physical decrement, the live feedback can
help quantify the severity of that decline. For example, at the conclusion of the sec
ond set (out of four), of an 8v8 drill, coaches may suspect a physically lower output
during that set. Practitioners could then inspect the live feedback system and notice
the average m·min 1 dropped by ~X% from frst set to second set. Therefore, given
the myriad of factors within the training session, practitioners could make some
instantaneous recommendations, such as more rest between sets, to increase the
likelihood of obtaining the desired physical outputs. However, it must be noted
that some live wearable feedback systems will have associated standard errors of
measurement [55]. Therefore, to increase the likelihood of accuracy of information,
practitioners must be intentional with satellite placement as well as understanding
which metrics may have greater errors of measurement. Additionally, practitioners
may opt to use live feedback during match play. Whilst the information is impor
tant, it is highly unlikely that any decisions made on game day will be based on the
GPS and/or HR information. Furthermore, it is more likely that the equipment
needed to collect live data will merely be seen as a distraction on game day, creating
greater potential for a negative environment.

Methodological considerations
The processes, systems, methods, etc. delineated in this chapter are just one
effective way to analyse, deliver, and utilise external training load monitoring in
elite soccer. If the principles of exercise physiology are adhered to, there are
many different, yet still highly effective ways to utilise wearable technology.
182 Joshua Rice et al.
This chapter did not discuss several recurrent situations pertinent to exter
nal training load monitoring in elite soccer, including:

• GPS and HR guided reconditioning of an injured athlete during their re

turn to play rehabilitation (see Chapter 9)
• monitoring training loads during weeks of congesting fxtures (see Chapters
6 and 10)
• strategies to effectively manage deloads (see Chapters 8 and 10)
• dealing with missing data (i.e. National team duties, indoor stadiums, GPS
and/or HR dropout, etc.), including equations that interchange player out
put between systems (optical vs GPS) with reduced error [122].

Furthermore, the mentioned methods in this chapter pertained to the delivery

of wearable reports to technical coaches exclusively. Although there is always
some overlap between departments within soccer clubs, this sub chapter did
not pertain to the delivery of reports to say, the medical department. For ex
ample, the medical department may often request elaborated versions of a re
port to aid in the return to play process.

Conclusion
When establishing protocols for usage of wearable technology in elite soccer
environments, practitioners must frst assess the validity and reliability of each
device. Furthermore, practitioners should evaluate the validity and reliability
of desirable metrics for collection. While manufacturers offer a variety of arbi
trary metrics within their system, it is advised that practitioners only use data
points that are valid and actionable in training. There are a variety of ways to
illustrate a training report based on the wearable data collected. However, it is
recommended that practitioners keep the reports as simple as possible (1 page)
and can highlight any substantial differences, if necessary.

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8 Recovery and nutrition
Francisco Tavares, António Pedro Mendes,
Francisco Pereira, Brett Singer, Michael Watts
and Hannah Sheridan

Overview of nutrition and recovery

One of the main objectives of an elite soccer player is to create positive ad-
aptations in order to give themselves a greater chance to enhance team suc-
cess; through a carefully periodized training plan which creates an overload to
develop athleticism, mindset, and/or technical ability. A well-considered train-
ing plan also factors in time to recover between sessions and training phases.
Alongside a structured training plan, nutritional recommendations need align
with the training phases to allow players to have energy for the demands, as
well as recovery accordingly. The objective of most training phases is to create
enough stress followed by a period of recovery to create a status known as
‘super compensation’ [1]. The training stimulus promotes a disturbance to ho-
meostasis leading to a biological response and a temporary impairment to an
athlete’s performance, a phenomenon frequently described as fatigue [2]. The
planned state of stress and the fatigue that follows may be referred to functional
overreaching (FOR). Furthermore, it is possible that too much stress without
recovery can lead to feelings of tiredness, fatigue, and a lack of motivation.
Excess fatigue is often unplanned and can require an extended period off to
help recover the athlete. This unwanted adaptation is known as non-functional
overreaching (NFOR). Additionally, in some extreme cases, athletes are pushed
so hard physically and/or mentally until they reach an unsought state known
as overtraining syndrome (OTS). In exercise, recovery is often described as the
period of time when the biological responses to re-establish homeostasis and
performance occur [2].
Soccer, being an intermittent multiple-sprint sport characterized by repeated
bouts of short duration high-intensity sprints in an endurance context, may
result in players having significant depletion of muscle glycogen stores, muscle
damage, dehydration, and central fatigue. Hence, a careful planning of nutritional
strategies is crucial for elite soccer players. Nutritional prescriptions should be
periodized alongside recovery modalities in an elite soccer environment. Players
competing at the elite level should be applying all necessary, and valid, approaches
to avoid unwanted training stimulus and promote readiness leading into games.
For the purpose of this chapter, recovery will be defined as the time frame be-
tween the end of a training unit and the beginning of the next training unit.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200420-8
190 Francisco Tavares et al.
The overtraining syndrome
Overtraining can be divided into three different categories: overload, overreach-
ing, and stages [3]. Overload is referred to a planned systematic and progressive
increase in training to improve performance. Whereas, overreaching has been
categorized under two terms: FOR and NFOR [4]. These states are defned as
either planned FOR or unplanned NFOR. Lastly, OTS refers to an untreated
state of overreaching that causes long term decreased performance and ability
to train. Other descriptions or terms for these states may include burnout,
staleness, under recovery, or chronic fatigue [5]. Research states that effective
conditioning and positive adaptation requires a balance of training or stress (vol
ume and intensity) mixed with dedicated phases of recovery [6, 7]. A situation
resulting in too much load or stress and not enough recovery can lead to phys
iological and psychological symptoms which may indicate FOR, NFOR, or even
OTS. Coaches and practitioners who don’t plan or do not place an importance
on recovery lead to limitations on performance, a suboptimal adaptation, and
in extreme cases can result in missed training sessions or even competition [4].
An imbalance between training and recovery can be amplifed or worsened
due to poor nutrition, immune health, psychological stress, movement eff
ciency, and poor sleep [8, 9]. These factors all impact and may contribute to
states of overreaching which not only lead to a reduction in performance or
maladaptation but can lead to immune dysfunction, infammation, neurological
issues, and hormonal and metabolic dysfunction [10].

The nervous system and its role in recovery

The Sympathetic branch of the ANS is also referred to as the ‘Fight of Flight Re
sponse’ and is the body’s natural stress response, linked to the release of hor
mones such as Cortisol and Norepinephrine [11]. The Parasympathetic branch
or the ‘Rest and Digest Response’ is linked to a lowering in the heart rate,
increase in salivary glands function and dilation of the arteries [12]. Both play an
important role in the functioning of an individual or athlete. It was found that if
an athlete experiences NFOR, a decline in HRV was found which correlated to
poor performance in an event [13].
Parasympathetic alterations include fatigue, depression, bradycardia, and a
loss of motivation. Whereas, sympathetic alterations include insomnia, irrita
bility, agitation, tachycardia, hypertension, and restlessness [5]. Interestingly,
Parasympathetic alterations were more common in aerobic sports, whereas
sympathetic alterations were more common in anaerobic sports. Furthermore,
it has been reported that over 125 signs and symptoms have been acknowl
edged in the literature which adds to the complexity of each condition [5].

Recovery in elite soccer

Success in recovery will be highly dependent on the key components of recov
ery (i.e. training load planning, rest, sleep, hydration, and nutrition). Sleep has
 Recovery and nutrition 191
been regarded as the single most effective recovery strategy for athletes [14].
Alongside sleep, nutritional habits are integral for athletes in the recovery pro
cess. Numerous nutritional factors directly affect the quality of sleep. There
fore, sleep and nutrition alterations go hand in hand as the best interventions to
enhance recovery and athletic performance.
Additionally, recovery sessions are popular within soccer clubs and are some
times done as a stand alone session on a separate day or prescribed at the
commencement of a feld training session. Many different modalities are now
available, such as compression, stretching, foam rolling, massage, cold water
immersion (CMI), electrical muscle stimulation, and cryotherapy. However, it
has been suggested that more research is needed to quantify the effectiveness
of each modality [2].

Sleep
Sleep plays a critical role in the recovery of athletes, as it is linked to a number
of processes that facilitate restoration and recovery of both the brain and the
body [15]. A wide range of performance benefts have been associated with
adequate sleep, including both physiological and psychological aspects [15, 16].
In essence, ‘sleep provides a restorative function to the body to recover from
prior wakefulness and fatigue by repairing processes and restoring energy’ [15].
Specifcally, deep sleep allow for recovery via hormone activity, restoring im
mune, and metabolic expenditure [14, 16].
On the contrary, sleep deprivation has been associated with many detrimen
tal effects on the human body, specifcally sport specifc and physical perfor
mance [17]. In relation to the physical demands required to compete in elite
soccer, sleep deprivation has been linked with decreased time to exhaustion,
decreased aerobic or anaerobic contribution, decreased ftness testing results,
and decreases in mean and peak power [17]. Therefore, it is recommended
that athletes require seven to nine hours of quality sleep per night in order to
recover and yield the desired adaptations expected by the coaches and prac
titioners [18]. However, young players or players exposed to higher training
loads, such as pre season, are recommended to sleep for a minimum of eight to
ten hours per night [16, 19]. Furthermore, if these prescriptions are not feasible
due to non modifable aspects, such as travel, elite athletes have also seen ben
efts from napping during the day [20]. Although sleep seems like a rudimentary
concept for discussion in elite soccer, practicing good sleep hygiene can excel
players’ ability to perform and could be the small margin contributing to overall
team success. Aside from sleep, athletes at the elite level may have the luxury
of applying a variety of modalities that have been shown to encourage recovery.

Nutrition and recovery

The intense training and competition schedule inherent to elite football, com
bined with regular travel, can pose a considerable challenge to the recovery,
192 Francisco Tavares et al.
performance, and immune function of players throughout a ten month season
[21, 22]. Players have limited recovery time in between matches and disturbed
sleeping patterns as a result of varying kick off times and international travel [23].
Throughout the season, there is additional pressure for players to maintain an
optimal body composition; this can be diffcult to achieve consistently as players
must prioritize fueling and recovery for match performance, often without the
knowledge of the starting line up or their potential contribution to the match
ahead. In addition, sleep deprivation and fatigue can alter eating habits and appe
tite, creating further challenges for maintaining optimal body composition [24].
A tailored nutrition strategy can play a key role in recovery from training,
preparation, and recovery from match play, optimization of immune function,
body composition, sleep quality, and circadian adaptation when travelling across
time zones [23, 25, 26]. It is always advised that the foundations of a player’s
diet are based on a varied, whole food intake in which they should achieve the
majority of their macro and micro nutrient targets [27, 28]. However, the de
mands of elite sport can pose challenges to optimal eating behaviors during which
supplementation may be advantageous to a player’s recovery, performance, and/
or wellbeing [29].

Training load and recovery

In soccer, players frequently have multiple daily training sessions during consec
utive days. The high density of training and competition load associated with

Figure 8.1 Schematic representation of hypothetical training capacity/preparedness to

train (vertical axis), according to the three different intervals between training
stimulus (blue arrow). (a) The interval is too long and no adaptation occurs
(undertraining); (b) the interval is appropriate and desired adaptations will oc
cur; and (c) the interval is too short and the training capacity decreases as the
accumulated fatigue increases (overreaching) (Adapted from Bishop et al. [6]).
 Recovery and nutrition 193
limited time to recovery may lead to a decrease in performance (i.e. fatigue)
and an increased risk of injury [30]. Theoretically, one can draw three possible
scenarios from training load–recovery relationship, where time to recovery is too
long (Figure 8.1a), time to recovery is adequate (Figure 8.1b) or time to recovery
is too short (Figure 8.1b) [6, 31, 32].
Although the scenario B (Figure 8.1b) is the one the performance staff is aim
ing for, a shifting from B to C is frequently observed, especially at the highest
levels of practice. For this reason, coaches and practitioners need to be aligned
and work together to maintain each player is balanced in the training load–
recovery paradigm. Together with the planifcation of the training load, factors
such as rest, sleep, nutrition, and hydration have been recognized as the key
components to recovery from training [8, 9].

Nutritional intake and associated challenges

Despite the suggested benefts of certain nutritional strategies in soccer per
formance, evidence has been revealing some concerns regarding soccer players’
food habits. While one might assume professional soccer players consistently
follow evidence based nutrition recommendations for training and recovery
to support optimal performance, evidence suggests that might not always be
the case. A study done with English Premier League players showed that in a
congested fxture period, average carbohydrate intake at training and recovery
days was 4.2 g·kg·day, which may well be short of recommendations for higher
volume training and match days [33]. Food habits of soccer players can often
be non compatible with peak physical performance [34]. Fat intake appears to
be too high when compared to evidence based recommendations, as it is the
most proportionally over consumed macronutrient [35–37]. While protein in
take generally meets the total daily recommendations, distribution and timing
often falls sort of best practice [38]. When it comes to carbohydrates, a review
indicated that senior soccer players had an intake of 4.3–5.0 g·kg of carbohydrate
per day, which may be adequate in some cases, but not others, in comparison to
the UEFA recommendations [39, 40]. Furthermore, research has revealed that
increasing defcits of just 10% in glycogen replenishment can elicit decrements
in performance over a period of time [39, 41]. Another common, undesirable
practice among players is the tendency to have infrequent meals that may lead to
muscle catabolism and reductions in muscle mass [35, 42]. As players get older,
the tendency to skip meals, especially breakfast and snacks, also increases [35,
37]. Thus, the above mentioned factors combined present a worrisome scenario
when recovery time between matches is limited in elite soccer environments.
It is diffcult to understand why carbohydrate is systematically below rec
ommendations in an array of studies. It might be related to weight related
concerns, individual tolerance, or warnings about carbohydrate overuse in the
general population [35]. Long term carbohydrate restriction regimens can be
harmful for player’s performance, as they might impair cognitive performance,
perceptions of fatigue, and/or increased susceptibility to skeletal muscle damage
194 Francisco Tavares et al.
while training or competing [43–45]. Players should be taught that performance
improvements occur as a result of long term changes to diet and training and
not through instant solutions as nutritional product manufacturers might sug
gest [46]. Besides the defcits in nutritional intake, defcits in nutritional knowl
edge by staff and players shouldn’t be overlooked, as they represent a barrier
to change. Combatting nutrition misinformation, shared by coaches and players,
based on their past experiences, can be particularly challenging for practitioners
[47]. Cultural issues can also be a hurdle for changing behaviors, with implica
tions for a culturally diverse team [48]. Although a delicate situation to navigate,
practitioners should be open to learning from players about their previous ex
periences, while also seeking out opportunities to teach and incorporate more
evidence based nutrition behavioral changes.

General macronutrient requirements

While some athletes may seek out ergogenic aids as their frst opportunity for
performance improvement, meeting overall dietary needs through food should
be prioritized frst [39]. Macronutrients (carbohydrates, protein, and fat) serve
as the primary energy sources, thus placing a large emphasis on the require
ments for elite soccer players.

Carbohydrates
Although several recommendations have been made, current reviews indicate
that macronutrient intake in soccer is not consistently adequate to fulfl play
ers’ needs [39]. Additionally, the lack of evidence regarding muscle glycogen
utilization during feld based soccer training sessions make it diffcult to outline
carbohydrate recommendations for training, other than to suggest that they
might differ from match play [49]. Based on an investigation with English Pre
mier League players, during a seven day microcycle – with two matches and fve
training sessions – the mean daily carbohydrate intake was 6.4 and 4.2 g·kg on
match and training days, respectively [33]. Given that muscle glycogen stores
are a determining factor for preparation and recovery from match play, it is ad
vised to increase carbohydrate intake to 6–8 g·kg·bodyweight (BW) on MD 1,
MD, and MD+1 [50]. In turn, during periods of lower daily loads (one match per
week), considering that players do not perform any additional training outside
the club, a daily intake of 3–6 g·kg may be suffcient to promote fueling and to
optimize recovery [40].
Recent evidence has provided new insights into the enhancement of adap
tive responses to training and recovery in environments with low carbohydrate
availability, which may increase mitochondrial biogenesis and oxidative metabo
lism [51, 52]. Thus, glycogen can be considered not only an energetic substrate
but also a regulator of signaling responses, which has led to a growing interest
on a ‘periodized’ approach [51]. Periodizing the consumption of carbohydrates
can be done by soccer players, alongside the season calendar, coaches’ training
 Recovery and nutrition 195
models, athletes body composition, and performance goals [53]. Although there
is evidence showing that soccer players might naturally practice some type of
nutrition periodisation plan, they are usually not qualifed to self develop an ad
equate strategy in this sense, hence the importance of being closely monitored
by a nutritionist [53].

Protein
Besides depleting glycogen stores, frequent training and matches can induce
stress on tendinous and musculoskeletal tissues, so repairing and remodelling
these structures to improve and maintain their integrity is necessary for opti
mized recovery and adaptations, hence the importance of protein [54]. Accord
ing to the recommended dietary allowance, the general protein requirement
for a sedentary person is 0.8 g·kg·BW/day [55, 56]. However, there is a good ra
tionale to recommend higher protein intakes to athletes in the range of 1.6–2.2
g·kg/day [40]. In this sense, soccer players may require protein for more than
just alleviation of the risk for defciency, but also to aid in an elevated level of
functioning and possibly adaptation to the exercise stimulus [57].
Although distribution and timing of protein intake often falls sort of best
practice, recent dietary surveys suggest that most professional players meet the
overall daily recommended protein intake [38, 54]. Nevertheless, they usually
exhibit a skewed pattern of protein intake – similar to the general population –
with the highest intakes observed at dinner and sub optimal intakes at breakfast
and snacks, which may not optimally stimulate muscle protein synthesis on each
meal occasion [38, 58]. The suggested ‘ideal’ recommendation is four to fve
protein containing meals, with at least 0.4 g·kg/meal. With the intake of four
meals, this recommendation would result in roughly 1.6 g·kg of protein con
sumed per day (Figure 8.2) [40, 59].

Figure 8.2 Representation of a possible protein distribution throughout the day for a
75 kg player.
196 Francisco Tavares et al.
Fat
Fat is the most concentrated source of energy in human nutrition, as well as a
vehicle for the intake and absorption of fat soluble vitamins. Although consid
ered the most proportionally over consumed macronutrient, athletes are often
misinformed on the importance of fat intake and, in some cases, limited the
amount of fat in their nutritional habits. There is current debate on the intake
of fat in the athletic population; however, the expert group recommendation
suggests that fat intake, for soccer players, should account for 20%–35% of total
dietary energy [40, 60, 61]. Over restricting fat intake to less than 20% may
result in missing out on a range of food with valuable nutrient profles [62]. Fur
thermore, a high fat, low carbohydrate diet has been shown to impair perfor
mance in elite endurance athletes [60, 63]. In summary, there are varied noted
outcomes with altered fat carbohydrate ratios. It is strongly recommended that
practitioners remain with evidence based suggestions in relation to fat intake,
without compromising other macronutrients.

Match nutrition: from preparation to recovery

Pre match day/MD 1

The primary focus on pre match day is to ensure that muscle and liver glycogen
stores are at their maximum, since it’s known that athletes who begin a game
with low muscle glycogen stores are more likely to cover less distance and at
slower speeds, particularly in the second half [64, 65].
Typically, MD 1 training session consist of brief tactical work and short high
intensity exercises. Nutritionally, evidence emphasizes the need to load with
6–8 g·kg·BW of carbohydrate starting 24 h before the match [33]. For a 75 kg
player, this would be equivalent to 450–600 g of carbohydrates (Figure 8.3).

200g low-fat 60g rolled

Breakfast greek yogurt oats
20g honey 1 banana

Morning 1x30g cereal 30g whey 60g

snack bar protein maltodextrin

110g grilled
300g brown 20g snack of 300ml orange
Lunch rice
chicken 200g brocooli 1 apple
choice juice
breast

30g
Afternoon 100g rye
jam/ 1 orange
snack bread
marmalade

300g sweet 150g grilled 200g 20g snack of 300ml apple

Dinner potatoes seabass tomatoes
1 pear
choice juice

503g
TOTALS ~3015 kcal
carobhydrates

Figure 8.3 Example of a carbohydrate loading day for a 75 kg player.

 Recovery and nutrition 197
In practical terms, it is quite possible to distribute this amount by four to fve
meals. For example, at lunch and at dinner, it is not unreasonable to suggest 2
g·kg, plus 1 g·kg at breakfast and the remaining carbohydrates may be distrib
uted at the afternoon snack and supper, through easily digestible snacks and
drinks. Notwithstanding, achieving an intake of 6 g·kg can be challenging, and
the reality is that players’ daily intake may be closer to about 4 g·kg [39]. In this
regard, a conscious intake of carbohydrate rich foods is needed, by increasing
carbohydrate intake at the cost of fat intake to ensure glycogen restoration
[40]. If the match schedule consists of congested fxtures, carbohydrate intake
should be maintained within the recommendations (6–8 g·kg) for the 48–72 h
between games [40].
The day before the match also represents an opportunity to access and opti
mize player’s hydration for the following day. Urinary indices of hydration such
as daily body mass measurements, urine specifc gravity and osmolality, urine
color, or degree of thirst may be useful indicators to measure hydration status
[66]. Besides every methods limitations, urine specifc gravity, osmolality, and
urine color are the most effective methods in determining and monitoring hy
dration status. Therefore, values for specifc gravity and osmolality of <1.020
and <700 mOsmol·kg, respectively, should be assured as they indicate euhy
dration. Urine color should appear light yellow on MD 1 [67]. Body weight
measurements taken on MD 1 should be kept within 1% of typical daily body
weight, as a starting weight outside of this range is associated with dehydration.
Similarly, player’s fuid consumption should be monitored before and after train
ing. This way, the amount of fuid lost during training can be determined [67].
Nutritionists, coaches, and other specialized team members educate players
on hydration needs, and encourage them to meet their daily requirements [39].
Monitoring training loads and players’ dietary intake may be helpful to deter
mine individual nutritional needs and establish tailored interventions [68].

Game/match day (MD)

On match day, carbohydrate intake continues to be one of the most deter
minant factors to improve performance. Glycogen stores can drop drastically
during a match, with almost half of the muscle fbers being empty or almost
empty once it fnishes [69]. Therefore, athletes should adopt nutritional strat
egies to maximize pre game muscle glycogen levels through the manipulation
of carbohydrate intake, during and after match play. Within an overall intake
guideline of 6–8 g·kg·BW·day, players should be encouraged to consume a car
bohydrate rich meal (1–3 g·kg·BW) three to four hours before kick off, to en
sure that glycogen stores are suffcient to endure match demands (Figure 8.4).
Besides the carbohydrate intake guidelines, gastrointestinal comfort is also
an aspect to consider in the meals that precede the match. In this sense, it is
advised that players ingest easy digestible foods. These foods should be aligned
with players’ preferences and rituals, so carbohydrate intake guidelines don’t
override their intrinsic taste for certain foods. Unfamiliar foods can lead to
198 Francisco Tavares et al.

• 200g low-fat greek yogurt

• 60g rolled oats
Morning • 20g honey
game • 1 banana
• 300ml pineapple juice
• 70g whole wheat bread

• 360g roasted sweet potatoes

• 100g grilled turkey breast
• 100g broccoli
A˜ernoon • 1 banana
game • 50g rye bread
• 300ml orange juice

Figure 8.4 Two examples of meeting MD nutrition requirements (three hours before
kick off) for a 75 kg player.

nausea, stomach cramps, and diarrhea, so keeping meals choices simple is es

sential for a successful pre event fueling [70]. Within 60 minutes before the
match until warm up, light snacks high in carbohydrates may further increase its
availability, thus sparing liver glycogen during activity [70]. To this respect, the
quantity and timing of feeding within 1 h before the game should be up to the
players’ preference.
As the beginning of the match gets closer, caffeine intake arises as an addi
tional nutritional strategy to be considered. Specifcally, ingesting 3–6 mg·kg
of caffeine 20–60 minutes prior to the match can improve performance [71].
Depending on the caffeine source, individual response can vary. Some players
might prefer to ingest caffeine in a gel form and others as a pill. Therefore,
personalized strategies should take place beforehand in order to test individual
responses. When it comes to hydration, the main goal is to begin the game in
a euhydrated state and with normal plasma electrolyte levels. Hydration rec
ommendations consist of ingesting 5–7 ml·kg·BW of fuid in the two to three
hours before the match, which gives time for excess fuid to be voided prior to
exercise [72, 73]. During this period, monitoring hydration status presents as
a diffcult task. Given the diffculty and impracticality of monitoring hydration
status on game day, players should be educated and reminded of the importance
of adequate fuid intake.
Before kick off and during warm up, it is advised to drink small amounts
of fuids, as fuid ingestion is the only way to replace sweat losses and
thereby reduce the risk of dehydration [74, 75]. The mechanism by which
sweating induced hypohydration may impair soccer performance includes
impaired cognitive and thermoregulatory function, increased perception of
effort, increased cardiovascular strain, and reduced technical skills [76]. The
magnitude of these effects has been shown to be correlated to the degree of
 Recovery and nutrition 199
dehydration [77]. Although some individuals may be more or less sensitive
to hypohydration during exercise, the level needed to induce a decrease in
performance is around > 2% decrease in body mass [78]. Therefore, players
should aim to drink enough fuids to prevent a defcit of 2%–3% of pre exer
cise body weight during the match, while avoiding signs of hyperhydration (e.g.
increased body weight) and ensuring their needs are met.

During match-play
Nutritional strategies during match play usually include the 30 minutes preced
ing kick off plus the 90 min match [74]. Here, the main goals are to ensure
suffcient carbohydrate and fuid intake. Research shows performance benefts
in protocols that simulate soccer matches when consuming 30–60 grams of
carbohydrate per hour [79]. In some cases, it might not be easy to achieve these
recommendations despite the advantages in doing so, such as improving the
ability to perform high intensity intermittent actions [80, 81]. Potential rationale
to scenarios of under fueling during match play are limited feeding opportuni
ties and/or the fear of gastrointestinal distress. Thus, unveiling the importance
of sports foods as carbohydrate drinks or gels, that can provide a preferred
delivery option and help to reach match play recommendations. Stoppages
during match play present an opportunity for players to replenish some of the
fuids lost and to consume some carbohydrates. Carbohydrate mouth rinsing
during breaks of match play has also shown to be able to enhance performance
in situations where carbohydrate ingestion is limited due to gastrointestinal
concerns [82]. Carbohydrate mouth rinses can be utilized by swilling a carbohy
drate solution in the mouth periodically for 5–10 seconds [83]. This is related
to receptors in the oral cavity that may exert central effects when carbohydrate
is consumed during exercise, thereby reducing the perception of effort [84].
Another practice that has been considered novel in professional soccer is the
use of pickle juice in relation to players that report muscle cramps. The mecha
nism of action is still not well understood, but studies suggest that its ingestion
triggers a refex in the oropharyngeal region, which reduces the activity of the
alpha neuron pool [85]. Regardless the lack of related studies, pickle juice can
be used for the potential acute relief of exercise associated muscle cramps [85].
All off the mentioned nutrition strategies mentioned above should be imple
mented in training, in order for the players to become accustomed to potential
adverse effects, with minimal impact on match performance.

Post-match recovery
The consumption of carbohydrates immediately after a game is important for
optimum glycogen resynthesis, given that glycogen synthesizing enzymes are
most active during this period [86]. Delaying carbohydrate feeding 2 h after
exercise can, in fact, result in lower muscle glycogen concentration by 45% com
pared to immediate carbohydrate ingestion [87]. During the 4 h post exercise,
the consumption of 1–1.2 g·kg·h carbohydrate has shown to induce maximal
200 Francisco Tavares et al.
glycogen resynthesis [87]. This can be considered a signifcantly large amount
of food for most players. Also, their appetite can be suppressed following the
match, so liquid protein, and carbohydrate supplements, as an alternative to
solid foods, can be useful for enhancing recovery mainly during periods with a
high number of fxtures. In the following 24 h after a game, carbohydrate intake
of 6–8 g·kg·BW should be maintained up to 48–72 h during congested fxture
schedules [74].
Rehydration is an important part of the post exercise recovery process, and
it can be seen as one of the frst to be put in practice. Inadequate rehydration
may have negative effects on glycogen restoration and protein synthesis rates, so
post exercise is a period where rehydration strategies should be implemented in
order to aid these mechanisms and to replace the volume of the fuids lost [88].
Ideally, players should replace 150% of what have they lost. That means that for
every kg of weight lost during exercise, 1.5 L of ingested fuid is required [89].
Beverages containing sodium (with a content greater than 600 mg/L) induce lower
urine production and helps stimulating thirst and retaining the ingested fuids, thus
re establishing water balance [75]. On the contrary, rehydrating with just water
might take three times longer to restore plasma volume [90]. The addition of car
bohydrate, sodium, and protein, such as milk or carbohydrate protein recovery
beverages, can also enhance rehydration in comparison to plain water or even
sports drinks alone [91]. When consumed with food, water can be an effective
rehydration beverage as the addition of macronutrients and sodium from food
should slow the absorption and improve retention of fuid [92].
The optimal sodium level during rehydration can be as high as 50–80 mmol/L,
which exceeds the amounts found in a typical sports drink. Therefore, drinks
with a high electrolyte content (40–50 mmol/L of sodium chloride) and with a
high carbohydrate content to help with glycogen restoration can be more suit
able for rehydration purposes [90]. The consumption of carbohydrates imme
diately after a game is important for optimum glycogen resynthesis, given that
glycogen synthesizing enzymes are most active during this period [86]. Delaying
carbohydrate feeding 2 h after exercise can, in fact, result in lower muscle glyco
gen concentration by 45% compared to immediate carbohydrate ingestion [87].
Optimizing muscle protein synthesis rates is also crucial, and meals should
reach 0.4 g·kg·meal of high quality protein, scheduled every three to four hours,
to maximally repair tissues [93–95]. Nutrition strategies towards the end of the
day are often overlooked by athletes. This time of the day, however, represents
an additional feeding opportunity for overnight recovery. For instance, a 40 g
dose of casein, 30 minutes prior to sleep, accelerates functional recovery and,
therefore, provides means of attenuating performance defcits in the following
days after a match [96, 97]. This is due to its slow release properties over a
prolonged sleeping period [98]. Professional players typically report an intake of
0.1 g·kg·BW of protein at this time, highlighting an opportunity to improve nu
tritional choices [33, 58]. As it would be expected, the absence of this pre sleep
feed will not improve overnight protein balance and will possibly compromise
muscle protein synthesis rates over the 24h period [98].
 Recovery and nutrition 201
Supplements
Despite the heterogeneous defnition of the term supplement, it is indisputa
ble that the prevalence of supplement use is far greater in athletes than in the
general population [99]. Supplements are the largest group of products mar
keted to athletes. However, only a few have good evidence of benefts, namely
creatine, caffeine, specifc buffering agents (beta alanine and bicarbonate) and
nitrates, which may be included in a supplementation protocol (especially when
food intake or food choice is restricted) [100]. It is not unusual for dietary sup
plements to be used without a full understanding of its potential benefts and
risks by athletes. In addition, given the potential costs of its use and doping con
cerns, a complete nutritional assessment should be considered before decisions
regarding supplement use are made.

Creatine
Creatine is produced from the amino acids glycine, methionine and arginine by
the liver. It can also be obtained from exogenous sources, predominantly from
meat and fsh, with a typical diet supplying around 1–2 grams of creatine per
day [101]. Around 95% of all creatine in the body is stored in the skeletal muscle
and 60% of it is in the phosphorylated form (phosphocreatine) [102]. In a rapid
one step process, phosphocreatine donates a phosphate to ADP resulting in
ATP synthesis. This energy system is relied on heavily for high intensity exercise
such as sprinting, jumping, or resistance training. Supplementation with creatine
increases muscle creatine, allowing the athlete to depend on this rapid energy
system for a few seconds longer [103]. In more general terms, the athlete can
sustain high intensity outputs longer, while recovering quicker between bursts
of activity. This would be especially benefcial for soccer, as high intensity run
ning, repeated sprinting, jump ability, and other intermittent efforts are cru
cial elements of performance [104]. Creatine supplementation may also lead to
chronic adaptations which include lean mass gains and improvements in muscu
lar and strength power [100]. On the other hand, aerobic oriented activities do
not appear to beneft from creatine supplementation [105].
Regarding the traditional supplementation protocols, most studies have em
ployed a ‘loading phase’ that consists of taking 5 g of creatine, four times daily
for 5–7 days [106]. A more recent approach suggests a lower dose of 3 g per day
which has shown to increase muscle total creatine to the same values. However,
it takes longer (about 30 days) [107]. In both strategies, a maintenance phase
of 3–5 g·day or 0.03 g·kg·day should be followed for the rest of the supplemen
tation period [108]. To maximize its storage in the muscle, it is recommended
that creatine is consumed with a carbohydrate or protein source, given the role
of insulin in increasing muscle creatine uptake [108]. The only expected side
effect with creatine supplementation is weight gain (1–1.5kg), which is more
evident in men compared to women, and is likely due to intracellular water
accumulation [104].
202 Francisco Tavares et al.
Beta-alanine
Beta alanine is an amino acid produced in the liver and it can be obtained through
the consumption of foods such as poultry and meat. Although it doesn’t have
direct ergogenic properties, it acts as a substrate for the synthesis of carnosine,
which is an intracellular dipeptide found in high concentrations in the skeletal
muscle. It exerts its function by sequestering hydrogen ions (H+) that result
from the conversion of lactic acid to lactate and are responsible for acidifying
muscles during exercise [109]. Since muscle acidosis contributes to the onset of
fatigue, a higher concentration of carnosine increases this ability to sequester
hydrogen ions, delaying the onset of fatigue [109]. Nevertheless, supplemen
tation of carnosine is ineffcient in augmenting its levels, as it is metabolized
before reaching skeletal muscle. Therefore, the most effective way to increase
endogenous synthesis of carnosine is through the intervene of beta alanine in
tramuscular availability [110].
Improvement in performance from beta alanine supplementation depends
on the level of acidosis that the exercise itself generates [111]. When an exer
cise protocol elicits high acidosis, improvement in performance is more likely
to take place. Beta alanine has been linked to improved performance in high
intensity exercise activity lasting between 30 seconds to 10 minutes in duration
or where there may be repeated bouts of high intensity exercise, such as soc
cer drills and match play [100]. Time until maximal muscle carnosine levels are
reached from chronic beta alanine supplementation appears to be variable be
tween individuals [112, 113]. Despite a multitude of studies, there is still no exact
recommendation regarding dosing or exact duration, though recommendations
are currently for somewhere between 3.2 and 6.4 g per day over the course
of 4–24 weeks. This total amount should further be split into smaller doses
between 0.8 and1.6 per dose every 3–4 h which should alleviate the potential
side effect linked to beta alanine, paresthesia, which is a harmless short term
tingling sensation in the hands and face briefy following supplementation [113].
Additionally, doses should be combined with meals which may further enhance
muscle carnosine levels [114].

Caffeine
Caffeine is the world’s most consumed psychoactive substance, and it occurs
naturally in several plant species, including coffee, tea, and cocoa [115]. Its study
has been a longstanding topic of interest, as it continues to be a compound of
concern, not only in the public health feld but also in the sports context. It is
believed that caffeine acts on the central nervous system via the antagonism of
adenosine receptors [116]. By suppressing these receptors, its intake leads to an
increased neurotransmitter release and motor unit fring rates [117]. Caffeine
use is correlated with increased performance in endurance activities as well as
in intermittent and strength activities [118]. Considering soccer, there is ro
bust evidence that caffeine intake leads to improved performance through the
 Recovery and nutrition 203
enhancement of different parameters such as: repeated sprint performance,
increased countermovement jump and jumping ability, increased number of
sprints and total distance covered at high intensity, improvement of reactive
agility, and reduced decline in the ability to perform mental tasks towards
the end of the game [119, 120].
Based on existing research, most studies use the administration of dosages
around 6 mg·kg·BW [121, 122]. However, ergogenic effects of caffeine can oc
cur with a variety of caffeine doses and timings as it is the case of the evi
dence demonstrating the benefcial effects of the ingestion of lower amounts
of caffeine on performance [123]. Several studies suggest that there is no dose
response between caffeine intake and increased performance during endurance
exercise. According to the latest position stand from the international society
of sports nutrition, caffeine is ergogenic when consumed in doses of 3–6 mg·k
g·BW [118]. In healthy adult populations, moderate daily caffeine intakes of up
to 400 mg·day or 6 mg·kg are not associated with adverse effects. On the con
trary, higher doses (>6–9 mg·kg) may be associated with side effects such as
jitters, increased heart rate and performance impairment [115]. Regarding the
timing of ingestion, caffeine is rapidly absorbed peaking after about 60 minutes
in blood plasma. Given that is slowly catabolized, concentration in circulation is
maintained near the maximum in 3–4 h following administration, so its intake 1
h before the game enables an ergogenic effect during the entire game [117, 124].
Some of the alternative sources of caffeine such as caffeinated chewing gums or
gels may promote a faster absorption than caffeine containing capsules. There
fore, timing of ingestion should be considered by individuals who are interested
in supplementing with caffeine [115, 125].

Nitrates
Nitrates have become increasingly popular for their potential role as an ergo
genic aid [126]. Nitric oxide (NO) is a signaling molecule produced through en
dogenous and exogenous pathways by dietary nitrate ingestion [126]. Increased
nitric oxide availability can affect numerous vascular and cellular functions,
namely in increasing effciency of mitochondrial respiration and muscle blood
fow by promoting vasodilatation during physical activity, which consequently
reduces ATP consumption during muscle contraction [127, 128]. Leafy green
and root vegetables like rocket, celery, beetroot, and spinach are the primary
source of dietary nitrate, although beetroot juice is the most used supplemental
nitrate source in exerciseinterventions [127, 129]. As nitrate needs are likely
to be met by ingesting around 250–500 g of these vegetables per day, dietary
supplements represent a more convenient way of covering the athlete’s needs
[126]. In addition, the content of nitrate rich vegetables varies greatly, and de
pends on many factors such as the origin of the vegetable, quality, and pH of the
soil, type, and frequency of nitrogen fertilizers.
Performance benefts can manifest acutely, following a bolus of 310–560 mg,
taken 2–3 h before exercise [100, 127]. Recent work also highlights a cumulative
204 Francisco Tavares et al.
infuence of repeated intake (more than three days) on performance [127,
130, 131]. However, chronic intake of more than three consecutive days before
the event seems to reap greater benefts for well trained athletes [126, 132].
The increase in plasma nitrite after a nitrate load is highly dependent on nitrate
reduction in the oral cavity by commensal bacteria as the usage of antibacte
rial mouthwash to remove these bacteria will impair this recycling process.
As such, this may be an important implication for athletes, who should refrain
from mouthwash usage [126]. Supplementation effects are less pronounced in
athletes with a higher V02MAX [126, 133]. Nevertheless, the effect of nitrates
shouldn’t be neglected as it is regarded by the International Olympic Commit
tee as one of a handful dietary supplements with a direct positive effect on per
formance [100, 126]. As differences between competitors are marginal, it may
be desirable to use nitrates in a supplementation protocol that might include
other supplements as well.

The injured athlete

There is irrefutable evidence that regular physical activity is effective in the
prevention of several chronic diseases and, by consequence, is associated with
a longer health span [134]. However, despite its health benefts, the demand
and competitiveness generated around professional soccer and other sports
have made the risk of developing sports injuries very high [135]. To counter this
trend, the knowledge about the factors that are at the genesis of sports inju
ries, the commitment to the rehabilitation plan as well as the communication
between the multidisciplinary team and the athletes is essential. It is common
for injured athletes to resort to different methods that allow them to recover
faster, namely electrical stimulation, ice, heat, and acupuncture, among others.
However, an often overlooked aspect of recovery is nutrition. An adequate and
planned nutritional approach should also be seen as a recovery strategy during
all stages of the injury [136].
At this time, studies in this feld are scarce, with most recommendations
based on studies utilizing subjects on bed rest or with limb immobilization rather
than an injury per se. Despite this, recommendations can be drawn based on
this evidence to devise nutritional interventions that may be appropriate for
the injured player. In this section, we will consider the exercise induced inju
ries that are more severe, which can be categorized by two main stages, both
infuenced by nutrition [136]. The frst is called the ‘immobilization’ or ‘atrophy
stage’. Depending on the type and severity of the injury, the length of time for
immobilization will vary, from a few days to several months. During this stage,
if there is a partial or full immobilization of the injured limb, the progressive
loss of skeletal muscle is the main effect caused by muscle disuse (see Chapter
9). Besides the loss of muscle, other tissues, such as tendons, may also be im
pacted. The second stage – rehabilitation phase — follows the return to mobil
ity. In this phase, the primary nutritional goal is to support muscle growth and
strength induced return to activity. Generally, nutritional recommendations
 Recovery and nutrition 205
aimed at rehabilitation are, in a way, like non injured athletes who aim to in
crease muscle mass [137]. Thus, the main nutritional focus should be on energy
and protein intake recommendations.

Energy
Energy intake must be considered when carrying out a food plan aimed to
recover from an injury. Recommendations in these cases are sometimes coun
terintuitive. Given the decrease in activity and, in turn, the energy expenditure,
reducing energy intake seems to be the most obvious recommendation [136].
Nevertheless, during prolonged periods of reduced activity, as is the case with
sports injuries, energy expenditure might not be as low as expected. In fact, a
case study done with players from the Premier League showed that the mean
daily energy intake and energy expenditure was 2,765 ± 474 and 3,178 kcal·day,
respectively [33]. Depending on the severity of the injury, this can be explained
by a 15–50% increase in basal metabolic rate during recovery, which is related to
its impact on muscle protein synthesis [136]. Athletes and practitioners should
strive to maintain energy balance, as an excessive caloric surplus or defcit have
both been associated with accelerated muscle atrophy [138, 139].

Protein
The most frequently associated macronutrient to the recovery from an injury
is protein, which can be explained for its role in muscle, tendon, and other soft
tissues’ function and structure. During immobilization, muscle protein synthesis
is suppressed, causing a decreased response to protein and an increase in muscle
atrophy. This suppression of muscle protein synthesis has also been noted during
age related sarcopenia, and muscle loss during times of signifcant weight loss.
Higher protein intakes have been linked to higher protein synthesis within older
populations where anabolic resistance is expected, thus it is thought higher pro
tein intakes may also have a sparing effect within injured athletes as well [140]. A
protein intake upwards of 2.0–2.5 g·kg per day has been recommended to pre
serve muscle mass during immobilization [136]. Regarding the amount of protein,
in an active muscle, a dose of 0.25–0.40 g·kg is suffcient to maximize a resting
and/or exercised muscle protein synthesis [141, 142]. However, given the anabolic
resistance that occurs with immobilization and/or reduced activity, it is expected
that the amount needed to optimize muscle protein synthesis in an immobilized
muscle would be higher. Injured athletes may then need to consume as much as
0.4–0.55 g kg protein each meal to achieve the higher total protein intake while
maximizing muscle protein synthesis as best as possible [143].
As aforementioned, protein should be distributed into four to fve feedings
across the day if feasible. Bearing this in mind, it makes sense to recommend
injured athletes to plan their meals in a way that stimulates muscle protein syn
thesis and, and the same time, mitigates muscle mass loss. Reaching this quantity
of protein through food alone may prove to be challenging for some athletes.
206 Francisco Tavares et al.
Particularly early on after an injury, when appetite may be suppressed, the use
of whey protein may assist the athlete in achieving their total protein needs in a
high quality and low volume source of protein.

Creatine, omega-3, and collagen

As aforementioned, one of the main reasons why creatine is used in an array
of sports is related to its effect on enhancing muscular hypertrophy which is
amplifed by resistance exercise [102]. In the scope of sports injuries, the use of
creatine in muscle mass loss mitigation has been investigated. During immobi
lization, creatine within skeletal muscle decreases signifcantly [144]. It has also
shown to have a positive effect on the increase of the expression of ‘glucose
transporters type 4’ (GLUT4) located in the skeletal muscle which is related to
increased insulin sensitivity [145]. Results are mixed regarding whether creatine
supplementation can reduce muscle atrophy during times of immobilization.
More studies are needed to determine its impact on muscle mass loss in differ
ent muscle groups before defnitive recommendations can be made so that an
adequate dosage is established. Despite this, it may be advisable to supplement
with creatine since it is affordable, may help preserve muscle in some cases, and
is likely to be benefcial once the athlete initiates the resistance training portion
of their rehabilitation.
Omega 3 fatty acids are often related with treatment of sports injuries for its
anti infammatory and immunomodulatory properties. Its supplementation seems
to be particularly important in cases where infammation is excessive and prolonged
[137]. Recently, omega 3 has gained interest related to its potential for sparing mus
cle mass during times of increased atrophy risk. As aforementioned, during immo
bilization, muscle protein synthesis appears to be suppressed. Omega 3 is believed
to potentially enhance muscle protein synthesis at times when it would usually be
suppressed, such as injury or age related sarcopenia [140]. Research indicated that
those who supplemented 5 g of omega 3 daily for four weeks (prior to two weeks
of leg immobilization), resulted in muscle protein synthesis and partially protected
quadriceps volume compared to the placebo trial [146]. Omega 3 may require as
many as four weeks in order to increase omega 3 composition within skeletal mus
cle [146]. Recognizing that muscle atrophy can occur within days after an injury, and
that the full benefts of omega 3 may take several weeks to occur, it may be advisa
ble for athletes to take omega 3 persistently throughout the season in preparation
just an in case an injury were to occur [140].
Collagen is the most abundant protein in the human body, being responsible
for the elasticity and frmness of tendons, ligaments, connective tissues, and it
represents the most predominant compounds in the extracellular matrix of
skeletal muscle. Collagen seems to be highly sensitive to mechanical load re
sulting from the practice of sports that involve frequent accelerations and de
celerations or that are characterized by constant moments of impact, which, in
turn, can translate into structural damage to muscle fbers and the surrounding
extracellular matrix. In this sense, a study demonstrated that the ingestion of
 Recovery and nutrition 207
10 g of collagen resulted in increased collagen synthesis in the knee’s cartilage of
athletes with a history of pain and discomfort due to mechanical stress, injury,
or in the postoperative period [147]. It has been noted that amino acids, in con
junction within collagen, peak approximately one hour after consumption [148].
By exercising during this window, it is suggested that these amino acids can be
directed toward the area of need while at their peak. The underlying mechanism
is not fully understood, but it is speculated that it is related to increased collagen
synthesis in the connective tissues around the muscle and the modulation of the
infammatory response to exercise, which appears to result in the early remod
elling of the injured structure [149]. Although studies on nutritional interventions
aimed at sports injuries recovery are scarce, some advances in the understanding
of the mechanism of collagen action are being published. In addition, there is
adequate evidence from other non athlete populations that can be applied to
athletes, as is the case of the literature associated with wound healing models,
trauma, surgery, and sarcopenia. Currently, collagen recommendations are for
15–20 g of either gelatin, hydrolysed collagen or collagen peptides approximately
one hour prior to activity. Vitamin C is required for the cross linking of collagen,
so players should either incorporate approximately 50 mg of Vitamin C with the
collagen supplement if fasted, or should consume Vitamin C through food sources
sometime prior to supplementation. More work in the area of collagen needs to
be performed, and we still lack data comparing collagen to other forms of protein,
such as whey, in relation to tendon, ligament, and bone health.

Recovery modalities
As aforementioned, the importance of sleep and nutrition have been heavily pri
oritized for enhancing performance and recovery in elite soccer. Given the high
density of training sessions and fxtures, in addition to adequate nutrition and
sleep strategies, coaches and practitioners often implement recovery modali
ties to enhance recovery [9]. Cold modalities such as contrast therapy (CWT)
and cold water immersion (CWI) are the most common recovery strategies
implemented in most team sports [150, 151], including soccer [7]. Additionally,
massage therapy is often implemented in elite soccer environments. Massage
methods have now been presented in multiple variations in elite soccer. Along
side passive modalities for enhancing recovery, active recovery sessions are
often implemented and programmed in elite soccer settings.

Cold water and physiology

Physiological responses to cold therapies are well described in the literature
[151–153]. The exposure to cold decreases skin, core, and muscle tempera
tures, leading to vasoconstriction and decreasing swelling and acute infam
mation from muscle damage [154]. A reduction in tissue temperature is also
associated with a decreased nerve conduction properties and muscle spasm
and pain [155]. In addition, cold modalities involving immersion in water lead to
208 Francisco Tavares et al.
hydrostatic pressure induced changes in blood fow, with some research studies
suggesting a benefcial effect by promoting metabolic waste removal [156, 157].
When athletes alternate between cold and hot water immersion (contrast water
therapy; CWT), the hot water increases vasodilation, leading to an increase in
blood fow and facilitation of oxygen and antibody supply, metabolite clearance,
and a reduction in muscle spasm and pain [9, 156, 158]. Although the scientifc
literature suggests a benefcial effect of CWI and CWT improving recovery,
some authors observed that chronically exposing subjects to may blunt anabolic
responses from training, which, in turn, affects muscle size adaptations [159].
Nevertheless, several limitations have been raised regarding previous research in
vestigating the chronic effects of cold modalities and their practical application to
athletes. For example, the training frequency (two to three training sessions per
week) used in these studies potentially allow for full recovery between sessions,
limiting the rationale for the inclusion of cold modalities [160].
When designing and implementing cold water immersion protocols, the par
adox between the implementation of cold modalities to acutely (i.e. 24–48 h
post exercise) enhance recovery and readiness to train, and the potential harm
ful effects on the long term adaptations to training (i.e. decreases in muscle size)
need to be contemplated.

Factors affecting cold water immersion methodology

The factors contributing to water immersion recovery protocols designing have
been reviewed elsewhere [158]. These factors can be divided in protocol char
acteristics, individual and external factors (Table 8.1).

Protocol characteristics
The intensity of a protocol can be determined by the effect that protocol has re
ducing core and muscle temperature (Table 8.1). The body area in contact with
water, the water temperature, and duration of immersion can be manipulated
in order to increase or decrease the protocol intensity [158]. Recent literature
suggests the water temperature to range between 10ºC and 15ºC to promote
a decrease in core and deep muscle temperature, with lower temperatures

Table 8.1 Protocol characteristics and individual and external factors to be considered
when designing a water immersion recovery protocol

Protocol characteristics Individual factors External factors

Duration of exposure to cold Physique traits Phase of the season

Immersion depth Sex Density of the weekly
schedule
Temperature used Goals of the athlete (long
term and short term)

Source: Adapted from Tavares et al. [158].

 Recovery and nutrition 209
representing an increase in the protocol intensity [151, 153, 161]. In terms of
duration, a total time of 5–15 minutes is normally used with longer immersion
times being associated with a greater decrease in body temperature. Given that
body temperature occurs in a gradual manner, as opposed to instantaneously,
and superfcial tissue temperatures reduce and rewarm signifcantly quicker
than deeper tissues, dividing the total time (i.e. 12 min) in two to three sets may
be more tolerable while having similar effects on deep tissue temperature. The
immersion depth is another variable that can be manipulated. The area of the
body that is submersed affects the intensity as a larger surface area in contact
with the cold represents more heat transfer from the body to the water and
vice versa, resulting on a greater thermal stress. Furthermore, the deeper the
immersion, the greater the impact of hydrostatic pressure on the body.

Internal characteristics
When compared to muscle and skin, fat provides a greater thermal transfer
insulation. For this reason, differences in body composition (i.e. muscle mass
and body fat) seem to justify individual responses to cold modalities [162]. The
ratio between body surface area and body mass (BSA:BM) also affects thermal re
sponses as a larger BM increases heat production and retention, and a larger BSA
increases evaporation, convection, and conduction of heat. Therefore, athletes
with high fat mass and/or lower BSA:BM require more severe cold protocols to
reduce muscle and core temperature to a same extend than athletes with a greater
BSA:BM. Although these characteristics are of upmost importance in sports such
as American Football or Rugby, this individualization can also be important when
considering athletes from different positions in soccer. Furthermore, given the
association between sex and body fat or BSA:BM (i.e., females > males), different
responses to water immersion recovery protocols can be expected.

External characteristics
When considering the implementation of CWI/CWT, there are a few questions
about the training content and weekly density that should be addressed in order
to help practitioners deciding how and when to implement cold modalities:

• How physically demanding was the training sessions – Was the player ex
posed to a training session that is likely to lead to signifcant levels of de
layed onset muscle soreness?
• When will the next training session occur – Will the next training session
occur within 36h?
• What are the goals of the next training session – In the subsequent training
sessions players will be required to produce high mechanical outputs?

If the answer to all these three questions is yes, there is potentially a rational to
include cold modalities protocols during the training week. For example, there
is a clear distinction between the density of the training week of professional
Table 8.2 Example of a cold recovery scheme for elite and amateur team-sport athletes during an in-season week
Match
Match day Off Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5
Day
Low to Moderate to
Training load Very high Day off High Low Low Very high
moderate high
Recovery from
Recover to adapt Recover to perform
damage
Intensity
of cold +++ + ++ +++
modalities
Elite CWI: 2
CWT:
CWT: 3x (2 × 5 min
210 Francisco Tavares et al.

3x (1 min
CWI: 2 × 5 min min cold:1 (11–
Example cold:2 min
(8–10°C); full body min hot); full 15°C);
hot); lower
body lower
body
body
Moderate Moderate to Low or
Training load Very high Day off Low Day off Very high
to high low day off
Recovery from Recover to
Recover to adapt
damage perform
Intensity
of cold +++ + ++
modalities
Amateur
CWT: 3×
CWT: 3× (1 (2 min
CWI: 2 × 5 min min cold:2 cold:1
Example
(11–15°C); full body min hot); min hot);
lower body lower
body

Source: Adapted from Tavares et al. [158].

 Recovery and nutrition 211
adult soccer players and young amateur soccer players, with the last being likely
to have lower physical demands during training and competition with longer pe
riods to recovery from load due to a lower number of training sessions. For this
reason, it seems reasonable to appropriate alter cold modality prescriptions to
each scenario. An example of the intensities that can be used in the amateur and
elite scenarios can be seen in Table 8.2.
As aforementioned, exposing athletes to cold modalities may interfere with
muscle mass adaptations. Thus, during non competition periods that involve
training designed for increases in muscle mass, it seems counterproductive to
reduce the infammatory response from exercise by exposing athletes to CWI
or CWT. It is important to mention that even during periods without compe
tition, the type of training is adjusted according to individual needs. For exam
ple, some athletes can be aiming to increase peak power output, therefore,
requiring for athletes to perform in a non fatigued state. Given this, during
non competition training phases, such as pre season, CWI or CWT can aid
in training quality, resulting in an increased potential for training adaptations.
For the aforementioned reason, it is important to understand that the advice
to completely avoid cold modalities within preseason or another preparatory
period is not conclusive.
Similarly, during the in season period, the inclusion and manipulation of cold
modalities protocols need to be adjusted according to the individual training
goals, including potential selection to play on game day, training age, and com
petitive goals. For example, it is common to observe age group athletes training
within elite senior squads. Normally, these athletes have lower training ages and
therefore have lower body weight and muscle mass in comparison with senior
players. Therefore, it might be reasonable to pursue further gains in muscle mass
even during competitive periods, resulting in the need to limit cold exposure in
less experienced athletes. Furthermore, if an athlete is less likely to be selected
for some weeks, and increases in muscle mass are desirable, practitioners may
want to limit the use of cold modalities. On the contrary, more experienced and
older athletes, that are regularly exposed to greater training loads and match
time, may beneft from an increase in the intensity of the cold protocols.

Massage therapy
While the application of massage therapy has been around for decades, there
has been a lack of comparable methods in research, resulting in mostly anecdo
tal accounts [163]. Massage therapy can often be applied via manual (or manip
ulative) therapy, or percussion massager [164].

Manual massage
Manual massage therapy refers to a variety of techniques that a licensed mas
sage therapist (LMT) applies in order to help reduce the severity of fatigue.
Although an LMT has the ability to vary techniques and approaches, research
212 Francisco Tavares et al.
suggests that Effeurage and Petrissage are the most effective in terms of re
ducing exercise induced fatigue for athletes after training sessions and/or sport
[165]. The most common durations for manual massage application in sport
are 10–30 minutes [166]. However, some evidence suggests that shorter durations
(5–12 minutes) have shown superior outcomes in performance markers compared
to those exposed to longer massage therapy sessions (>13 minutes) [167]. With
little consensus on the methods, and durations, for manual massage application in
sport, the largest analysis of sports massage (to date) concluded that there is no
evidence that sports massage improves performance directly [168]. Due to the
popularization of massage in elite soccer, it is suggested that massage therapy should
not be avoided, presuming practitioners abide by the notion to ‘do no harm’ [169].

Percussion massager
A novel application to massage therapy has been the use of a percussion
massage, or massage gun. Due to the novel innovation of these apparatuses,
the validity of results remains unclear. However, similar to manual massage
therapy, massage guns have shown to increase range of motion (ROM) and
potentially reduce the perception of muscle soreness [170]. Therefore, with
no added negative repercussions associated with the use of massage guns, it
is advised that practitioners can recommend the use of percussion massage
prior to warm ups [171].

Active recovery
While often viewed as tradition in elite soccer, active recovery sessions have
been prescribed for decades. Despite the lack of evidence surrounding the eff
ciency of active recovery sessions in the athlete population, it seems as though
the majority of professional soccer teams are allocating training days around
active recovery [7, 172]. Although no signifcant evidence (to date) has been
noted between the effectiveness of active vs passive recovery sessions in
soccer, it has still been advised that practitioners place high importance on
recovery [173]. In elite soccer, regeneration (regen) sessions are often imple
mented within 24 h post game (Match day plus one; MD+1). From a practical
perspective, planning for players to attend the training facility on MD+1 allows
the coaching staff to conduct video sessions to refect on team and individual
performance. Therefore, practitioners have the ability to utilize a variety of
resources to enhance recovery within that time period. If active recovery ses
sions are not favoured by the practitioner, the MD+1 recovery can be catered
towards additional modalities, such as CWI, CWT, and/or massage. Prefer
ence of recovery prescription is often individual; therefore, given the mixed
evidence on active recovery procedures, practitioners should cater recovery
modalities individually [173].
 Recovery and nutrition 213
Compression
Compression garments are readily available to players for a variety of body
areas. Many of the compression garment manufacturers offer different types
of garments, catering for activity type. Specifcally, some common types of
compression garments are labelled ‘running’, ‘recovery’, and even ‘fight’. With
more wearable compression gear available to players, begs the question to
their effectiveness and practicality. While the idea of compression garments
for lower extremities is to increase femoral blood fow, the use of compression
for mid activity or post activity, for recovery still remains questioned [174]. For
use in the recovery process, compression garments have not shown to bene
ft repeat sprint performance, peak power outputs, isokinetic strength, sprint,
agility, or countermovement jump performance [7]. Additionally, compression
garments have not shown any additional recovery benefts, compared to other
modalities [7]. However, some research in elite soccer has shown that play
ers who wear compression garments in games could potentially reduce per
ceived muscle soreness and increase physical outputs [175]. Due to having no
associated negative outcomes, it is suggested that lower limb compression
garments are made available to players to wear during games, dependent on
their comfort level. There have been several proposed benefts associated
with wearing compression garments, such as thermal effects, venous return,
and decrease of muscle oscillation [176]. Therefore, it is suggested that prac
titioners investigate the use of compression garments for their players when
exposed to long fights.

Conclusion
With the high physical demands of elite soccer, it is integral that practitioners
understand how positive and negative responses occur from training stimulus.
More importantly, understanding how to enhance positive adaptations from
training is vital. Sleep and nutrition have been identifed as the best recovery
strategies for elite soccer players. However, practitioners also have the ability
to prescribe additional modalities to aid the recovery process. Overall, it is
suggested that practitioners have knowledge of the training load and how to
periodize recovery strategies to better prepare soccer players to withstand
training and matches.

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9 Return to play
Ryan Timmins, John Hartley, Risto-Matti Toivonen,
Alexander Mouhcine and Alex Calder

Overview of common injuries

Winning matches and trophies in soccer is the ultimate goal and marker of suc
cess. However, injuries can wreak havoc on title winning chances by the limited
number of players available for training and matches. Injuries negatively impact
performance, with evidence showing teams with lower injury rates have more
success than those with higher incidences [1–3]. Therefore, understanding the
burden of injuries in soccer can assist in limiting the incidence of injury and po
tentially support success.
Over the past 18 years in elite soccer, there has been a reduction in injury
incidence of 3% per season [4]. Most of this change is associated with a decrease
in ligament injuries (approximately 4% per season) with no change in the rate
of muscle injuries over the past 18 years. The incidence of re injury has also
progressively improved, with ligament based recurrences decreasing by 6% per
season, whilst muscle re injuries are declining by 4% per season. Whilst the inci
dence has reduced, the severity of injuries has risen. Overall injury severity has
increased 1% per season, with ligament injuries being approximately 4% more
severe each season [4]. This highlights the signifcant improvements in injury
prevention and rehabilitation over almost two decades of elite soccer.
Whilst the incidence of injury (how many injuries per a specifc time e.g. 1,000
hours) is a key variable to monitor, the severity (number of days lost) of these in
juries is sometimes overlooked. The product of incidence and severity is defned
as ‘injury burden’ [5, 6]. Figure 9.1 highlights the intricate nature of the 14 most
reported injuries in elite soccer [5]. When interpreting Figure 9.1, it is noted that
hamstring muscle injuries have the highest incidence (alongside lower leg contu
sions), whilst anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears don’t occur as often but have a
higher severity. As such, practitioners undertaking risk assessments should consider
the total burden of injury and not just how often it occurs (Figures 9.2 and 9.3).

Common muscle injuries

Muscle based injuries are the most common injury to result in time lost in elite
soccer. For every 1,000 hours of soccer, there are approximately fve muscle
injures. Whilst muscle injuries occur often in elite soccer, the average amount

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200420 9
224 Ryan Timmins et al.

Figure 9.1 Matrix indicating the relationship between incidence and severity when deter
mining injury burden (Extracted from Bahr [5]).

of days absent from training is moderate, with approximately 18 days missed on

average [4]. Of these muscle injuries, the most frequently occurring are ham
string strains, followed by groin muscle concerns and then by quadriceps and
calf muscle group injuries.

Hamstring injuries
Of all muscle based injuries, hamstring strain injuries (HSIs) have been the
greatest burden to elite soccer clubs for over 30 years [7]. Their high preva
lence in both training and matches has led to an extensive feld of research being
developed to attempt to reduce the high incidence of injury. Despite this con
certed research effort, hamstring injuries have increased by 4% annually since
2001 in elite soccer. In more recent times, greater clarity has been developed
around the diagnosis and management of different types of hamstring injuries,
specifcally those which involve the intramuscular tendon [8]. This section will
 Return to play 225
45
All injuries
40
Muscle injuries

Incidence (injuries/1000 h)
35 Ligament injuries
30

25

20

15

10

0
90

80

70
Severity (days/injury)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1000
900
Burden (days absence/1000 h)

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
9.0

8.0
Reinjury Incidence (injuries/1000 h)

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
01/02 03/04 05/06 07/08 09/10 11/12 13/14 15/16 17/18

Figure 9.2 Match injuries. Development of injury incidence, injury severity, injury bur
den and re injury rate for all injuries, muscle injuries and ligament injuries in
matches over the study period. Injury incidence is defned as the number of
injuries per 1,000 hours of match exposure with 95% CI. Injury severity is
defned as the average number of absence days following match injuries with
95% CI. Injury burden is defned as the number of absence days caused per
1,000 hours of match exposure with 95% CI. Re injury rate is defned as the
number of re injuries per 1,000 hours of training exposure with 95% CI (Ex
tracted from Ekstrand et al. [4]).
226 Ryan Timmins et al.
7
All injuries
6 Muscle injuries

Incidence (injuries/1000 h)
Ligament injuries
5

0
70

60
Severity (days/injury)

50

40

30

20

10

0
120

100
Burden (days absence/1000 h)

80

60

40

20

0
1.8

1.6
Reinjury Incidence (injuries/1000 h)

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
01/02 03/04 05/06 07/08 09/10 11/12 13/14 15/16 17/18

Figure 9.3 Training injuries. Time course of injury incidence, injury severity, injury bur
den and re injury rate for all injuries, muscle injuries and ligament injuries
over the study period. Injury incidence is defned as the number of injuries per
1,000 hours of training exposure with 95% CI. Injury severity is defned as the
average number of absence days following training injuries with 95% CI. Injury
burden is defned as the number of absence days caused per 1,000 hours of
training exposure with 95% CI. Re injury rate is defned as the number of
re injuries per 1,000 hours of training exposure with 95% CI (Extracted from
Ekstrand et al. [4]).
 Return to play 227
highlight the incidence and recurrence of these injuries, providing information
around which of the hamstring muscles are most commonly injured, along with
more information of the differing types of hamstring injuries, specifcally those
involving the intramuscular tendon.

Incidence of injury
Hamstring injuries are the most common injury in elite soccer, representing
~12% of all injuries [9]. In a squad of approximately 25 players, typically there
will be fve to six hamstring injuries each season. Of these injuries, a frst time
incident will take around 18 days on average to return to play (RTP), with re
injuries typically taking a little longer at 22 days [10]. As a result, upwards of
100 days can be missed per club, per season due to HSIs, potentially costing
organizations more than 2 million USD($) per season [11].
The most commonly involved muscle is the biceps femoris long head (BFLH),
with up to 84% of all frst time injuries being reported in this muscle [12]. Across
the other hamstring muscles, the semimembranosus (SM) and semitendinosus
(ST) make up for approximately 12% and 4%, respectively [12]. Whilst the BFLH
is injured the most, there are no large differences in the number of days taken
to RTP, with BFLH injuries averaging 20 days, SM 18 days and ST 23 days. Finally,
injuries involving the BFLH have a higher rate of recurrence (18%), compared to
incidents involving the medial hamstrings (SM/ST) (2%).

The intramuscular tendon – what does the evidence say

Injuries involving the intramuscular tendon of the hamstrings have recently be
come a controversial topic within sports medicine [8, 13, 14]. Recent evidence
has shown that injuries involving the intramuscular tendon of the hamstrings
can take almost 50 days longer to recover than those which are considered
‘normal’ injuries [15, 16]. Once returned to play, those with a history of a prior
intramuscular tendon injury have a greater rate of re injury, with approximately
60% of these going on to reoccur, compared to 18% in ‘normal’ hamstring in
juries. Considering these statistics and the signifcant time lost as a result, re
searchers and practitioners have begun paying more attention to the magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) results once an injury occurs.
Whilst these fndings are worrying statistics, they should be considered
alongside alternative reports. In the studies mentioned above, the researchers
and clinicians involved in the decision for RTP were not blinded to the MRI fnd
ings. Therefore, the modifcation of the time taken to rehabilitate and a poten
tial RTP timeframe could have been artifcially infated due to a precautionary
approach being taken as a result of the MRI fndings showing intramuscular ten
don involvement. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as a ‘self fulflling
prophecy’, where it is hypothesized that an injury will take longer to heal and as
such the practitioners decision to clear them to RTP is based on this, prolonging
228 Ryan Timmins et al.
the time undertaking rehabilitation as a result [17]. An alternative approach
recently suggested performing rehabilitation independent of the MRI fndings,
as such removing the capacity for this potential bias to lengthen the time taken
to RTP, with clearance given based on clinical markers of recovery [14]. To put
evidence to this theory, researchers undertook rehabilitation whilst blinded to
the MRI fndings. After all participants completed their rehabilitation, all MRI
fndings were reviewed and those which involved the intramuscular tendon
were compared to those which did not. Overall, the average RTP time was
approximately one week longer in injuries that involved the intramuscular ten
don compared to those which did not. Interestingly, this additional week was
only evident when the MRI identifed 100% of the intramuscular tendon cross
sectional area being damaged. Otherwise, it was only two to three days longer
to complete rehabilitation in injuries that included <100% of the intramuscular
tendon involved when compared to injuries where it wasn’t (Figure 9.4). In addi
tion to this, utilizing a similar blinded approach, researchers compared the rate
of re injury within 12 months of returning to play for those which had intramus
cular tendon involvement to those which didn’t [13]. There was no difference in
the re injury rates between the two groups, with approximately 20% of athletes
in each group suffering a recurrent incident.
Considering the fndings presented above, practitioners should consider the
environment they are in, the athlete involved, the manager, and all the subse
quent pressures that come with these decisions, when choosing to accept or
ignore the MRI fndings during rehabilitation. These contrasting fndings may
provide comfort to some practitioners that rehabilitation can progress using
normal approaches when these intramuscular injuries occur, without the need
to have athletes out for months on end. However, it does take a brave person

Figure 9.4 Time to return to play and rate of re injury for injuries without intramuscular
tendon involvement and injuries with varying degrees of intramuscular ten
don involvement (Adapted from Van der Made et al. [13, 14]).
 Return to play 229
to ignore the MRI fndings in favour of all the clinical and performance data and
should be considered as part of a more holistic approach to rehabilitation.

Hip and groin injuries

Hip and groin injuries are second to HSI as the most frequently occurring mus
cle injuries in elite soccer [5]. Between 2001 and 2016, hip and groin injuries
contributed 14% of all injuries. This equated to around one injury per 1,000
hours, with more injuries occurring during match play (3.1/1,000hrs) than train
ing (0.6/1,000hrs) [18]. Whilst over this period there was a reduction in the
number of hip and groin injuries, the average severity (time lost per injury) in
creased, resulting in no change of the overall burden of these injuries. The most
common of all hip and groin injuries are adductor related injuries, which occur
twice as frequently as all other hip and groin concerns such as iliopsoas related,
pubic related, and inguinal related injuries. As time progressed over the years,
the incidence of femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) increased, potentially ow
ing to the greater evidence guiding its effective diagnosis [19]. Of all hip and
groin injuries, 11% go on to suffer a subsequent re injury in the same season.
On an individual level, this calculates to approximately 24% of all athletes who
suffer an adductor related injury will go on to have another incident in that
same season, which is comparable to the 20% of iliopsoas related injuries which
will reoccur at some point throughout the season.
This evidence is derived from the diagnosed hip and groin injuries reported
in elite soccer players. There is a range of unrecorded hip and groin complaints
which are managed individually with each athlete. This is mainly due to the pain
associated with these concerns being insidious and the soccer player playing
through a certain level of discomfort. This is different say to an HSI, where
continuing to play could hinder progression due to the associated decline in
function. Whereas with hip and groin injuries, whilst being reported at a lower
rate compared to hamstrings, soccer players can push through these periods
of discomfort and have their load subsequently managed, resulting in avoiding
time lost from training and matches. This phenomenon should be considered
when comparing these injuries to others in the lower limb which may have a
more acute onset (e.g. hamstrings and quadriceps), with more functional dec
rements, leading to a greater inability to ‘push’ through compared to hip and
groin complaints.

Other muscle injuries

QUADRICEP INJURIES

Quadricep injuries account for approximately 4.6% of all muscle injuries in elite
soccer [10]. Whilst not occurring frequently, they do have a moderate level of
severity, with the average injury requiring approximately 19 days before being
cleared to RTP. This is comparable to HSI which result in a similar time out
230 Ryan Timmins et al.
per injury, yet occur at a much higher rate, leading to a more signifcant burden
than quadriceps injuries. This is a similar relationship when considering the
rate of recurrence, with 4% of athletes who suffer a quadriceps injury going
on to have another incident in that same season. Subsequent incidents tend to
be more severe, resulting in almost an additional week out of action than the
initial injury.

CALF INJURIES

Calf complex injuries are the next most common injury in elite soccer, account
ing for approximately 4% of all muscle injuries. The average time until being
cleared to RTP is 17 days, which is comparable to the time lost on average due
to hamstring or quadricep injuries. This is a similar story to quadricep strains,
where the injury tends to be as severe as the hamstring injuries (days lost), but
due to the low rate of injury, the burden placed on organizations is not as high.

COMMON LIGAMENT INJURIES

Whilst not as common as muscle based injuries, ligament injuries have a far
greater severity, leading to a greater number of days lost on average per injury.
A ligament injury will result in, on average 27 days unavailable, compared to 18
days for muscle injuries. Whilst the severity is much greater than muscle inju
ries, the incidence of ligament injuries is approximately half that of muscle inju
ries, with approximately 2.5 ligament injuries occurring for every 1,000 hours
of soccer. Of these ligament injuries, the most frequently occurring are lateral
ankle ligament injuries, followed by medial collateral ligament (MCL) injuries.
Whilst not a frequently occurring injury, ACL injuries are the most severe.

Knee injuries

ACL injuries
Whilst missing from the 30 most commonly occurring injuries in elite soccer
[10], ACL injuries are by far the most severe. Contributing less than 1% of all
injuries, they make up for their lack of frequency with their signifcant severity,
with an average ACL injury resulting in 210 days (approximately 7.5 months)
unavailable. Of all frst time ACL injuries, around 6% to 7% go on to re injure
upon returning to play.

MCL injuries
Injuries involving with the MCL contribute approximately 3.5% of all injuries in
elite soccer, making it the most common of the knee ligaments injured. Whilst a
more frequently occurring injury, their severity on average is around one tenth
that of ACL injures, with the average MCL injury resulting in 24 days unavailable.
 Return to play 231
Of all MCL injuries, around 10% will go on to re injure their MCL in the same
season. Despite having an incidence rate almost double that of ACL injuries,
MCL injuries don’t provide anywhere near the same burden due to the signif
cantly lower time unavailable [10].

Lateral ankle ligament injuries

Of all ligament injuries in elite soccer, the most frequent to occur are those
in the lateral ankle compartment. Injuries to this region of the body account
for approximately 6% of all injuries in elite soccer. Whilst the most frequent,
their moderate severity of 14 days unavailable results in them not having such a
burden compared to other ligament injuries such as the MCL and ACL injuries
in the knee joint. Of all lateral ankle ligament injuries, around 15% go on to re
injure at some point in the same season [10].

Head injuries
In recent years, there has been an increased focus on head injuries and sport
related concussion (SRC) across soccer and all sports from the medical profes
sion and wider scientifc community [20]. The most recent consensus statement
for concussion in sport refects current knowledge and acts as a guide to man
aging head injuries, but practitioners should always consider the individual and
specifc circumstances of the incident [21]. The consensus statement highlights
the key sections of the ‘11 R’s’; recognize, remove, re evaluate, rest, rehabilita
tion, refer, recover, return to sport, reconsider, residual effects and sequelae,
and risk reduction [21, 22] (Table 9.1).

Specifc injury mechanisms

As the functional demands of muscles and ligaments across the lower limb vary
during soccer, so do the potential mechanisms which may lead to injury.

Hamstrings
In general, hamstring injuries can be divided into sprinting and stretching type
injuries (Table 9.2 and Figure 9.5) [23, 24].
When devising effective RTP protocols, it’s imperative to consider that sprint
ing type injuries show signifcantly shorter RTP times compared with stretching
type injuries [23, 24]. It is possible, this is due to the signifcant structural dam
age caused by some of these stretching type injuries, which sometimes require
surgical interventions to correct.
The late swing phase of sprinting is considered to be the critical moment
in the gait cycle where the hamstrings produce signifcant biomechanical and
neuromuscular processes to slow down the forward swinging shank [25].
Comparing kinematics and electromyographic (EMG) activities during different
 232 Ryan Timmins et al.
Table 9.1 Stages of a head injury in elite soccer
Enhanced care setting pathway Standard return to play pathway
Adult Under 19 Adult Under 19
STAGE 1 – 24 hours 7 days minimum 14 days beginning 14 days beginning
Initial Rest minimum rest initial rest period at midnight on at midnight on
Period period after which after which the the day of injury. the day of injury.
the player must player must be The player must The player must
be symptom free symptom free be symptom free be symptom free
before progressing before progressing at the end of this at the end of this
period before period before
progressing progressing
Return to academic studies or work
Clearance by Doctor Recommended
STAGE 2 – Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum
Light Exercise duration 24 duration 24 duration 24 duration 48
hours hours hours hours
STAGE Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum
3 – Football duration 24 duration 24 duration 24 duration 48

Minimum 4 days if symptom Free

Minimum 4 days if symptom free

Minimum 4 days if symptom free

Minimum 8 days if symptom free

Specifc hours hours hours hours
Exercise
STAGE 4 – Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum
Non contact duration 24 duration 24 duration 24 duration 48
Training hours hours hours hours
Clearance Clearance Clearance Clearance
by Doctor by Doctor by Doctor by Doctor
Recommended Recommended Recommended Recommended
STAGE 5 – Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum
Full contact duration 24 duration 24 duration 24 duration 48
Practice hours hours hours hours
STAGE
6 – Return
to Play
(Minimum
Return to Day 6 – Day 23 –
Day 12 – Earliest Day 19 – Earliest
Play Time, Earliest Return Earliest Return
Return to Play Return to Play
Dependent to Play to Play
on
individualized
recovery
programme)
Note: The colors represent the stage of rehab: red = initial stage and green = RTP.

parts of the sprint (acceleration vs maximum velocity), research has shown

that the functional demands of the medial and lateral hamstrings muscles differ
between these portions [26]. The ST typically produces higher activation pat
terns during mid to late swing phase when undertaking acceleration, whereas
the lateral hamstrings greatest activation tends to occur during the terminal
swing phase at maximum speed [27]. During maximum sprinting efforts, the
 Return to play 233
Table 9.2 Mechanisms of hamstring injury strains in elite
soccer

Stretching Sprinting

• Reaching • Accelerating
• Kicking
◦ Rolling Start
• Decelerating
◦ Deadstop
• Re stabilizing
• Max Sprint (and sub max)

Figure 9.5 An illustration of the relationship between muscle strain and eccentric force
in HSI occurrences. The red line represents the theoretical maximum ca
pacity of the muscle. If we have an eccentric force that exceeds this (e.g.
sprinting) then we have injury. If we have strain that exceeds this (e.g. kicking,
stretching), an injury often occurs.

biceps femoris undergoes the greatest amount of length change, with it elon
gating to 10% its length in neutral stance. Comparably, semitendinosus (~8%)
and the semimembranosus (~7.5%) show lesser changes in length during maxi
mum sprinting [27]. This difference in length change during maximum sprinting
could potentially account for some of the variance in the number of injuries
experienced in the biceps femoris when compared to the medial hamstrings.
Understanding these intricate relationships while considering the principles of
synergism is key to a differentiated approach and adequate exercise selection
during the RTP process [28].
234 Ryan Timmins et al.
Rectus femoris
Regarding injuries to the rectus femoris, three specifc mechanisms have been high
lighted: acceleration, deceleration, and kicking [29]. Acceleration and kicking ac
tions require excessive eccentric activation combined with high angular velocities at
the hip and knee [30, 31]. Similarly, decelerations are characterized by high braking
forces and require the muscle to produce high levels of eccentric force [32].

Calf
Research of RTP strategies for the calf complex is limited. Regarding specifc
therapeutic regimes and interventions, it’s essential to consider the epidemiol
ogy of the triceps surae complex, which is formed by the gastrocnemius and the
soleus muscle. Both muscles show differences concerning injury mechanisms,
RTP times and re injury rates [33]. Almost half of the calf injuries don’t have
a specifc identifable incident, with multiple being induced by a gradual onset
of muscle tension [34]. Of those non insidious injuries, the common mech
anisms described are acceleration or steady state running. When comparing
the two muscles of the triceps surae, the soleus is more at risk of injury during
steady state running, whereas the gastrocnemius is more susceptible to injury
during high intensity efforts [33]. Therefore, it is imperative that practitioners
acknowledge these risks when programming conditioning interventions (see
Chapter 5 for more detail).
The biomechanical characteristics of the calf complex may partially explain
the high incidence of gradual onset induced calf injuries. The calf muscle com
plex is an important contributor to running at a range of steady state speeds
with high levels of activation [35]. Therefore, fatigue tolerance could be one
crucial point to consider with calf complex interventions.

Hip and groin

As was the case with the calf complex, evidence surrounding the mechanisms
of injury across the hip and groin is limited. Some authors have highlighted
that the kicking action was one potential injury mechanism [36]. It was stated
that the structures of the hip and abdomen are stressed substantially during
kicking and shooting, potentially increasing their risk of injury [37]. Conse
quently, kinematics and nervous system activation patterns while kicking could
be altered after hip and groin related injuries, potentially increasing the risk of
a future injury [38].
Due to their function as stabilizers of the hip in different planes, it could be
hypothesized that the muscles surrounding the groin complex play a highly im
portant role in multidirectional actions (e.g. change of directions) [39]. Whilst
it is suggested, it has not been explicitly studied and might be a key concept to
consider regarding the specifc injury mechanisms for the hip and groin complex
in practice.
 Return to play 235
Rehabilitation process

Designing a framework
Taking the healing process into account, one can determine four phases of re
habilitation in the management of sports soft tissue injuries: (1) acute infam
matory phase, (2) re conditioning phase, (3) controlled sport specifc phase,
and (4) return to play phase [40]. Regardless of the type or region of injury,
the basic phases of rehabilitation should always be considered in the pro
cess. Decisions and progressions made during any phase of the RTP protocol
should be driven by considerations to tissue type, pathological presentation,
and required tissue adaptation, with specifc criteria in each segment. The
duration of these different phases will differ depending on the severity of
the injury [41]. There is a lack of validated criteria and consensus regarding
which clinical measurements are useful to predict the time to RTP. Although
a combination of clinical fndings initially following an injury and at the day 7
could provide some guidance in determining the duration of rehabilitation un
til RTP, this model is of linear nature and has limitations [42]. Therefore, it is
suggested that practitioners conduct daily, ongoing examinations of subjective
and objective measures, to truly understand the non linear nature of progres
sion [43]. Key variables to consider daily when projecting the time to RTP
are change in strength from initial assessment, pain, palpation, fexibility (if
applicable), delay in starting treatment, and other specifc movement patterns
(demanding the injured tissue) [43, 44]. The rehabilitation process of an injury
should be initiated by the etiology, i.e., the cause of the injury. The rehabilita
tion should then follow a progressive criteria based continuum where the ath
lete progresses through different stages until ft to RTP. The different stages
of the process need to be structured and progressive to prepare the athlete
and the injured tissue to withstand the physical and physiological demands
at the highest level of the sport [45]. The rehabilitation progress should be
performance based instead of the traditional time based criteria which may
overlook individual variation. Performance based process focuses on identi
fying and resolving neuromuscular and cognitive defcits of the injured athlete
and should aim to return the athlete with greater capability than pre injury
[46]. In order for the practitioner to develop the specifc performance based
programme, a careful needs analysis investigating the physiological and biome
chanical requirements of the sport is required (see Chapter 3 for more detail).
Most common periodisation models adapted to the rehabilitation process
follow either linear or non linear periodisation. Where linear models empha
size training adaptations on only one parameter (e.g. endurance, hypertrophy,
strength) at a time, a non linear approach incorporates the ability to train
more than one of these parameters simultaneously [41]. In most settings, a
non linear model can be considered a more modern approach in developing a
RTP framework, for the variable nature of super compensations of metabolic,
neural, and motor functions of the athlete [43, 47].
236 Ryan Timmins et al.
Acute infammatory phase
Once the mechanism of the injury has been discovered, the anatomy and the
function of the injured structure should be considered next. Exercise selection
and programming following an injury should be based on optimal loading con
cept to maximize the physiological adaptation of the involved structures [46].
Mechanical load to the tissues can be infuenced by variety of different factors,
such as magnitude, direction, intensity, frequency, and duration. Where ten
dons are known to response well to increased magnitude of load with slower
frequency, increased bone density and alteration tissues active stiffness qualities
are seen after rapid movements such as jumping and running [48]. The most
common exercise frequencies presented in the literature (Table 9.3) vary be
tween three and seven sessions per week per body part [49].
When it comes to choosing appropriate exercises for the rehabilitation pro
cess, practitioners need to consider contraction type with regard to the mecha
nism. In the acute phase, the rehabilitation programme should consider all exercise
variables (i.e. Frequency, intensity, duration, and tempo) and progress appropriately
as the healing process progresses [41]. Eccentric exercises should be incorporated
immediately following the injury to prepare the body for the high eccentric de
mands of elite soccer [50, 51]. Studies have identifed that programmes not utilizing
eccentric exercises can lead to higher re injury rates and lower return to the pre
vious level of performance, compared to including eccentric biased exercises [52].
Eccentric biased or eccentric only strength training programmes offer a clear pro
tective effect against injuries when compliance is high, therefore should be incorpo
rated into rehabilitation as soon as possible [53–55]. Where eccentric exercises are
very useful for the high amounts of force that they generate, concentric exercises
should be utilized to create force with much higher velocities [56]. Additionally,
isometric contractions can be used to bridge the gap between concentric and ec
centric exercises, by creating force through the system but requiring no length
change in the muscle [57]. Moreover, isometric biased exercises can be prescribed

Table 9.3 Optimal loading approach following a soft tissue injury

Mobility Running Isometrics Plyometrics Strength Strength
mechanics and power (neural) (intermuscular)
3–7 times 3–5 times a 3–7 times a 3–5 times a 3–5 times a 3–5 times a
a week week week week week week
2–3 sets 2–3 sets of 2–4 sets of 3–5 sets 3–5 sets 3–5 sets
of 8–15 3–4 reps 3–6reps
reps 3–5 reps of Early rehab: Early rehab:
10–15meters 3 5sec per power based 6–12 reps 6–12 reps
per rep rep exercises or
10–30 hops Mid > end Mid > end
rehab: 1–6 rehab: 4–8
reps reps
Note: Variables listed here may differ based on epidemiology and different phases of RTP.
Source: Adapted from Glasgow et al. [46] and Taberner et al. [48]
 Return to play 237
to reduce pain and motor inhibition, and provide an important option to offer for
athletes for painful tendons that are diffcult to load for example in the presence
of tendinopathy [58]. Effective rehabilitation programmes should incorporate all
contraction modes (isometric, concentric, and eccentric), where appropriate. In
conjunction with developing strength capacities via all contraction modes, practi
tioners should also incorporate a plyometric continuum early in the rehabilitation
process. Plyometric training utilizes the stretch shortening cycle (SSC) to develop
power. The rapid deceleration to acceleration mechanism exhibits the production
of maximum force in the shortest period of time [59, 60]. Maximum acceleration
and sprinting are considered plyometric actions, therefore, the early onset of plyo
metric development in a rehabilitation setting will allow the athlete to safely transi
tion to running specifc activities [61].

Re-conditioning phase
The main objective of the re conditioning phase is to develop capacities of the
tissue to tolerate the load of training. These capacities include muscular strength,
conditioning, tendon compliance, joint stress tolerance, etc. Mechanical loading,
from resistance exercises alone, does not address the motor component of the
muscle tendon complex. Plyometric exercises should be incorporated in the pro
gramme as soon as possible to introduce high neuromuscular load and a progres
sion towards sport specifc movements. Plyometric exercises are most effective
at producing force at very high speeds and altering the stiffness qualities of the
muscle tendon complex. As with resistance exercises, a proper progression of
plyometric exercises minimizes the risk of re injury and builds the capacity for the
athlete to perform intense movements later in the process [60]. Plyometric exer
cises consisting of altered variables (intensity, volume, load) to elicit low impact,
with high repetitions, should be initiated immediately after the acute stage, due to
the low level of physical and neural demand [60]. Although intensity of plyometric
exercises can be diffcult to measure, a careful consideration should be placed on
impact velocity, contact time and distribution of load on contact when planning
the appropriate progression of plyometric exercises [62].
Metabolic conditioning should be programmed alongside the resistance exer
cises to keep the athlete maintaining and improving soccer specifc energy sys
tem capacity (see Chapter 5 for more detail on conditioning prescriptions). To make
the transition from rehabilitation to RTP easier and more effcient, the meta
bolic conditioning workouts can be programmed using the same periodisation
structure that the rest of the team is following. For example, on an intensive
biased conditioning day, the practitioner can prescribe a non running condition
ing session consisting of 4 × 4 min at high intensity intervals (>85% maxHR) with
2 min of rest to stimulate the same heart rate response as seen from small sided
games from rest of the team, with the same work:rest prescription.
Many variables (Figure 9.6) can be manipulated within the rehabilitation process.
When designing the RTP protocol, practitioners need to use clinical reasoning with
a combination of scientifc and professional theories [47]. The exercise variables
238 Ryan Timmins et al.

Plane of
Resistance
movement
Range of
Environment
motion

Contraction
Stability
type

Load Rehabilitation Progression

Figure 9.6 An example of manipulative variables of rehabilitation.

prescribed need to be diligently thought out, with a clear objective of desired

adaptation. A thorough RTP protocol, involving multiple members of the perfor
mance staff, will ensure successful progression within your environment, regain
confdence with the players, and avoid monotony (and other injury risks) through
out the process. The exercise prescription can be thought more as an art form,
than science [63]. The selection of the exercises should be guided by clear goals of
restoring strength and power qualities across the force velocity spectrum around
the injured site.

Controlled sport-specifc and return to play phase

The return to training, and subsequently RTP, phase must be planned and adapted
accordingly with continuous estimation of the risks and benefts of reintegrating
the athlete back to full team training. When designing the framework for this phase,
quantifcation and monitoring the on feld training load through global positioning
system (GPS) metrics is most effective. Ensuring the athlete successfully completes
the set exit criteria is vital in this fnal stage of the rehabilitation (Figure 9.7). The
on feld training load must be accumulated gradually while the athlete continues
to re develop strength and rate of force development. Studies have shown the
likelihood of injuries to rise signifcantly when training load increases were greater
than 15% per week [64]. Changes in training load, however, must be interpreted in
relation to the athlete’s chronic load. Therefore, dependent on how long the player
has missed on feld sessions, the time taken to incrementally build training must be
calculated. Appropriately accumulated high training loads, ultimately leading to high
chronic load, will eventually result in greater physical output in performance and
increased robustness and resilience against injuries, compared to those with lower
chronic loads and/or accumulating too fast [65, 66].
 Player #1

Hamstring RTP Exercise Menu/Progressions

Position: Wing MAS: 4.5 m·s¹ NORD (L/R): 510 / 515 DOI: 05-Sep
Age: 32 V MAX : 8.92 m·s¹ Acc MAX : 4.74 m·s² NOTES: · BFLH Grade 2
Height: 6'0" Broad Jump: 260 cm Dec MAX : 6.68 m·s² · Occurred during sprint (65' of
Weight: 185 CMJ: 55 " Trait: game)
Initial screen Early Stage Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
Pain Pain Pain Pain Pain
Exercises Sets/Reps Exercises Sets/Reps Exercises Sets/Reps Exercises Sets/Reps Exercises Sets/Reps
tol tol tol tol tol
Pain at Palpation - Mini-Band Glute Bridge Valslide Supine slide outs TRX Supine slide outs TRX SL Supine Slide outs
Contraction sequencing - Pilates style 3x5 - ECC only (5sec) 3x4 - ECC + ISO (4-2) 3x4 - ECC + ISO (4-2) 3 x 4e
- Straight leg 2 x 3e Supine Lying Extender 3 x 12e SL Long Lever hip bridge 3 x 6e Valslide Supine SL slide outs 3 x 4e Nordics 3x3
- Bent knee 2 x 3e Cook hip lift 3 x 6e SL Diver (controlled) 3 x 6e SL Diver (REI) 3 x 6e 4x2
Isometric positions for pain Supine Bridge + walk out 3x5 BB RDL Banded Nordics BB RDL
- Supine 90/90 1 x 5sec SL Hip Bridge 3 x 6e - ECC+ISO (4-2) 3x4 - ECC only 3x3 - REI 3x3
- Bench bent knee bridge 1x4 BB RDL Slide Glider 2-DB SL RDL Banded Tantrums 3 x 20 sec
- Hinge/RDL pattern 1x6 - ECC only 3x4 - 41x 3 x 4e - 41x 3 x 6e Broad Jump 3x4
- Sling/TRX Long lever bridge 1x4 Notes: Notes: Notes: SL Hop to Land 3 x 3e
Notes: Notes:

Appropriate Distance accumulation >80% GL HSR in single session Broad Jump within 5%
>20 MAS runs at 15:15 SL Triple Hop within 5%
Nordic Force (N) within 10%
Nordic assymetry within 15%
>2 Band 8 exposures
>2 Stage 3 strength session
>2 Full team training sessions

Figure 9.7 An example of a hamstring RTP exercise progression. Exit criteria for each stage is listed below the exercise menu.
Return to play
239
240 Ryan Timmins et al.
Although it has been suggested that between limb strength asymmetries can
increase the likelihood of injury [67, 68], there has been suggestion that strength
symmetry is often functional for performance and not always associated with
injury [69, 70]. Furthermore, it was noted that there is lack of evidence sup
porting the notion that asymmetries are detrimental to athletic performance
[71]. Additionally, it has been illustrated that asymmetries can be found in a wide
array of sports and potentially an adaptive outcome, dependent on the time
spent playing the sport. Therefore, in an RTP setting, it is suggested that the
practitioner take note of asymmetries within the injured player, but prioritize
exercise prescriptions accordingly, based on the sport and epidemiology.
Once the athlete has successfully returned to normal team training, a mod
ifed exercise programme can be applied for the individual to avoid any dys
functional adaptations or compensations and to regain any possible remaining
defcits in strength, mobility, or rate of force development [72].
The athlete’s integration back into normal team training can be done as
a stepwise progression, such as the following: (1) return to team warm up,
(2) return to reduced team training (no contact; neutral [injury dependent]),
(3) return to team training as neutral [injury dependent] with contact allowed,
and fnally, (4) return to full team training (Table 9.4).
Depending on how many on feld training days the player has missed, a prac
titioner should assess basic movement patterns prior to integrating the player
to the team warm up. Generally, if the player has missed minimal days (for
example, 1–3), the player may be able to get involved in the team warm up on
the frst day of being on the feld. However, it is integral that practitioners have
evaluated players thoroughly prior to any team activity, in order to reduce the
risk of re injury and/or avoid having to withdraw the player during the activity.
It should also be noted that any advancement to team related activities should
involve all stakeholders of the process, i.e., practitioners, coaches, and the ath
lete themselves. If the player has passed criteria for clearance to participate in

Table 9.4 Progressions of integrating a player into team training during the return to
play phase

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4

Team warm up X X X X
Non contact ball drills (passing, rondos) X X X
Team games as neutral X X
Full team training X

X = ability to progress integration.

 Return to play 241
segments of training, yet still feels uncomfortable or not confdent, practition
ers must respect this notion and proceed once all stakeholders are synergetic.
Once the player has successfully progressed through the frst two phases, the
player can be incorporated into small sided games as a neutral (3) for reduced
cognitive and physical effort until returning to full team training (4). However, the
need for a neutral (contact or no contact) is strictly dependent on the mecha
nism. For example, a player returning from an HSI may not be exposed to any
different physical demands on the posterior chain, when comparing neutral to
playing in small sided games. On the contrary, a player returning from an ankle
injury may beneft from initial integration to small sided games as a non contact
neutral, in order to adapt cognitively and physically before increasing the likeli
hood of direct contact and greater demands to the injured site (i.e. tackling and
perturbation).

Key Performance Indicators

The main objective when constructing the RTP framework is to return the athlete
to sport as quickly and safely as possible. Concurrently, the focus is to minimize
the risk of future injury whilst maximizing the robustness of the player [73].
In professional soccer, it is important to apply a structured, player centred,
criterion based rehabilitation framework (Figure 9.8). This helps to manage the

Figure 9.8 A decision based RTP model (Extracted from Creighton et al. [74]).
242 Ryan Timmins et al.
external pressures placed upon staff and players to return as quickly as possible
and to add control to the decision modifers [74].
Consequently, a ‘standardized approach’ may not be adequate in the elite
sporting environment and may need to be bespoke to both the player and their
injury [74].

Testing in the RTP setting

Baseline measurements and ongoing objective data allow the performance
and medical teams to have a point of reference when structuring the reha
bilitation programme. Objective markers are important to allow the prac
titioner to apply structure to their clinical practice, identify any existing
problems, compare injured to uninjured limbs, and build normative data for
various player groups.
Historically, data collection on players is usually done at the onset of presea
son and includes screening and performance testing (see Chapter 3). Each club
will generally have its own battery of tests based on a needs analysis, sharing
similarities, based on common injuries within the sport [4, 9]. It is now more
common for experienced practitioners to perform ongoing testing and moni
toring in season, rather than relying on a single preseason data point. This helps
to produce valuable and reliable data on a longitudinal scale throughout the
season, as opposed to relying on a single data point from preseason as reference
post injury. These ongoing data points then act as a basis of the RTP process.
Commonly used tests are outlined below in relation to ROM, strength, func
tional and performance testing (Figure 9.9).
The ongoing data collection allows the medical team to constantly monitor
players throughout the season. This can be useful when assessing whether a
player has fully recovered from a game, to re evaluate baselines to assess ath
letic development or to provide recent data around a new injury. For example,
it would be considered ineffcient to rely on outdated testing data if a player was
injured late in the season and relied on preseason testing data.
Depending on the fxture schedule, various approaches to planning testing
can be applied. A couple of these recommendations are Match Day +2 (MD+2)

Movement Performance
ROM Strength •Positional drills
•Movement screens
•Ankle DF •Isometric •Jump tests (i.e. •Soccer movement
•Sit & Reach CMJ) patterns (i.e
•Concentric Crossing, finishing
•Hip ROM •Speed/sprint test
•Eccentric etc)
•Isolated limb •Field-based
•Isokinetic •Game-related
flexiblity agility/change of
direction markers (MDPP)

Figure 9.9 Commonly used performance tests throughout RTP procedures. CMJ =
Countermovement jumps, MDPP = Most demanding passages of play.
 Return to play 243

Hamstring strength testing

Secondary prevention

Alert
Isometric hamstring strength decrease >14%

Yes No

Re-testing Normal football participation

(afternoon) Primary prevention

Strength Rehabilitation
Yes
restoration Tertiary prevention

No Clinical Examination Injury

Subclinical stage

Indicated intervention
Consult Coach to discuss load management of high-speed running,
sprinting and explosive acceleration/deceleration activities within the
context of the planned training session, player position and workload.

In-season secondary prevention and clinical process.

Figure 9.10 A decision making tree examining progressions based on hamstring strength
testing (Extracted from Wollin et al. [75]).

testing and Monthly monitoring. MD+2 testing looks at variability away from
the baseline post game and return to those levels every week post game [75].
However, a congested schedule that requires shorter turnarounds (e.g. two to
three days between games) may not fully beneft from the use of MD+2 testing
protocols.
Figure 9.10 illustrates a holistic decision tree when examining a common HSI
in elite soccer. This example is in relation to hamstring injury but can be applied
to other monitoring tools.
Commonly used MD+2 tests include:

• ROM: knee to wall, sit & reach and hip range of motion
• Strength tests: Adductor/abductor squeeze & knee fexor isometric force
outputs
• Force output tests: Counter movement jump (CMJ)
244 Ryan Timmins et al.
Application of testing in RTP
To increase specifcity of key performance indicators (KPIs) for RTP post injury,
it is vital to understand the injury mechanism and the specifc demands for the
injured structure. The knowledge of the kinematic and neuromuscular demands
are crucial and can dictate appropriate areas of rehabilitation and KPIs. For
example, regarding the relevance of high speed running (HSR) concerning ham
string injuries (addressed earlier), exposing players to their maximum velocity
prior to RTP should be one priority [76–78]. A prerequisite for exposure to
HSR exposure is that the player has demonstrated the appropriate mobility
and strength. Furthermore, once the player has the ability to develop HSR
volume, practitioners must monitor and periodize appropriately [76]. The im
portance of maintaining higher volumes of HSR proceeding a hamstring injury,
reduces the risk of re injury [79]. Therefore, it is suggested that practitioners
thoroughly investigate previous injury (etiology) when progressing with load
management post injury [80].
Additional pain tolerance KPIs can be monitored (where appropriate) to en
sure that underlying restrictions of motion post injury have been monitored
during rehabilitation and objectively measured using tests, such as ankle knee
to wall, sit and reach, modifed Thomas Test, active knee extension test, Jurdan
Test, and Askling H Test, amongst others [81] (Figure 9.9).
Isometric tests are commonly used to assess strength initially using equipment
such as hand held dynamometers, the ForceFrame or Kangatech equipment,
which are often used as objective markers for hamstring, hip fexion adductor/
abductor and shoulder rotations in sport [82]. Isokinetic dynamometry is also
regularly used in rehabilitation and testing to measure both concentric and
eccentric strength. This allows objective data to be produced throughout the
rehabilitation process to monitor a players’ return to full strength and bench
mark against normative data available for soccer. The NordBord is another
valuable tool for this which is more conducive to feld testing in the sporting
environment [83].

Training and match data as KPIs

When practitioners are prescribing training loads in the RTP setting, it is inte
gral that data from match play is incorporated. It should be a main objective for
practitioners to maximize ftness and locomotive capacities whilst the athlete is
limited in training sessions. A RTP progression template should be established
in order to proceed effectively and safely. For example, practitioners could cat
egorize multiple stages with desired percentage ranges of match play workloads
(Figure 9.11). Although it may not be feasible for a practitioner to expose players
to 100% of total game load distance in a training (or rehabilitation) session,
the intensity markers, such as high speed running, sprint distance, and accel
eration/deceleration can be carefully prescribed throughout. For example, a
player returning from a hamstring injury can incrementally be exposed to reach
 Return to play 245

RTP Field Progressions

Intensive

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Pain Pain Pain

Day KPI Date tol Day KPI Date tol Day KPI Date tol
/10 /10 /10

Acc/Dec (1m-s-2) exposure 60-70% GL Acc/Dec (3m-s-2) 80-100% GL Acc/Dec (3m-s-2)

Intro Acc/Dec (2m-s-2) exposure Mod exposure High exposure
Acc/Dec <=Acc/Dec (3m-s-2) exposure Acc/Dec Dense activity =>6m-s-2 Acc/Dec Dense activity =>8m-s-2
-2
Multidirectional intro (COD) >Acc/Dec 4m-s exposure >90% acc exposure

70-80% GL Acc/Dec (3m-s-2) 100% GL Acc/Dec (3m-s-2)

15-25 Acc/Dec (3m-s-2) exposure
exposure exposure
Intro + Crossover progressions. Mod + High +
MD movement =>7m-s-2 Shuttles =>1m-s-2
Dense activity =>4m-s-2
-2
>Dec 6m-s exposure >1min MDPP exposure

60-80% GL Acc/Dec (3m-s-2)

~15 Acc/Dec intro >80% GL Acc/Dec (3m-s-2)
exposure
Totals Density intro Totals Totals Dense activity =>8m-s-2
>Dec 6m-s-2 exposure
COD intro Shuttles
Dead stop exposure

Extensive

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Pain Pain Pain

Day KPI Date tol Day KPI Date tol Day KPI Date tol
/10 /10 /10

Interval running =>1:2 80-100% HSR GL

Intro Continuous running >3mins Mod High
MAS Runs 2x10 @110%. 60-80% Sprint GL
Extensive Pace at 3.5-4m-s-1 Extensive Extensive
60-70% HSR GL Volume >5km

Interval running =>1:1.

Continuous running >5mins 100% + HSR GL
MAS Runs =>3sets @110%.+
Intro + Pace at 4-4.5m-s-1 Mod + High + 80-100% Sprint GL
.
70-80% HSR GL
MAS Runs 2x8 @100% >1min MDPP exposure
Sprint intro ~100m

Continuous running block HSR accumulation HSR tolerance

Totals MAS 90-100 Totals Interval conditioning Totals Sprint tolerance
>3km total Sprint intro 45 min volume exposure

Figure 9.11 An example of feld based progressions using GPS related metrics from
match play. GL = Game Load, MDPP = Most demanding passage of play,
extracted from match play.
246 Ryan Timmins et al.
their 100% of total game load high speed running distances in a safe manner.
Specifcally, using Figure 9.7, a practitioner can plan an ‘Extensive Stage 2’ day
where the optimal high speed running exposure is 60–80% of their match load.
Once that session has taken place, the performance and medical departments
can evaluate how the player, and injured site, has tolerated the modifed training
load. This evaluation is a vital element of the exit criteria for the specifc stage
the player’s RTP process.
It is common to build up the training load gradually post injury, particularly
with long term injuries to build up the chronic workload for the player and
reduce the risk of a spike in workload and potential subsequent injury [84].
This also allows the tissue to develop a tolerance to load as it continues to heal
and remodel. When programming feld based progressions (Figure 9.11), ses
sions should also progress from a somewhat controlled to a more chaotic en
vironment that mimics the game more closely and exposure to these elements
should be gradual and progressive [84].
Considering all aspects mentioned, every RTP continuum should be bespoke
and characterized by specifc and individual KPI’s instead of ‘one size fts all’
approach (Figure 9.12).

Staff integration/continuum
It is important to have an athlete centred, collaborative, multidisciplinary ap
proach to the rehabilitation process, particularly when working in elite soccer.
In elite soccer, rehabilitation of the athlete involves a variety of professionals
and individuals using their expertise to create a shared experience for the ath
lete to return as quickly and as safely as possible (Figure 9.13). This is not always
an easy process, as often practitioners within the multidisciplinary team (MDT)
will undoubtedly have a varied experience and apply a divergent approach to
dealing with the same problem. This acts to highlight that there can be many
ways to achieve a successful rehabilitation, and, as we gain experience as prac
titioners and leaders in our environments, emphasizes the need for a truly in
tegrated approach.
The primary focus for the athlete’s support team is the shared common goal
of providing the best possible care for the player. It is important that the lead
ers be facilitative in their approach to encourage different contributions whilst
guiding the direction of the rehabilitation when needed. It is important that a
collaborative approach is shown in the planning of the rehabilitation process
and for individuals to not necessarily be concerned about exactly who delivers
the prescription. Furthermore, it is important for all practitioners involved to
have specifc roles outlined within the process by the leadership team to ensure
a streamlined and effcient rehabilitation process (this may differ from injury to
injury and be dependent on the individual athlete preferences).
Not all members of staff will be involved during each phase of the RTP pro
cess, but it is important to keep key stakeholders informed of progress through
out the process. Throughout the injury, it is important to keep senior staff such
 Return to play
247

Figure 9.12 Example of weekly increments of volume and intensity markers in an RTP setting (Extracted from Taberner, Allen, and Cohen [84]).
248 Ryan Timmins et al.

Doctor
Performance
Physio
Director

Massage
Consultant
Therapist

Coaching Athlete S&C

Staff

Sports
Podiatrist
Science

Psychologist Nutrition

Figure 9.13 The various disciplines involved in an athlete centred approach in elite
soccer.

as the manager, sporting director, and performance director constantly up to

date with developments to enhance the decision making process when manag
ing player movement.
It is also important to be aware of the social support systems, along with
nutritional and psychological support the player has in place, particularly for
those with a long term injury. These systems will be continuous throughout
the whole process to varying degrees at different stages but must not be
forgotten for the player. During the acute and sub acute phase of the injury,
the rehabilitation will be predominantly led but the physiotherapy and medical
team (Figure 9.14).

Acute infammatory phase

During the acute stages of the RTP process, the main objective is to mitigate
pain and swelling via modalities such as soft tissue mobilization, manual therapy,
electrotherapy, and cryotherapy. A primary objective in the acute phase of the
RTP process is to elicit optimal loading of tissue healing whilst increasing ROM.
Depending on the needs analysis and epidemiology, strength prescriptions, BFR
[85], and conditioning elements can still be targeted whilst acute management
is taking place (Figure 9.15).
 Return to play 249

Figure 9.14 Return to play continuum outlining the overlap of involvement of practition
ers throughout the process.

Figure 9.15 Elements of RTP process during the acute phase.

Re-conditioning
During the re conditioning rehabilitation phase, the player will progress their
loading and the strength & conditioning coaches will have more of an input to
the RTP process, along with the collaboration of work with the sports scientists
when the onset of on feld work commences (Figure 9.16).
250 Ryan Timmins et al.

Figure 9.16 Elements of RTP process during the subacute phase.

Figure 9.17 Elements of end stage RTP process during the return to play phase.

Controlled sport-specifc and return to play phases

During the end stage (RTP) rehabilitation phases, the input form the physio
therapy and medical department would reduce signifcantly to maintenance and
on going management of the player with an emphasis being placed on normal
izing and maximizing strength work with the key focus being on achieving the
on feld objective markers to RTP (Figure 9.17).
 Return to play 251
Novel approaches to assist in RTP

Pain free versus pain threshold rehabilitation

The majority of literature surrounding the criteria to progress through re
habilitation is largely based around the alleviation and avoidance of pain, with
progression typically only allowed when pain free on clinical assessments.
As such, these clinical assessments prolong an athlete’s progression through
rehabilitation, despite not being related to the exercises being undertaken.
The combination of both the avoidance of pain during rehabilitation and the
need to be pain free to progress can lead to reduced loading of the injured
muscle and may contribute to residual defcits that may elevate the risk of
re injury [50]. As such, alternative approaches should be considered to fnd
this balance between returning an athlete to play as soon as possible, whilst
ensuring the work undertaken during rehabilitation is suffcient to reduce the
risk of re injury.
Recent research within the HSI feld has suggested the use of pain as a
criterion to progress through rehabilitation and as something to avoid in
these phases might actually be holding athletes back from making the most
of their time on the road to RTP. In HSI rehabilitation, the use of eccentric
loading and long length exercises can reduce the risk of a future injury and
may also accelerate RTP time. However, introducing these benefcial exer
cises into a rehabilitation programme may be limited by the consistently
implemented guideline to only perform and progress rehabilitation in the
absence of pain. Recent muscle injury research [86] showed that delaying
the start of exercise based rehabilitation by nine days, compared to two
days, prolonged the time taken to RTP. It is possible that delaying the expo
sure to eccentric and long length exercises may limit the ability to achieve
benefcial adaptations and also prolong time taken to obtain RTP clearance.
Therefore, undertaking rehabilitation with the use of a pain threshold (4/10
or less), as well as using exercise tolerance to guide progress through reha
bilitation, not clinical assessments, has been suggested as a contemporary
approach to this conundrum.
When comparing this pain threshold approach to a group who undertook re
habilitation pain free, there was no accelerated time to RTP in the pain thresh
old group. Despite this, with the removal of pain as a criterion to progress
through rehabilitation, individuals commenced eccentric training a week earlier
on average. This means that using exercise tolerance and removing pain as a cri
terion during exercises and when assessed clinically can potentially allow practi
tioners to get an extra week of eccentric work into their injured athletes before
returning to play at the same time they would have anyways. Whilst this novel
approach to rehabilitation may not accelerate the time to RTP, it does have the
capacity to improve outcomes for athletes following the successful completion
of the rehabilitation and limiting their chance of re injury risk.
252 Ryan Timmins et al.
BFR in RTP
The use of blood fow restriction (BFR) training has recently become a novel
method to enhance the recovery process in various injures [87, 88]. BFR has
shown to increase muscular strength, hypertrophy rates, rate of force devel
opment, and reduce the rate of atrophy in post surgical patients [89]. Although
the adaptations from BFR use have been compared to heavy resistance training
[90], the prescription of BFR could potentially be used in conjunction with tra
ditional resistance training to enhance the RTP process.
Depending on the etiology, players may achieve the desired physiological
adaptations from BFR activities when resistance training is not feasible. Spe
cifcally, post surgical players could utilize BFR in a passive manner to reduce
atrophy [91]. Furthermore, if players illustrate minimal strength capacities, the
use of BFR could potentially yield adaptations to shorten the re strengthening
phase [85, 89, 92].
The most researched protocol for BFR use is the ‘30 15 15 15’ concept, where
the individual completes 30 repetitions, followed by 3 sets of 15 repetitions, all with
30 seconds rest in between [93]. This protocol can be applied to multi joint and/
or isolation movements, targeting a specifc muscle group. Although the use of BFR
can be advantageous in the RTP setting, certain injuries that beneft from avoiding
concentric patterns (i.e. hamstring muscle group) may not beneft from BFR usage.

Platelet-Rich Plasma injections

The constant battle between reducing the risk of re injury whilst accelerat
ing an athlete’s progress through rehabilitation has found new and novel ways
to attempt to try and get players back as soon as possible whilst not getting
injured again. One novel adjunct treatment to rehabilitation is platelet rich
plasma (PRP). These injections are autologous (taken from the person) plate
lets, growth factors, and alpha granules utilized with the desire to improve the
healing process within injured muscle to accelerate RTP and reduce re injury
risk. As such, PRP injections have been a focus of recent research to try and
push the boundaries of athlete injury recovery.
Numerous studies have reported the success of PRP injections to accelerate
the time taken to RTP for various tendinopathies and muscle injuries [94–98].
The hamstring muscle group has been the focus of a range of controversies sur
rounding the use of PRP injections to aid in the rehabilitation process. Two of the
most signifcant studies in this space found that PRP injections did not reduce the
time taken to RTP anymore than placebo injections of isotonic saline [99] or an
intensive rehabilitation protocol did [100]. Additionally, a recent systematic re
view stated that ‘there is no evidence to suggest that PRP injections plus physical
therapy reduced time to RTP or re injury rates when compared to no treatment
of physical therapy alone’. Whilst not entirely conclusive due to a range of quality
and bias concerns, higher quality studies in larger cohorts are needed to better
support or disprove the use of PRP in accelerating the time to RTP.
 Return to play 253
Conclusion
A variety of injuries can occur in elite soccer, due to the uncontrolled chaotic
nature of the sport. It is suggested that practitioners work cohesively amongst de
partments to develop a diligent, thorough RTP protocol. Many factors should be
considered when designing a RTP framework, including etiology, exercise design/
variables, cohort/environment, and training and match data. Key performance
indicators should be identifed throughout the RTP process to ensure that a safe
and effective progression is being applied. Staff should divide tasks accordingly,
whilst working cohesively to ensure best practice for RTP. Novel methods are
encouraged but approached with guidelines and adjustments where necessary.

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10 Periodisation
Mark Read, Rick Rietveld, Danny Deigan, Matt Birnie,
Lorcan Mason and Adam Centofanti

Periodisation overview
Periodisation within a soccer framework is the strategic planning of training
to enhance performance for each competitive match across the season. Un
derstanding of all the key variables from a physical, tactical, technical, and psy
chological standpoint is essential to ensure appropriate planning throughout
the days, weeks, and months that make up a competitive season. Numerous
structured and fuid defnitions exist for the term periodisation throughout ath
letic performance literature [1]. In essence, periodisation can be defned as a
fexible framework for progressively planning short term and long term training
variables and performance goals to achieve positive adaptations in response to
periods of progressive overload, supplemented by periods of rest and recovery
with the goal of ultimately improving performance [2–5]. Matveyev and Zdornyj
were two of the pioneers of the theory of periodisation and offered a time
bound structure in which training planning should be sequenced from general to
specifc preparation [6–8]. This time bound structure consists of three layers
(Figure 10.1); the macro layer: (one season long) which is the overall long term
plan for achieving the desired performance goal. This macro layer consists of
multiple meso layers (one phase of the season) which aim to progressively lead
to adaptations to achieve the desired long term performance goal. Finally, these
meso layers consist of smaller micro layers (one week of the phase) which are
progressively sequenced to achieve session to session adaptations to achieve
the long term performance goals of each meso layer [2, 7].

Macro

Meso 1 Meso 2

Micro 1 Micro 2 Micro 3 Micro 4 Micro 5 Micro 6 Micro 7 Micro 8

Figure 10.1 Visual representation of the structure of periodisation (Derived from

Matveyev and Zdornyj [7]).

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200420 10
260 Mark Read et al.
As a result of the complexity of planning in team sports such as soccer, it is
imperative to minimize the catabolic responses [9, 10] and incidence of injury
[11] during the season to facilitate peak performance through extended periods
of unpredictable match play demands and fxture schedules.

Assessing the variables

There are many ways to periodise physical performance and conditioning in elite
soccer, with the main aim being to always achieve a positive training and perfor
mance effect, through manipulating the balance of training load and recovery.
This is by planning and monitoring player response to the training programme
to achieve an enhanced physical outcome, which will beneft holistic soccer
performance across all the physical, technical, tactical, and mental elements of
the game. The focus will change throughout microcycles (weekly), mesocycles
(typically 3–6 weeks), and macrocycles (seasons). The season period (time of
year), team and individual performances, and performance goals will guide tar
geted outcomes.
There is much greater control of periodisation through a pre season period,
as there are several other infuences out of the practitioner’s control during
season. These infuences include home and away matches, multiple competi
tions, training venues, travel schedules, possible altitude, environmental factors,
international windows, and the greater possibility of injury that result from
match play and competitive training situations. These factors also combined
with the competing technical, tactical, and mental needs of training and the
overall programme that are infuenced by analysis and coach observation. The
above mentioned infuences lend pre season preparation to more traditional
and planned models of periodisation which may include base, building, loading,
and unloading microcycles. During season, training variables become more ag
ile, however, in most cases, a weekly approach in soccer is to allow a two day
recovery focus following matches, two day loading focus mid week and two day
taper and preparation focus prior to the next match.
The overall planning and manipulation of training load can be achieved by
monitoring several variables, such as the type of sessions, the number and fre
quency of each session type, and the volume and intensity of each session. The
monitored training variables and responses can further be divided into external
load and internal load (see Chapter 6). The combination and examination of dose
and response allows greater understanding of individual player condition on the
ftness fatigue continuum. The individuality of player status, condition, and mon
itoring tools becomes very important in season, as players have varying match
time and training participation that may be a result of team selection, tactics,
health, and injury status.
A holistic view to planning and monitoring is needed to ensure that players
have adequate exposure to all physical elements in preparation for match play.
This involves looking at the overall week, and periodically throughout the train
ing week and in matches where elements may be overloaded.
 Periodisation 261
• What are the training needs of the coach to instil his style of play?
• What are the game demands in the current competition?
• How many competitions may the players be involved in simultaneously?

Intensive and extensive

It is common to theme training sessions around the physical, technical, tacti
cal, and mental elements of soccer. Themes may include an intensive (strength
or resistance) session that incorporates smaller exercises and games, or an
extensive (endurance) session that incorporates larger exercises and games.
Utilizing monitoring tools such as global positioning system (GPS), heart rate,
and RPE can assist in the fuid planning of training sessions, giving deeper insight
to the training stimulus. The use of drill databases with good sample sizes of
information from the relevant coach and players can assist in the planning and
periodisation. Additionally, practitioners and coaches may analyse the objective/
subjective markers from previous sessions and utilize drills from their database
to elicit similar intensities in their ongoing planning and periodisation.

Periodizing resistance training

Power and strength training is also a key piece of the puzzle when periodising
training load. Clubs traditionally schedule and perform separate weight training
sessions following the feld session, for various reasons (see Chapter 4). An alter
native practice that is becoming more common is to utilize power and strength
training in micro doses, prior or following a pitch session to prime players for the
physical demands and focus of these sessions. The monitoring and periodisation
of power and strength training may be done around frequency, intensity, velocity
based targets, sets, reps, time under tension, or tonnage based on the aims of
the programme. The focus of this work may mirror on feld adaptation aims to
overload qualities and provide additional recovery on subsequent days or may
be complementary to ensure all physical qualities are being addressed with ex
posure throughout the training cycle.

Periodising recovery/nutrition
An important part of the training programme is the periodisation of recov
ery. This includes the provision and advocation of nutrition and recovery in
terventions that accompany the planning and monitoring of the overall training
programme (see Chapter 8). The most simple and benefcial components of re
covery are sleep, nutrition, and the overall training programme itself. Recovery
should be planned, monitored, and maintained to ensure optimal training objec
tives are met and physical performance maximised. There may be times during
preseason or preparation phases, where strategies such as ‘training low’ to
gain additional adaptations come the competitive season take place. In conjunc
tion with training low, some recovery modalities are prescribed to potentially
262 Mark Read et al.
relieve muscle soreness and increase the likelihood of accelerated adaptations.
However, certain recovery strategies may not be advised where players are
expected to naturally adapt to the stimulus.
However, during season (or the competition phase), it is recommended to
alter energy intake and use of recovery modalities in order to accelerate su
percompensation [12, 13]. It is important that any nutritional modifcations are
monitored by a professional dietician with the understanding of individual player
status. Additional recovery modalities that may be provided include contrast/
cold water therapy, massage techniques, and compression garments. Recovery
modalities should be implemented with consideration of all stressors players
may experience. Some additional stressors that may trigger requirements for
extra recovery strategies include considerations around family, contract, per
formance, travel, heat, and altitude. Variation in training type, intensity, and
environment may also assist in enhancing the recovery process.
It is evident that periodisation in a soccer team setting needs to remain ag
ile, with a focus on planning and monitoring team and individual player loads
[1, 8, 14]. Whilst the concepts and theories of traditional periodisation are
most defnitely applicable to soccer, in particular preseason, there are several
circumstances in season that these concepts cannot be applied. The nature of
professional soccer means players are expected to physically peak weekly or
even multiple times each week. However, careful consideration must be given
to travel, potential altitude, and environmental conditions, which can infuence
the weekly periodisation. Increased attention to detail is integral to allow for
appropriate planning and prescriptions.

Microcycles

The perfect training plan?

The design of a training structure is not only derived from the physical needs
of a team, but rather is largely dependent on a wide array of factors which can
be seen in the extensive table following. Ultimately there are multiple ways in
which you can programme. However, it is evident that in order to construct
the ‘perfect’ training plan, many key stakeholders are involved within the
process, and an in depth appreciation of all infuences should be taken into
account (Table 10.1).

Microcycle models
Training philosophies can be hugely varied in the modern game of soccer and
the periodisation models to facilitate these philosophies can be differentiated
from one another well, through the characteristics of how, what and when
training is completed within the microcycles.
For some years now, many teams worldwide have been adopting a Tacti
cal Periodisation approach, originating from Portugal [15]. This model can
 Periodisation 263
Table 10.1 Planning considerations for developing a training structure

Physical performance Technical/tactical Social/ Environmental/

psychological situational

Position in macrocycle Coach philosophy Long term Competition level

Previous fxture Coach experience success of Culture of club
Upcoming fxture Tactical principles team Culture of country
Acute/chronic load of Tactical Short term Religious beliefs
players sub principles success of Weather/climate
Position of strength/gym Importance of team Pitch availability
work next fxture Team/staff Staff availability
Position of conditioning Standard of next activities Travel requirements
work opposition Health &
Position of reserve/youth wellbeing of
games team
Starting vs non starting Family life
players Player/Individual
Recovery philosophy opinion
Availability of players

broadly be described as a method where the physical elements of soccer

are being understood and adapted in parallel with the tactical dimensions.
More specifcally: it is thought that the Tactical Periodisation approach al
lows individuals to improve ftness levels at the same time as learning the
‘game model’. It can be characterized as a model which has large fuctuating
training loads and principles as a working week progresses. From a pure
physical standpoint, this approach is ‘daily undulating’ whereby each day the
body is being exposed to differing physical challenges and serves to mitigate
the effect of repeated bouts of the same load. Ultimately, this type of peri
odisation is very inviting for a physical performance coach, as it presents a
high quantity of ‘acquisition days’ as opposed to throwing the majority of
training load on one single day.
In contrast, another periodisation method which can also be seen as a
popular approach, especially within northern Europe, is the utilization of a
‘High Low’ model. This methodology is essentially where a physical stimulus
on any given training day is either ‘bucketed’ into a High Day, where players
are exposed to larger quantities of training load, or a Low Day, which is es
sentially the opposite. The latter normally preceding and succeeding a ‘High
Day’. Including these two highlighted periodisation models, the below content
addresses the positives and negatives of all the different approaches currently
used within soccer.
264 Mark Read et al.
Finally, it should be noted that the underlying theme with many successful
training models is the ability to have variety in training load to:

a work, when possible,

b taper, when necessary, and
c avoid monotony.

These should be seen to be a fundamentally essential concept in successful soc

cer training microcycles [16].

A ‘prelude’
Given the development of professional soccer and the adoption of sport science
over the past ten years, we can assume that many clubs now implement a similar
approach in the two days succeeding a match day regardless of the club/coach
philosophy. We can quite comfortably label these as ‘recovery days’; however,
the structure of the days is up for debate.

Active/passive recovery – (match day +1 or +2)

This day can be best described as a restoration day, whereby a variety of modal
ities can be implemented to speed up the recovery window and ensure that the
players are in the process of reverting to their pre competition ‘homeostatic’
state. In many situations, this will take place at the club. As aforementioned, this
day could also take place on the second day after a game, but the principles will
often remain the same. Situation and environment depending strategies can
be inside or outside, with dedicated time focusing on; manual therapies, water
immersion (hot/cold), and compression modalities, amongst many others (see
Chapter 8) [13]. Overall, content of this training day is light from both physical
and mental states.

‘Switch off’ – (match day +2 or +1)

Commonly a day off and a day away from the club. Essentially, this is not only an
important physical restoration day but also a social/psychological restoration day.

‘The lead-in’
A protocol of recovery, as stated above, will sequentially be followed by a new
training phase leading into the next fxture. However, unlike the rather stand
ardized recovery regimes used within the professional setting, the training mod
els implemented in the next four to fve days can differ greatly from club to club
and country to country. Many clubs and teams will encounter situations with
multiple games per week; however, the following ‘lead in’ methods are only
applicable to single game weeks.
 Periodisation 265
The 5-day
A 5 day ‘lead in’ to a game is perhaps the most demanding from a social and psy
chological perspective, given the need to repeatedly ‘load’ on fve consecutive
days, albeit the frst day being a lighter recovery focused day. When contrasted
to all the other microcycles in Table 10.2, the 5 day ‘lead in’ is the only method
which utilizes a complete rest on the immediate day after a game. Although this
method could be suitable for the players who have performed 60 min or more,
it could be viewed as an opportunity missed to expose those players out of the
squad or with limited playing time (<45 minutes) to a suitable training stimulus.
This may subsequently result in the need to prescribe additional stimulus at a
later date. However, it is recommended to approach with caution, as this spe
cifc microcycle is already long in nature with a consecutive load spread over
many days without a period of rest. Another option would be to prescribe
running only conditioning after the match itself, but this can be extremely com
plex, and the practitioner may be severely restricted in what and how they can
prescribe at this given point of time (see Chapter 5). For example, high speed
running can quite easily be implemented post game; however, the ability to ex
pose players to appropriate quantities of external loading values, such as total
distance and accelerations/decelerations, is a little more challenging.
The characteristic of consecutive days of training should also be viewed with
caution when planning for the normal training week, as to not induce chronic
fatigue and/or increased risk of injury. Notice should be paid to how, when, and
what overloading elements are implemented both on and off the pitch, given
that unlike other methods, limited time is given to recover from such stimuli. As
a result, there is a critical need to have suitable variation in training load between
each day. In contract to the potential diffculties and complexities of planning and
managing, all players from a physical perspective on this microcycle method, the
5 day ‘lead in’ gives great opportunities to work with players from a technical
and tactical perspective. As a result, this approach could be very effective for an
academy setting, where contact time and development is prioritized over peak
performance.

The 4-day
Although demanding, a 4 day ‘lead in’ remains strongly used in the modern
game around the world [17]. In general, this model will allow for two distinct
‘recovery/off days’ immediately after a game, before then transitioning into a
training phase of four days towards the following fxture. This model has almost
exclusively been used in parallel with Tactical Periodisation models over recent
years, and effectively spreads training load across several days rather than a very
high day being followed by a period of rest [15]. Subjectively, it could be consid
ered that four consecutive days of load may be too large to enable an athlete to
perform optimally on match day. However, the opportunity to spread training
load across several days is an inviting one for many, and certainly deserves to
 266

Table 10.2 Four separate microcycles to approach a match day

Mark Read et al.

Match day lead in microcycles

Match Activity 5-day 4-day 2-day 1-day

day code
Session type Recovery plus/build up OFF/recovery Recovery plus/build up Recovery plus/build up
Regeneration prehab Regeneration prehab Regeneration prehab
Movement prep (stretching, mobility, (stretching, mobility, (stretching, mobility,
isometrics/core) isometrics/core) isometrics/core)
Pitch focus Build up Build up Build up
MD+2 Strength & Hurdle mobility, Hurdle mobility, Hurdle mobility,
conditioning – on coordination + Movement Rest day coordination + Movement coordination +
feld quality quality Movement quality
Optional upper
Optional upper body Optional upper body gym +
Strength & body gym + core or
gym + core or extended core or extended recovery
conditioning gym extended recovery
recovery (yoga) (yoga)
(yoga)
 Match day lead in microcycles

Match Activity 5-day 4-day 2-day 1-day

day code
Session type Intensive Intensive Intensive/extensive Intensive
Small area prehab
Small area prehab (glute, Small area prehab (glute, Mixed area prehab (glute,
(glute, quad,
Movement prep quad, adductor, knee/ quad, adductor, knee/ quad, adductor, hamstring,
adductor, knee/ankle,
ankle, plyometrics) ankle, plyometrics) plyometrics)
plyometrics)
Intensive/extensive
Pitch focus Intensive practices Intensive practices Intensive practices
MD 4 practices
Acceleration,
Strength & Acceleration, Acceleration, deceleration, Acceleration, deceleration,
deceleration, change
conditioning – on deceleration, change of change of direction, ball change of direction, high
of direction, ball
feld direction, ball protection protection speed running
protection
Strength & Upper body or total
Upper body or total body Upper body or total body Lower body or total body
conditioning gym body
Session type Extensive Extensive OFF/recovery
Large area prehab
Large area prehab (glute, Large area prehab (glute,
Movement prep (glute, hamstring,
hamstring, psoas, calf) hamstring, psoas, calf)
psoas, calf)
Pitch focus Extensive practices Extensive practices Extensive practices
MD 3 Strength &
High speed running + High speed running + Rest day High speed running +
conditioning – on
Large area prep Maximum velocity Maximum velocity
feld
Periodisation

Strength &
Lower body or total
conditioning Lower body or total body Lower body or total body
body
267

– gym
(Continued)
 Match day lead in microcycles
268

Match Activity 5-day 4-day 2-day 1-day

day code
Session type Speed Speed Speed OFF/recovery
Movement prep Mixed area prehab (glute, Mixed area prehab (glute, Mixed area prehab (glute,
hamstring, psoas, calf, hamstring, psoas, calf, hamstring, psoas, calf, knee/
Mark Read et al.

knee/ankle) knee/ankle) ankle)

Pitch focus Tactical – speed/quality of Tactical – speed/quality of Tactical – speed/quality of
action action action
MD 2
Strength & Hurdle mobility + Hurdle mobility + Hurdle mobility + maximum Rest day
conditioning – on maximum velocity coordination/Agility velocity
feld
Strength & Power gym + individual Power gym + individual Power gym + individual
conditioning – extras extras extras
gym
Session type Pre match Pre match Pre match Pre match
Movement prep MD 1 Prehab (stretching, MD 1 Prehab (stretching, MD 1 Prehab (stretching, MD 1 Prehab
mobility, reactions, neural mobility, reactions, neural mobility, reactions, neural (stretching, mobility,
priming) priming) priming) reactions, neural
priming)
Pitch focus Pre match + priming Pre match + priming Pre match + priming Pre match + priming
MD 1
Strength & Reaction games + Reaction games + Reaction games + Reaction games +
conditioning – on acceleration acceleration acceleration acceleration
feld
Strength & Individual preparation Individual preparation Individual preparation Individual preparation
conditioning –
gym
 Match day lead in microcycles

Match Activity 5-day 4-day 2-day 1-day

day code
Session type Match Day Match Day Match Day Match Day
Movement prep Match day prep – Match day prep – Match day prep – individual Match day prep –
individual & team individual & team & team individual & team
Pitch focus Match Match Match Match
Match Strength & Top up conditioning for Top up conditioning for Top up conditioning for Top up conditioning
day conditioning – on subs subs subs for subs
feld
Strength & Selected matches – gym Selected matches – gym Selected matches – gym for Selected matches –
conditioning – for non playing group for non playing group non playing group gym for non playing
gym group
Session type OFF/Recovery Recovery Recovery Recovery
Movement prep Structured recovery Structured recovery Structured recovery
modalities + training group modalities + training group modalities + training
group
Pitch focus Top up conditioning < 45 Top up conditioning Top up conditioning
minutes players <45 minutes players <45 minutes players
MD+1
Strength & Rest day
conditioning – on
feld
Strength & Total body gym + optional Total body gym + optional Total body gym +
Periodisation

conditioning – UB gym for starters UB gym for starters optional UB gym for
gym starters
269

UB = Upper Body
270 Mark Read et al.
be considered. Each day can be broken down into differing physical and tactical
qualities to not heavily overload any specifc entity. As a result, this gives practi
tioners a high volume of contact time with players to develop physical qualities,
in line with what is delivered from a technical and tactical perspective. At this
point, it is pertinent to outline how and what physical qualities could success
fully be implemented effectively into a four day build in.

MATCH DAY ( 4) – TIGHT AREA SESSION

Due to the smaller areas normally programmed into the frst training day, it can
be a great day to work on strength demanding soccer components such as ball
protection/shielding, 1v1’s + 2v2’s and smaller sided games (4v4–7v7). In parallel
with this, change of direction, deceleration, stretch shortening cycle, and lower
body strength qualities ft very well alongside this type of a session and should
be prioritized on such a day.

MATCH DAY ( 3) – LARGE AREA SESSION

The second day into the training cycle and the third day before a game is a day
where areas of use can be expanded, and longer durations can be implemented.
On this day, physical qualities such as high speed running are more easily ob
tained due to the availability of greater working areas. From a soccer perspec
tive, this day should be used to repeatedly perform actions and gather volume
from larger sided games (8v8–11v11s).

MATCH DAY ( 2) – MODERATE AREA SESSION WITH SPEED

With two sessions left, prior to the match, this day can be considered a fnal ac
quisition day whilst being part of the taper process. Resulting in a moderate area
session, whereby a greater focus is placed on speed of actions, with lower vol
umes compared to the preceding training days. Typically, this day is a great day
to work with transitional based exercises and attacking focused drills, where
the speed and quality of each action is essential. Due to the ‘quicker’ demands
of the session, the physical qualities which could be developed in parallel with
the technical/tactical elements are as follows; acceleration, absolute/maximal
speed in addition to more powerful ‘speed/strength’ qualities off the pitch.

MATCH DAY ( 1) – REACTIVE/PREPARATION SESSION

As with every soccer periodisation model, the day before the game will serve
as a type of taper (or deload) towards the performance on the match day. This
day will normally be reserved for fnal tactical elements and details and can be
a great opportunity to work on reactive and priming activities to stimulate the
nervous system. Cognitively challenging games with plenty of rest are perfect
for this type of day and will also aid to build cohesion between the squad if im
plemented correctly.
 Periodisation 271
CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE 4 DAY ‘LEAD IN’

Overall, due to the length and consistent nature of this type of training week,
practitioners need to be very wary of the need for variation between sessions
and how best to differentiate them from one another. The variation can come
through a multitude of ways as outlined above; however, three stand out princi
ples which can easily be manipulated to bring about this variation are Pitch Size,
Playing Numbers and Work to Rest Ratios. As with all the microcycle examples
presented in this chapter, the ‘4 day lead in’ approach has several pros and cons.
However, when considering all the multifaceted layers of a training week, this
specifc approach certainly has more positives than negatives. In particular, the
training day after a match day is a great opportunity to work with the players
who have inadequate match minutes and load, whilst simultaneously allowing
the high loaded players (>60 match minutes) to work specifcally with the club’s
recovery interventions/protocols (see Chapter 8). In addition, this method facil
itates large periods of time for the technical and tactical staff to work on the
specifc principles for each week, compared to other approaches with a lower
number of training days.
One method which anecdotally has been suggested to be practically effective
with the larger training weeks is to micro dose various physical qualities into
the warm up phase of each session. Figure 10.2 outlines how a breakdown of
such physical qualities may look on each given day. The suggestion is not to
perform maximal speed within the frst 15 minutes (typically allocated warm up
time) of a training session, but the fnal 4–5 minutes of any warm up could be
used with maximal effect to develop our players athletically (see Chapter 5).

The 2-day
A 2 day ‘build in’ effectively works on the premise of keeping players fresh to
wards the back end of the week and allows them to be off and away from the
club’s facilities on MD 3. This approach allows for the initial days after a game
to be part of a recovery cycle before introducing an overload training session
in the middle of the week. Effectively, the model is a ‘High/Low’ approach and
gives the players plenty of time to recover and crucially adapt from any applied
stimuli. The 2 day ‘lead in’ is a method which is favourable with players them
selves, as it allows for a complete rest day mid way through the microcycle
to spend time away from the training ground, and subsequently recover both

Figure 10.2 Utilizing the warm up – the 4 and 5 day lead in.
272 Mark Read et al.
physically and mentally in preparation for the upcoming fxture. Nevertheless,
practitioners should apply further precaution to the MD 2 session, where play
ers are transitioning through a stage of recovery. This initial session back after
an overload day must be prepared and planned carefully to not heighten any
risk of injury. In particular, the MD 2 session on this microcycle approach would
certainly be of a different nature to a MD 2 utilized in a four or fve day lead in
method.
A further complexity of the 2 day build in is the need to cram several physical
qualities into the acquisition day (e.g. MD 4), which can cause some problems
with the prescription of conditioning elements. For example, consideration
around small or large sided games or exposure of change of direction of high
speed running qualities. Nevertheless, the ability to truly overload physical qual
ities on this 2 day ‘lead in’ has many benefts, especially during season, when
one high loading training day within the week may be enough to elicit the main
tenance of high levels of physical ftness, whilst also enhancing the likelihood of
physical readiness towards the end of the week.

The 1-day
The fnal example of the four microcycles highlighted in Table 10.2 is based
around a front loaded week with a much reduced load towards the end, due
to a prescribed rest day on MD 2. From a comprehensive standpoint, the 1 day
‘lead in’ has many positive attributes and is also well balanced, compared to
some of the other microcycles. From the beginning of the microcycle, the 1 day
‘lead in’ has the option of an ‘off feet’ recovery stimulus on the MD+1, or a
conditioning opportunity for those requiring a physical stimulus. Therefore, this
approach gives the possibility of two ‘acquisition’ days prior to a rest day, thus
making the physical prescription of any on feld conditioning, or strength work,
easier to navigate. Smaller area physical stimuli could be prescribed into the frst
acquisition day (MD 4), whilst bigger area and higher speed elements could ft
suitably into the second day (MD 3). In parallel, due to the greater number of
working days within this model, the warm up ‘micro dosing’ process outlined
in Figure 10.2 would also suit this approach. By having the second day before a
game away from the training ground, there is a suggestion that all lower body
strength and power work is potentially restricted to only MD 4 and MD 3, with
MD+1/+2 being located within a recovery window and MD 1 being a prepara
tion and taper session. However, most of the tactical work is also restricted to
MD 1 or in the early phases of the week, which could present as an issue for
technical staff (Table 10.3).

Multiple games per week

In many circumstances, teams across the world will face multiple games per
week both domestically and internationally (Table 10.4). When reverting to the
‘single game per week’ model, it can be fair to assume that a squad is essentially
Table 10.3 Advantages and disadvantages to each match ‘lead in’ approach

5-day lead-in 4-day lead-in 2-day lead-in 1-day lead-in

Advantages Allows more tactical Provides a platform for full Provides opportunity for a true Accommodates
preparation leading into a recovery before the start of a physical overload on MD 4 for two distinct
match new training week acquisition days +
increased strength/
power load due to rest
day MD 2
Allows psychological/physical Allows more tactical Ability to load from a strength/ Potential for increased
switch off the day after a preparation leading into a power perspective due to the rest ‘freshness’ leading into
game match day on MD 3 MD 1 and MD
A great approach for coaches A great approach for coaches Allows for a psychological/physical Possibly allows easier
with a deep understanding of with a deep understanding of rest mid week physical prescription
tactical periodisation tactical periodisation on MD 4 and MD 3
A large contact time with Like a ‘5 Day Lead In’, allows Allows a top up and overload Allows for a
players to develop physical a large contact time with session MD+1 psychological/physical
qualities and playing style players to develop physical reset two days before
qualities and playing style the game
Allows a top up and overload Allows a top up and
Periodisation

session MD+1 overload session

MD+1
273

(Continued)
 5-day lead-in 4-day lead-in 2-day lead-in 1-day lead-in
Disadvantages More diffcult to overload More diffcult to overload Increased complexity of Possible need to
physical qualities due to physical qualities due to conditioning prescription on combine strength
274 Mark Read et al.

no off/rest day in the week no off/rest day in the week MD 4 due to only allowing one and power session on
leading to game leading to game acquisition day vs multiple days MD 4 due to no MD 2
power opportunity
Does not allow a structured Higher risk of overload Must be cognizant of residual Potential reduced
recovery MD+1 through the week resulting in fatigue from MD 4 when planning time/fow into game
fatigue MD 2, particularly considerations for tactical preparation
towards max speed exposure on pitch compared to
4 and 5 day lead ins
Higher risk of overload Must be cautious with lower Potential reduced time/fow into
through the week resulting body strength doses to game for tactical preparation on
in fatigue not bring about excessive pitch compared to 4 and 5 day
soreness lead ins
Must be cautious with lower
body strength doses to
not bring about excessive
soreness
No MD+1 session to top
up and overload non playing
group
 Periodisation 275
split into two separate groups in the transition between weekly microcycles;
those who have been exposed to a high load through the match day, and those
who require some form of an additional physical stimulus, due to the lack of
match exposure. However, when considering a two game per week schedule,
there are more subgroups within each squad, resulting in numerous different
physical statuses to be aware of. Given that players will be recovering for at
least 48 hours post match, it is highly possible that the only day which may have
all players on the same training stimulus, is that on the MD 1 before the second
match day (Table 10.4). At all other points throughout this microcycle, there
will be players with differing physical statuses which need to be catered for on
an individual basis.

Table 10.4 An example of a two games per week microcycle

Match day Activity Two games per week microcycle

Code (congested fxture week)
MD Session type Match day 1
Movement prep Match day prep – Individual & Team
Pitch focus Match
Strength & conditioning – on feld Top up conditioning <45–60 min
Strength & conditioning gym Selected matches – gym for players
<45–60 min
MD+1 Session type Recovery
Movement prep Structured recovery modalities +
Training group
Pitch focus Top up conditioning <45–60 min
players
Strength & conditioning – on feld
Strength & conditioning gym Total body gym <45–60 min +
optional UB gym for starters
MD+2/ 1 Session type Pre match
Movement prep MD 1 Prehab (stretching, mobility,
Pitch focus reactions, CNS priming)
Pre match + priming
Strength & conditioning – on feld Reaction games + acceleration
Strength & conditioning gym Individual prep
MD Session type Match day 2
Movement prep Match day prep – individual & team
Pitch focus Match
Strength & conditioning – on feld Top up conditioning <45–60 min
Strength & conditioning gym Selected matches – gym for players
<45–60 min

(Continued)
276 Mark Read et al.

Match day Activity Two games per week microcycle

Code (congested fxture week)
MD+1 Session type OFF/recovery
Movement prep Rest day
Pitch focus
Strength & conditioning – on feld
Strength & conditioning gym
MD+2/ 2 Session type Recovery/build up
Movement prep Regeneration prehab (stretching,
mobility, isometrics/core)
Pitch focus Build up
Strength & conditioning – on feld Hurdle mobility, coordination +
movement quality
Strength & conditioning gym Optional upper body gym + core or
extended recovery (yoga)
MD 1 Session type Pre match
Movement prep MD 1 Prehab (stretching, mobility,
reactions, CNS priming)
Pitch focus Pre match + priming
Strength & conditioning – on feld Reaction games + acceleration
Individual prep

With this type of schedule, acquisition days are essentially re labelled as the
‘match day’ and the microcycle in principle becomes a ‘High/Low’ approach
whereby players are either stimulated via match play, or are recovering be
tween. Consequently, the only possibility to load players from a training stim
ulus is when players are out of the match day squad or have inadequate match
exposure (substitutes). As a result, the post match (and proceeding day; MD+1)
conditioning sessions become crucial. Within these limited opportunities, phys
ical prescription becomes highly individualized. From a strength perspective, a
micro dosing approach is preferable to maintain any injury prevention strat
egies put in place during previous microcycles (see Chapter 4). For example,
post match or MD+1 may be appropriate day to expose the non playing group
to a very small dose of posterior chain, adductor and unilateral strength work.
Whereas, on feld stimulus prescriptions, such as large quantities of high speed
running (without causing any unwanted fatigue leading into the upcoming fx
ture), are limited to match day. It is imperative that when approaching away
games, practitioners plan to recognize what each player requires the most. As
a result, a sound load monitoring system put in place to track individual varia
tions allow practitioners to truly identify what, when, and how physical work
needs to be prescribed (see Chapter 6).
 Periodisation 277
Factors to consider
There are several factors that can affect the periodisation model, such as
weather, altitude, competition schedule, the, coach and travel. The following
questions should be asked by practitioners working in elite soccer:

• How are training sessions planned during congested fxtures?

• What does the coaching staff want to train/develop?
• What is the infuence of desired drills on the ftness status of players?
• How does the periodisation approach adapt to non modifables (such as
weather and altitude)?

Environmental
Each environment has different weather conditions to consider when planning
micro , meso , or macro cycles. This external factor is potentially the most
unpredictable of them all, and results in the human body responding differently
to the demands placed upon it.

Hot conditions
The human thermoregulatory system is challenged in hot conditions, re
sulting in potentially impaired performance and increased chances for heat
related illness [18]. Thus, resulting in greater energy costs for comparative
exercises, during hot circumstances [19]. Often, the external load may re
sult equally (i.e. same physical output); however, internal load (response)
is much greater during hot conditions compared to more comfortable cli
mates. Dehydration is a main factor that can infuence cognitive and physical
performance [20–22]. A controllable factor that practitioners can adjust in
order to acclimate to hot conditions is the training times. Altering training
times during different parts of the season to avoid hot conditions can po
tentially expose players to better conditions for sessions requiring greater
physical outputs. Furthermore, preventing players from training in the peak
hot periods could potentially allow increased performance and minimize
fatigue and other heat related illnesses. However, there are many benefts
associated with exposure to hot conditions.
A variety of benefts, including decrease in heart rate (during exercise) and
plasma volume, can be obtained within a week of training regularly in hot con
ditions [23]. However, full adaptation for heat often occurs within a 10 day
period [18]. With signifcant positive aerobic adaptations associated with short
term exposure to training in hot conditions, it is suggested that practitioners
carefully periodize training times to optimize the acclimatization benefts [24].
It is suggested that players don’t necessarily need to be exposed to hot con
ditions long term, to obtain the physiological benefts of heat acclimatisation.
Therefore, the suggestion for practitioners is to investigate times of the year to
278 Mark Read et al.
appropriately train in the heat. The pre season period could potentially be an
optimal period to expose players to consecutive days of hot conditions, allow
ing for an adaptation period before the season commences [24, 25].

Cold conditions
There are various extreme conditions that teams may be exposed to during
the season which can potentially alter a team’s periodisation. Unlike hot con
ditions, athletes being regularly exposed to training and/or competing in cold
weather have more negative outcomes as opposed to performance enhance
ments [26–29]. Therefore, playing in cold conditions may require a more exten
sive warm up prior to training/matches to ensure optimal muscle temperature,
as muscle temperature and neuromuscular function are linearly related [30].
Experienced cold weather athletes will usually wear breathable undergarments
that are ‘sweat wicking’ and have a high rate of drying [31]. If garments become
wet and do not dry, the athlete potentially runs the risk of cooling faster. There
fore, for teams that are occasionally exposed to cold weather environments,
it is recommended to wear appropriate undergarments to assist in maintaining
muscle temperature throughout activity [31].

Altitude
Balancing the acute and chronic physiological responses to altitude is essen
tial for achieving the greatest beneft to performance [32]. To rationalize and
interpret the physiological basis for altitude exposure, it is important to un
derstand that as altitude rises, both the barometric pressure (P b) and partial
pressure of oxygen (PiO2) decrease which leads to a reduction in the avail
ability of oxygen that can be delivered to skeletal muscle, despite the con
centration of oxygen remaining constant (20.9%) inducing hypoxic conditions
[32], therefore creating inherently harder physical conditions for players dur
ing games/training. Research suggests that that there may be two windows of
opportunity of optimal performance once an athlete descends from altitude,
the frst, within the frst fve to seven days upon return, with the second being
three to six weeks post altitude [33]. Furthermore, it was suggested that the
acute period post altitude training is the best time to achieve supercompen
sation [34]. Unfortunately, teams may be exposed to altitude for only one
game which means there is not enough time to adapt to the environment and
performance may be compromised due to the increased physical stress play
ers will experience. In the lead up to such conditions, teams may choose to
deload to increase the likelihood of physical readiness. Alternatively, if teams
decide to perform training at altitude for an extended period of time (e.g. pre
season), it is important to understand that the equivalent load at sea level per
formed at altitude will be much harder physically and periodisation of training
should account for this increased physical stress.
 Periodisation 279
Coach
The head coach or collective coaching staff will have signifcant infuence
on periodisation for a professional soccer team. A plan may be in place for
a given training session or week, however, if the coach decides to change
something, then ultimately that is his/her decision to do so. This can poten
tially be for better or worse, but it reemphasizes the ability to be adaptable
as a practitioner (see Chapters 1 and 11). Fluidity in periodisation is essential
to best prepare the team for match day as sticking to the original plan when
things have changed on a particular day may not be suitable. Even in the
most unifed of relationships between performance staff and coaching staff,
changes can occur daily that were not planned for, but from a psychological
or technical/tactical perspective, the coach may have made a call to increase
or decrease volume/intensity. In these instances, keeping an eye on the big
ger picture and where the team is at on a weekly/daily basis will assist in the
future periodisation process.

Travel
Frequent travel is a common occurrence in professional soccer teams and will
vary team to team depending on competition schedules and league structure.
In some teams, it may be required to travel across multiple time zones (e.g.
MLS in the United States). This consistent travel can have an emotional and
physical cost to athletes, so it is highly recommended to have strategies in place
to mitigate any negative effects [35]. Such strategies can include arriving in the
environment a day or two prior to match day, training in the host city, and
hydration and nutrition interventions. Practitioners should also attempt to
maintain as much of a normal preparation for match day as you would a home
game, instructing players to bring their own pillow from home to sleep on, and
exposure to natural light at local times [36].

Practical application

Planning training for non-starting players

During the competitive season, large team based training sessions to develop
the necessary physical qualities can become inhibited, particularly during pe
riods of high fxture density. The squad should display relatively comparable
degrees of ftness following pre season, but the landscape can swiftly change
once the league commences, with noticeable fuctuations in ftness levels having
been observed [37]. These decrements in ftness measures tend to occur due
to minimal squad rotation, which subsequently creates three subset groups:
regular starters, substitutes, and players left out of the squad. During congested
match microcycles, it is quite common to identify disparities in high speed run
ning volumes when comparing starters and non starters. Research conducted
280 Mark Read et al.
in the Premier League also discovered similar fndings, with starters performing
greater volumes of high speed load throughout a week [38, 39]. With a fast
turnover of matches, half of the squad are in a cycle of playing and recovering,
restricting the non starters to performing possessions and SSGs in reduced
numbers, ranging from 1v1 to 6v6. This form of training certainly has its merits:
it can enable both aerobic and anaerobic development, depending on the num
ber of players involved and the duration of each possession block (see Chapter 5).
However, small group training also has its limitations. For example, high speed
running and peak speed exposure are unlikely to occur when the size of the
pitch is relative to the numbers of players involved in these small sided prac
tices, which is particularly detrimental for full backs and wide attacking players.
Therefore, due to the restricted training content for non starting players
during the competitive season, practitioners should seek to incorporate addi
tional training modalities to ensure individuals are exposed to high speed run
ning when match minutes are limited [40].

High-speed running modalities

Typically, there are two types of speed endurance (SE) interventions caus
ing slightly contrasting physiological responses, but both forms are intended
to develop fatigue resistance qualities to tolerate recurrent explosive actions
throughout a 90 minute match [41, 42]. The distinction between the two forms
of training is subtle. Speed endurance maintenance develops the repeatabil
ity of high intensity actions and is generally performed in small sided game
scenarios (2v2–4v4). Whereas, speed endurance production training, which
is commonly conducted individually, improves short maximum efforts, and is
performed at near maximum intensity over short bouts (<30’s). Production
training also requires longer rest periods to ensure there is suffcient recovery
for the next repetition. With regard to training effect, intensity has a greater
impact on enhancing physical performance than volume and frequency. Speed
endurance fts the notion of being intense but low in volume, which is why it is a
justifed mode of training in an applied framework, working alongside the other
critical aspects of soccer training throughout a microcycle, such as technical
and tactical training.
Position specifc production drills can be contextualized based on time
motion analysis. Coaches can create individual position specifc profles by dis
covering the most intense trends both in and out of possession, and where
these specifc actions take place on the pitch [43]. During the drill design pro
cess, practitioners should consider shorter explosive movements for central
strikers, and longer locomotive patterns for full backs and wide attacking play
ers, which would correspond to key moments of match simulation. Once a
collection of movements is formulated from match footage, practitioners can
design specifc drill content condensed into ~ 20–30 seconds of ‘all out’ bursts.
This type of work is classifed as supra maximal training exceeding any 20–30
second high speed peak bout of work during a match. Drills may incorporate
 Periodisation 281
Table 10.5 General speed endurance guidelines

Training Time Intensity Work: Sets/Reps Training drill Player

modality rest RPE
ratio

Production <30 seconds 90%–100% 1:>4 1–2 × Position specifc 9/10

6–8
Maintenance 1–4 minutes 70%–90% 1:3 4–5 sets SSGs + 7/10
possessions

defensive or attacking components, which would include acceleration and de

celeration actions, whilst concurrently integrating technical elements, such as
passing, crossing, and fnishing, depending on the position (Table 10.5). First
hand experience suggests players prefer this type of work because of game
specifcity. However, additional technical elements may interfere with the phys
ical outputs when merged within a speed endurance drill, so practitioners must
be cognizant of how the technical work is incorporated and should not allow it
to become the limiting factor disrupting the desired physical outcome.
Practitioners should take confdence from the positive effects production
training can have on elite level soccer players. However, due to the intense nature
of training prescription, caution must be taken due to the high mechanical load
output. Therefore, very high speed (sprint) running drills (>7.0 m·s−1) should be
progressed steadily so that players can tolerate the load without causing signif
cantly delayed onset muscle soreness. Practitioners may also seek to utilize live
GPS feedback to ensure the totalities of workload are within the prescribed opti
mum bandwidth range for that session and individual (see Chapter 7).

Planning for two games per week

With midweek fxtures, practitioners are limited to prescribing reduced volumes
of sprint load (>7.0 m·s−1), simply because the turnaround into the next match is
imminent. In this instance, practitioners should focus on small sided games and
possessions (SE maintenance) to maintain aerobic and anaerobic conditioning,
supplemented by low volume individual speed endurance production bouts, only
for priority players. It is important to reduce overall physical stress on MD 2,
yet expose the non starters to some form of conditioning work. One method of
choice to reduce the total high speed distance during an individual drill is to in
corporate additional technical actions and changes of direction. The player is still
exposed to small doses of required metabolic load, but less invasive mechanical
stress is produced.
282 Mark Read et al.
Planning for one game per week
Microcycles with one game per week allow for more creativity and offer more
options to train multiple physical components. A variety of possessions and
themed games (8v8–10v10) can be supplemented with speed endurance pro
duction work, with a recommendation of one or two sessions per week for pri
ority players. Planning to perform these explosive production drills will depend
on factors, such as scheduled days off, recent travel, and the physical, technical,
and tactical training planned throughout the week. If 10v10 games (extensive
training) are performed on a full pitch or three quarter pitch dimensions, pro
duction training may well be modulated, or in some cases with certain players,
not required. Each player should have individual targets for metrics deemed
critical for their position to determine whether further training prescription is
warranted throughout the week (see Chapter 7). Logistically, it is unrealistic to
execute production drills with all non starters. In this instance, a hybrid drill
that combines both high speed running with an opposed SSG practice can be
implemented. This type of training drill is very effcient as technical coaches can
work on specifc soccer elements, such as creating 3v2 overloads, transitioning,
and developing 1v1 attacking/defensive qualities, whilst also achieving a high
speed running and sprint load.
Although there is no replacement for match exposure, maintaining a suff
cient level of conditioning and high speed running load throughout the season
is valuable. However, during a high density of fxtures, practitioners are limited
to implementing progressive, consistent overload to enhance physical perfor
mance. Modern day elite soccer players with reduced match load may well be
capable of physically performing in a one off match. However, if required to
play regularly in a high density period of matches, players might be at a greater
risk of injury, due to the sudden spike in high speed load [44], particularly high
output positional groups, such as full backs and wide attackers. To mitigate such
risk, performing intense low volume production drills during less congested
periods is recommended.
Practitioners and coaches involved in the design process must be aware that
the perceived subjective exertion from production drills is very high. Therefore
in the latter stages of the season, this type of work might be relative to other oc
casions within the competitive calendar. Ultimately, practitioners must commu
nicate with the players and coaching staff to ensure the best outcome is achieved
and be fexible with the weekly training plan. Production training is a justifed
modality to maintain and even develop physical capacity for non starting players
throughout the season if planned optimally and logically (Table 10.6).

Conclusion
Periodisation in professional soccer is a complex process that requires practi
tioners to factor in many variables such as environment, fxtures, training load,
coach preferences, travel, and player readiness. There are a variety of ways
Table 10.6 Two microcycles for starters and non starters (one and two matches per week)

Microcycle with 5 day lead-in

Day Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun Comments
MD+2/ MD 3 or With a 5 day lead in, training can combine
Type MD 4 MD 2 MD 1 Match
MD 5 rest day small rondo’s, overload themes, larger based
Number of progressions & 2× speed endurance sessions
10–12 20–22 20–22 20–22 20–22 (NS).
players
Primary Post day off Dist >24km/h is spread across the week, but is
Acceleration/ Reactive predominantly front loaded on M 4, provided
conditioning (moderate Aerobic Speed
deceleration primer by the speed endurance intervention.
objective intensity)
Rest day
Session Peak speeds can be performed on M 3.
60’ 75–90’ 75’ 60’ 45’ or full
Duration
recovery M 2 is a mich lighter session due to the
Production – PS at accumulative load from M 4/M 3. However, if
Production Non
Dependent on training M 3 reverts to a rest day, then the intensity of
PS Starters
Speed Wednesday ground M 2 can increase by including 10v10 themed
Endurance Moderate practices, which would also slightly increase
(NS) 1–2 sets × the dist >24km/h, or include a small dose of
1 set × 4 High
6–8 reps speed endurance.
@20sec Speed
@25–30sec
pitch runs Post match running does not need to
2v2 attack be exhaustive with a 5 day lead in. The
Hybrid Drill
Periodisation

vs defense microcycle gives plenty of opportunity to

(NS) maintain suffcient energy system training.
+ HSR
283

(Continued)
 284

Microcycle with 5 day lead-in

Day Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun Comments
Mark Read et al.

Team
4v4+3 2 10v10 Light passing 8v2 rondo
training 8v2 Rondo
groups Possession sequence 2 groups
drills
10v10 4v4+3
Passing 6v4 overload 4v2+1 Rondo 3
themed Possession
sequence 2 groups groups
game 2 groups
Peak
4v4+2 4v4 SSG speed Unopposed
Finishing drills
Possession tournament >90% (2–3 tactical
reps)
4 players
5v5 SSG performing
SE
Total
distance Approx. Approx. Approx.
Approx. 75m
>7.0 m·s 1 200m 100m 150m
(NS)
 Microcycle with mid-week fxture
Day Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun Comments
MD+2/
Type MD 1 Match MD+1/MD 2 MD 1 Match
MD 2
Number of 10–12 (main
20–22 10–12 20–22
players session)
Primary Reactive Reactive
conditioning Anaerobic primer or Acceleration primer or
objective SAQ SAQ
With a mid week fxture, training load for the
Session non starters is more restricted.
60’ 45’ 60’ 45’
duration
Naturally, more SSG’s (<6v6’s) are performed
Production Non Non due to the starters recovery from the match.
Production PS
Speed PS Starters Starters
Endurance Training is geared towards keeping players
1× set 4–6 Moderate Moderate sharp and not extensive ftness development.
(NS) 1 set × 4
reps@20– high speed high speed Rest day
@20sec
25sec pitch runs pitch runs or full Speed endurance work can be conducted on
Hybrid Drill recovery <−2 but intensity moderate & volume low.
4v4 + HSR at
(NS) Hybrid drills work well with smaller group
training
8v4 training, enabling for some high speed
8v2 rondo 2 Light passing 8v2 rondo ground
Overload exposure & technical work performed under
groups sequence 2 groups fatigue.
possession
Passing In this microcycle example, the game falls
Team 4v4+3 4v4+3 on M 3. Therefore, post match work
sequence 4v2+1 Rondo 3
training Possession 2 Possession should include high speed running blocks.
and groups
drills groups 2 groups Alternatively, M 2 can be utilized but with
acceleration
reduced volume.
Unopposed Unopposed
5v5 SSG Finishing drills
tactical tactical
Periodisation

Total
Approx.
distance Approx. Approx.
175–200 Approx. 75 m
>7.0m·s -1 75–100 m 150 m
285

m
(NS)
NS = non starter. PS = position specifc. SAQ = speed, agility, quickness. High speed load may change depending on match involvement
286 Mark Read et al.
in which teams can periodise training, with advantages and disadvantages to
each. Understanding of what can be achieved on each day with a clear col
lective approach from a technical/tactical, physical, psychological, and cultural
perspective will assist in deciding what approach suits your club most. During
congested periods in season, practitioners must understand the implications
this has on periodisation for non starting players and what opportunities are
presented to ensure appropriate levels of physical condition are maintained.
Finally, it is integral that practitioners have the ability to be adaptable and fuid
in the ever changing environment that often occurs within elite soccer.

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11 Coach and staff integration
Jarred Marsh, David Cosgrave, Scott Guyett,
Paul Caffrey and Philippa McGregor

Overview of teams within a team

A soccer team is a collection of various inter linked departments, from a techni
cal team, support or ‘backroom’ staff to management personnel and the players
themselves. While the number of persons involved within this structure can
vary from club to club, it is a certainty that there will always be a number of
linked departments within the team itself. Understanding the team members,
their specifc roles and responsibilities and ensuring delegation of important
tasks are crucial to ensuring the team’s success (Figure 11.1).
The organogram of modern day professional soccer clubs can be extremely
detailed. Leadership positions such as a director of football/soccer generally
oversee the recruitment and management of the technical team (consisting of
the head coach, assistant coaches, goalkeeping coach, and ftness coach) (see
Chapter 1). The technical team can be supported by additional ‘backroom staff’
departments such as the performance and medical departments. These depart
ments can be made up of a number of individuals who have diverse roles and
responsibilities within the team structure. It is therefore key to align these roles
to ensure team success throughout the season. However, this is somewhat of a
complex task as each individual member of the team may be infuenced by per
sonal ideas, perceptions, beliefs, experiences, and attitudes. Thus, in turn, may
have a knock on effect on the team’s overall behaviour. For example, in many
African countries there is still a strong association with traditional medicine and
Di
t
en

Goals
ag
pm

no
lo

sis
ve
De

of

Roles
Iss
ma

ue
Te

Procedures

Interpersonal Relationships

Figure 11.1 GRPI model (Adapted from Beckhard [1]).

DOI: 10.4324/9781003200420 11
290 Jarred Marsh et al.
ancestral beliefs. These cultural practises can have a psychological impact on a
number of team aspects, such as training and match performance. Pre match
rituals may be deemed essential by the practicing player, and it is important
to understand the individuals within the team and how to manage their var
ied personalities and beliefs in order to avoid confusion and maximise their
performance.
In the same manner, the technical team and staff are all made up individuals
with the same varied backgrounds. However, before their positions within
the team, they are people frst and foremost and understanding the person
before the position is a key factor in fnding a harmonious balance within
the team. In many European clubs, when there is a change of management, a
new manager will arrive with his/her own staff. While this can lead to faster
integration and transference of the manager’s philosophy into the team, it is
not always allowed by the club management. In the case of a new manager
entering into a fresh team environment with one (or even none) known at
tached staff members, it is vital to integrate into the environment to create
harmony. Language barriers, cultural differences, and experiences can all play
a role in the thought process and philosophy of an individual. For this reason,
it is important for each member to be invested in getting to know the other
individuals of the team. Developing a framework or structure within the team
is the essential frst step.
When establishing structures within a team, deciding upon the team’s defni
tion is the initial step towards team success. This refers to the leadership struc
tures within the team (top down approach vs. bottom up). With this defnition
in mind, the individual members of the team are able to collectively agree upon
their purpose or goals. Having common goal enables the team to then delegate
responsibilities to the respective team members, in line with their agreed upon
purpose. Once each individual member has been given their respective respon
sibilities, therefore, guidelines must be set to ensure the team members can
operate freely within their specifc roles. Through this structured approach, a
new manager can create a framework within the team to accommodate all staff.
With a shared common goal, the team will be able to have a shared conscious
ness and align their tasks towards a goal of the team.

Vision and mission

Each inter linked department can operate within itself and focus on their own
responsibilities and tasks. In a corporate setting, this approach might be produc
tive. However, in a team sport setting (e.g. an elite soccer environment), each
department needs to work in unison with the rest to achieve a common goal.
This also applies to the individuals within the department.
Building a new team is diffcult. Old habits die hard, old dogs can’t learn new
tricks. The phoenix doesn’t always rise from the fames. Mixing new and old
isn’t always easy. Adding new cultures, languages, norms, beliefs, and behaviours
into the cauldron of high performance pressure could be enough to make the
 Coach and staff integration 291
environment unbearable. Understanding the different stages of team formation
is helpful. A new team just like a plant needs time and safety to let its roots
form. Those roots can be seen as the identity that will nourish the team over
time so care must be taken to allow them to grow and embed into the soil.

Psychological safety is not the seed of a fearless organisation

but the soil that allows culture to grow
A new team is collective of individuals that are strangers that must fnd safety,
norms, beliefs, and values that mirror each other. Expectations for behaviours
and outcomes must be agreed at the outset. Cultural awareness and diversity
training must be supported by language and communication training before any
signifcant team effectiveness, cohesion or growth can occur. You can’t just
switch on teamwork. It takes time for a new team to ‘gel’ and work to its full
potential. What’s more, team members go through stages as they move from
strangers to co workers.
By developing a vision (where the department or team is going), and a mission
statement (how they are going to get there), the individuals of the team can have
a tangible direction to travel in. The age old metaphor of a high performance
team being likened to a rowing boat is a great example. While the individual
members of the team have individual roles to play in regard to the locomotion
of the boat, they all have one clear vision – to move in a singular direction and
get to the fnish line. To accomplish this, they all need to focus on their mission:
to execute their roles in synergistic manner and pull in the same direction. By
defning a clear vision and mission, we can focus our individual and collective
energy in moving the team in one direction (Figure 11.2). Be it securing promo
tion, moving through the group stages of an international competition, or simply
surviving relegation, our success in the high performance environment relies on
us pulling together in the same direction.

Energy Energy

Figure 11.2 Essentialism: The disciplined pursuit of less (Adapted from Greg McKeown [2]).
292 Jarred Marsh et al.
Team of teams
The industrial age saw the rise of the reductionist management theory, a man
agement style that is still used widely in many team sport structures today.
This style of management refers to breaking down systems or groups into their
individual parts and assessing their output in isolation. Through this process, it
is possible to assess effectiveness of the isolated departments and their linear
interactions within the team. This, in turn, results in the assessment of the
departments’ effectiveness on the team’s output. In order to achieve this struc
ture, the decision making members of the team must be placed at the highest
point of a hierarchy or pyramid (e.g. manager), followed by mid structure team
members (e.g. assistant coaches), while the lowest members of the team are
places at the bottom of the structure (e.g. support staff). Each level is responsi
ble for engaging and instructing the level immediately beneath them.
Unfortunately, this system was designed to assess individual departments in
static isolation and determining their contribution and value to the team as a
whole. It is rigid in nature and not able to adapt to a complex, changing envi
ronment. In the world of elite soccer, the teams need to be agile and operate
in a fuid, often chaotic environment with a shared consciousness (Figure 11.3).
A recent manuscript identifying a bottom up management solution to team
operations illustrates the importance of each individual member understanding

Figure 11.3 Team of teams: New rules of engagement in a complex world (Adapted from
McChrystal [3]).
 Coach and staff integration 293
the various roles and requirements of the team’s operation [3]. In theory, it’s
important for a performance analyst to understand the head coach’s desired
game model in order to structure and present relevant data on training and
match performance. Likewise, the head coach needs to understand the detailed
rehabilitation process of the medical department when a player is released back
to full training after injury. In this manner, the team can operate with a shared
consciousness and the micro processes within the team are synchronised to
wards one common goal.
To develop this shared consciousness, soccer organisations need to create
trust and share a common goal (winning the domestic league, a cup fnal, avoid
ing relegation etc.). Through establishing a shared consciousness within our
team structures, we are able to develop a linked ‘network of networks’ with
individual members being able to make empowered decisions without seeking
approval. Thus, the individual members can execute ideas and only need to re
port to management when required. In this approach, management can review
the process over time and only adjust the team’s direction if need be. However,
it goes without saying that it is vital to establish a shared consciousness prior to
empowering the team members to make executive decisions. Without this shared
common purpose in mind, decisions may be made that are counter productive
or not aligned to the team’s central goals.

Task delegation
Once a structured network is established with the team environment, delega
tion of performance procedures to the responsible team members is the next
logical step. Delegation can be defned as getting work done through others by
giving them authority and control of the work [4]. With a common goal in mind,
the team staff can plan how best to approach the coming season or fxtures. Key
tasks need to be delegated to ensure the goals and objectives of the team are met.
This can be an important step as the tasks need to be carefully assigned to the
right team members to ensure accountability, quality of delivery, and compliance.
However, it was not always easy to delegate numerous tasks to a room full
of supporting staff. Managers were often reluctant to delegate tasks as the
team structure was historically a ‘one man show’ given the lack of support
staff. Teams in the 1900s did not have a plethora of soccer specialists and it was
only in the early 2000s that soccer clubs saw the opportunity to enhance their
team’s performance through technology. It is widely known that Sam Allardyce
pioneered the use of sport science, analysis, and statistics in his time as man
ager of Bolton Wanderers between 1999 and 2007 [5]. By empowering of his
support staff, Sam Allardyce was able to delegate key performance tasks that
created motivation, growth, and development for his supporting staff.
In theory, by assigning a task or responsibility to an individual team member,
the group inherently recognises the competency of that team member. This is
an important aspect within the elite soccer environment as trust within the
technical team and support staff is paramount to success. Delegation can also
294 Jarred Marsh et al.
be seen as an enabling tool that promotes feedback seeking behaviour. When
a task is delegated from a high position of power within an organisation (e.g.
Manager), the team member is more likely to seek feedback [6]. By delegating
key tasks within the team, we indirectly give power and authority to team mem
bers to actively explore and complete tasks that have been assigned to them.
However, aligning the task to the central team goals is key.

Divide and conquer

When planning a complex programme, such as a preseason training camp or
planning for an upcoming match during a congested period, it may be more logi
cal to divide the process amongst a number of individuals. Therefore, the group
(technical team, department, management etc.), may be able to undertake sev
eral key tasks in a short period of time. The inclusion of a group style approach
may also provide more insightful ideas. By breaking down the large, complex
task of planning and preparation into smaller, more manageable processes, we
may be able to lower inherent risk and increase the predictability of the pro
cess as a whole. During their successful 2019 Rugby World Cup campaign, the
management team of the Springboks empowered the group of players not in
the match day squad (known as the ‘Bomb Squad’), to perform key analysis
sessions on the upcoming matches. They were tasked to analyse the opposition
players, their strength and weak areas, and even the personality traits of the
appointed referees. The ‘Bomb Squad’ would then provide detailed feedback
to management and players and highlight potential areas for the Springboks
to take advantage of. As a result, the management staff showed trust in these
players and empowered them. By dividing the total workload amongst the team
members, the Springboks were able to create greater roles and responsibilities
amongst the team members.
In the same manner, the tactical analysis for an upcoming league fxture may
be conducted and presented by team members in an elite soccer environment.
Defenders may be able to present key tactical attacking points to the strik
ers, while Goalkeepers may present key defensive points to the Defenders etc.
Therefore, we could empower players to take ownership in the preparation
process. Utilising the strengths of our individual members will enhance the
overall team performance.
However, as with all positives, there are also negative points to the ‘divide and
conquer’ principle. Often this style of leadership can be used to create dishar
mony amongst a team. Should the planning process be managed by and centred
around one insecure leader, these insecurities can be used to dilute the power
of the individual contributing departments involved in the planning process.
Should the infuence of these departments threaten the insecure leader in any
way, the leader may work to create division and not cohesion within the team.
It is therefore important to reinforce the elements of trust and communication
within the team to ensure positive cohesion and alignment are maintained, al
though this may be affected by the leadership style of the manager or coach.
 Coach and staff integration 295
Confict in the elite soccer environment
Interdependent individuals or teammates exist in two states. They cooperate or
they compete. When a teammate pursues the latter, their motivation to achieve
their goal will usually result in a negative outcome for the other individuals of
the team [7]. Cohesive teams aim to share identities and visions and understand
their context allowing them to mitigate confict [8]. Team cohesion is the buffer
to aid confict management: cohesion is the foundations that allow leaders to
directly address conficts resulting in an atmosphere that allows them to medi
ate effectively [9]. Understanding where the source of confict resonates is the
frst step to avoiding the negative association of confict an environment [10].
Furthermore, investigating the ‘what’, ‘how’, ‘who’, and ‘where’ can help dissect
and resolve confict from becoming an unwanted affect.

Dealing with confict

When seeking to understand how a confict can be resolved within a group, it is
essential to map out the motivations and power structures amongst the personnel
involved [11]. The formal status of the members in the group, their afforded power,
their motivation to cooperate internally, and concern for the wellbeing of the other
party involved all affect the outcome. Poor cooperation between parties leads to
avoidance of confict and a gradual withdrawal from team affairs. This can also be a
calculated strategy to buy time or to hope the issue resolves itself. This watch and
wait tactic may hinder the confict protagonist whilst the other party prepares their
response. When an individual uses force or exerts their power to dominate the
other party, it is evident that the dysfunctional team is not psychologically safe. This
low concern for the other party can result in microaggressions and bullying that can
undermine whole team trust if left unchecked. Leadership that uses this tactic may
believe that this tactic is appropriate for certain contexts, but the reputational risk
of a team casualty may not be worth the demonstration of power.
When individuals are unsure of their status and show low care for self, it is
common for confict to be avoided or prevented by accommodating another’s
point of view. This may be common in hierarchical, low trust or newly formed
teams but also a sign of a highly respectful society. When avoiding confict this
way, teams create harmony and build trust thereby making a safe space to bring
up critical issues later. Psychologically safe teams and teams that are considered
a high performance outft will always seek to dig into an issue and fnd the
win:win situation. By facing uncomfortable truths head on, individuals and teams
that openly confront issues that face time can learn, develop trust, respect, and
confdence in each other’s values.
Finally, when there is no panacea and the best route to confict resolution
is not easy to navigate, mature teams will fnd a way to meet in the middle and
seek compromise so the show can go on. Temporary solutions that beneft
both parties and maintain relationships will allow both parties to feel like they
mediated to their satisfaction and ensure core mission can continue.
296 Jarred Marsh et al.
Avoiding confict
Teams that refuse to engage with the results of confict, or the factors that
precede it, spiral into a dysfunctional decline that affect performance [12, 13].
By removing the desire to deal with confict head on, the team is missing a
valuable opportunity to learn about itself and grow the individual members.
As team members withdraw from each other tell tale signs of quiet meetings,
back channel politics, slack discipline and loose policy enforcement become
standard. Small issues may escalate into full blown team derailment resulting
in large scale restructuring of leaderships, teams, and whole organisations
(Figure 11.4).

Confict escalation
Confict can be seen as self reinforcing feedback loop that spirals out of control
as individuals battle for supremacy or survival. Initial events that may involve a
difference of opinion, perception or attitude can morph into insults, blaming
and abstract unresolvable issues. As emotions run high, perception and bias may
impede successful mediation leading to a compounding of negative behaviours
that prevent regulation of the participants neuroendocrine response. Once
confict has embedded within a team, it is common for emotional contagion to
spread to other members. Alliances and threats to the group outcomes create
anxiety that negatively affect the performance of the team. Skilled third party
mediation is required to align involved individuals with the values and goals of
the group thereby securing long term individual, relational, and organisation
goals (Figure 11.5).

• Create psychological safety inside the group

• Understand team and individual styles for approaching conflict

• View conflict as an opportunity to learn and grow

• Understand the source of conflict

Considerations • Communicate clearly
when
engaging with • Keep the main thing the main thing
conflict
• Seek to understand stakeholders

• Deal with conflict respectfully

• Develop ownership

• Understand motivation of others

Figure 11.4 Key points to consider when engaging with confict.

 Coach and staff integration 297

1. Define the 2. Explore 3. Select best

problem alternatives option

• Acknowledge • Diverge and • Gain

the conflict explore other consensus
exists options
• Establish • Find win/win
shared values
and common
ground
• Separate the
person from
the problem

Figure 11.5 Steps for managing confict.

Leadership styles in elite soccer

Professional soccer in England has a history of autocratic behaviours, where the
coach or manager can control players either through fear and punishment or the
threat of taking something away from them that they value [14]. However, in the
past 20 years, leadership behaviours of soccer coaches and managers have changed,
and they have begun to implement practices that empower the players, coaching,
and support staff. Examples of empowerment include allowing assistant coaches to
organise and oversee training sessions, allowing players a say in certain tactical strat
egies, or even allowing support staff such as physiotherapists/athletic trainers to
give their opinion on player availability. By agreeing to these, managers are displaying
a transformational style of leadership. But the question remains, what is the best way
to lead an elite soccer team? Furthermore, what is the best way to lead a group of
extremely wealthy, fnancially independent professional footballers?
Leadership styles are described as relatively stable patterns of behaviour dis
played by leaders [15]. Furthermore, personal leadership style and strategy can
vary from coach to coach. These may be infuenced by upbringing, experience,
their current environment, and their belief system. The leadership style of the
manager or coach can have a decisive impact on the performance and retention
of players in a team [16, 17]. Therefore, in order to be successful, coaching lead
ership styles require the team leader to have a large ‘toolbox’ which consists of
signature strengths, self management, and a ‘give’ culture [18].
Suffcient research has been conducted within the feld of leadership strate
gies in sport [19]. A number of key leadership styles have been determined [20].
For the purposes of this chapter, we will discuss the following four:

1 Transactional Leadership
2 Transformational Leadership
3 Authoritarian Leadership
4 Democratic Leadership
298 Jarred Marsh et al.
Before discussing how leadership styles are applied in the elite soccer environ
ment, it is frst important to provide an overview of leadership concepts. The frst
concept to discuss is transactional leadership, which along with transformational
leadership and laissez faire falls within the full range leadership model [21].

Transactional leadership
Transactional leaders are those who set objectives and promote compliance
through reward and punishment. Exhibiting transactional leadership means that
followers agree with, accept, or comply with the leader in exchange for praise,
rewards or the avoidance of disciplinary action. The transactional leadership
approach inhibits creativity and can adversely affect job satisfaction [22].
With reference to elite soccer specifcally, transactional leadership refers
to a manager’s ability to motivate the staff and players through offering re
wards for achieving set goals (think fnancial, status, trophies etc.). These
leaders tend to be more reactive in nature and are goal focused. They tend to
stay within the organisation’s existing culture rather than try to change it for
the better. In contrast, transformational leadership applies to managers who
align their followers towards a common vision. These leaders are generally
charismatic and motivate their subordinated through enthusiasm for the task
at hand. They are seen as trendsetters, not afraid to change the status quo in
the organisation to affect positive change and create new innovative ways of
overcoming problems.

Transformational leadership
Transformational leadership is a follower centred approach that requires the
leaders to move their followers to support a future oriented vision that goes
well beyond their immediate self interest. Transformational leaders raise the
level of importance of goal setting and encourage subordinates to transcend
self interest to motivate people beyond their expectations [23]. They consider
their relationship with followers a high priority and offer individualised consid
eration in meeting their requirements for empowerment, personal growth, and
achievement (Figure 11.6).
Studies on transformational leadership have primarily involved a business,
industry, or military setting, with very few being conducted in elite sport. The

Figure 11.6 Skill set of transformational leaders (Adapted from Bass [24]).
 Coach and staff integration 299
limited studies that have been performed in the sport setting have primarily
focused on collegiate athletes and the relationships between the athlete and
coach or the athlete’s perception of the coach’s behaviour [25, 26]. Much of this
literature is unanimous in the fndings that a transformational style of leadership
has a positive effect on the athlete’s satisfaction and can increase the athlete’s
commitment to the overall objective. Although the sports industry provides an
ideal environment to study leadership, research suggests there is no one size
fts all approach [27]. Leaders are not necessarily more effective because they
have a gold standard set of behaviours. Instead, leaders who can apply various
leadership styles in different ways for different purposes are more likely to
achieve expertise [28].

Authoritarian leadership
Authoritarian leadership refers to a sole leader within an organisation. This
leadership style revolves around the Manager making all the decisions and telling
his staff and players what to do. Transferring information (game model, style of
play, tactical setup, etc.) is one directional. The authoritarian leader is generally
task driven but can also make decisions based on their emotional state.

Democratic leadership
In contrast to an authoritarian leadership style, democratic leadership is applied
to managers who are also task driven but allows their staff and players to inter
act and contribute towards the decision making process. Teaching and learning
is a two way street with these managers and they operate with empathy, sup
port, and robust personal relationships with staff and players alike.

Other leadership styles

Laissez faire leaders demonstrate limited participation in organisational mat
ters and are reluctant to offer advice and solutions to critical issues [29]. They
place little importance on the completion of duties and productivity. This
lack of involvement is a fundamental characteristic of laissez faire leadership,
and this style often leads to frustration and demotivation from their work
ers. Laissez faire behavioural traits show little care for followers’ actions and
the impact they have on organisational outcomes. Therefore, for the above
mentioned reason, is has been suggested that the laissez faire approach should
not be considered as a leadership style [30].
Whilst these leadership styles have some common trends, they can vary in
their approach to managing the individuals within the team. Managers, coaches,
and practitioners need to develop their own leadership strategy by using these
leadership styles to enhance their team and staff’s performance. Understanding
the variances within these styles will ultimately determine how well they can
motivate their staff and players towards the club’s vision and mission.
300 Jarred Marsh et al.
Leadership and coaching
While coaching most notably requires the teaching of sport specifc skills, coach
leadership also entails the ability of the coach to establish and maintain positive
interpersonal relationships. Specifcally, all practitioners and coaches working di
rectly with players, require more than just technical and tactical knowledge. Coach
leadership in the elite soccer environment involves understanding the direction of
the team and providing the resources and support to help it get there. Establishing
a clear vision has been shown to inspire individuals towards performances tar
gets that lead to positive athlete outcomes such as the perception of leadership
effectiveness and athlete satisfaction [31, 32]. However, as previously mentioned,
due to the insecure nature of soccer management, it is unlikely that managers,
performance directors and other leadership roles, will be given signifcant time to
implement their vision. It is important, therefore, that the leaders in soccer have
the necessary communication skills to ensure they can get athletes to ‘buy in’ to the
vision as soon as possible. Leaders in elite soccer must also develop role awareness,
express expectations of excellence and promote collective input from their players.
Effective communication and feedback are also viewed as key determinants
of effective leadership behaviours of coaches and practitioners. Without the
ability to communicate, coaches, practitioners and other leaders will not be
able to articulate their vision of the organisation or explain the roles and re
sponsibilities of the athletes. However, the ability of the manager to effectively
communicate is not limited to just the players. It has been highlighted that due
to the evolving structures within professional soccer clubs, a manager’s ability
to demonstrate effective management off the pitch is becoming increasingly
important [33]. Furthermore, it has been suggested that managers should adopt
a dynamic, fexible leadership approach that interacts with not just the playing
staff but also board members, stakeholders and supporters [34].
Additionally, suggestion has been made that athletes and coaches/practi
tioners working at an elite level should be encouraged to develop close and
supportive relationships between them to protect themselves during the chal
lenging periods of the season [35]. Loss of form, injury, and deselection will
mean diffcult decisions for the manager, and they may have to rely on the
strength of the coach–athlete relationship to see them through the challenging
periods of the season.

The role of the performance director

As mentioned in Chapter 1, the performance director is often the spokesper
son for the performance and medical departments. Therefore, a large amount of
stress is often associated with this position. Although there are numerous routes
into becoming a performance director, it seems leadership qualities are the main
qualifcation. However, a lot of other attributes are considered essential when
succeeding as a performance director in the elite soccer environment. Specifcally,
a successful performance director exhibits not only appropriate leadership styles
but also communication skills, the ability to adapt, and emotional intelligence.
 Coach and staff integration 301
Creating a high-performance culture
An integral leadership dimension highlighted is the importance of creating a
high performance culture with a particular focus on getting players and staff
to buy in to what they described as ‘good habits’. Promoting a professional
approach to training, lifestyle, and nutrition are examples of leadership behav
iours aimed at inspiring, developing, and supporting players to reach their full
potential.
The timing of when a performance director chooses to outline their ex
pectations and standards is equally important. The frst week in leading a new
performance department is a key window of opportunity to set out standards
and outline expectations. Failing to clarify expectations from the start of one’s
tenure creates a very diffcult task to implement them at a later date.
A high performance environment involves one where there is an emphasis
on individual player development. A player centred approach is a key leader
ship responsibility performance department, but something that probably is
not prioritised enough. Practitioners who place priority on player development
are able to build relationships, provide personalised feedback and develop trust
between players and staff.

Role modelling
Often undervalued, there should be a high emphasis on the roles and responsi
bilities of the support staff when it comes to setting examples to the players. All
agreed that coaching, medical, performance, and other support staff play an equally
important role when it comes to leading from the front and must also adhere to
the high standards set out by the manager/upper management. Team organisation,
players knowing their on pitch roles and responsibilities, game preparation, and
off pitch behaviours are often the responsibility of the support staff and are equally
important when attempting to create a high performance culture.

Adaptability and emotional intelligence

Like many high performing environments, elite soccer poses high degrees of un
certainty. That is, at times it presents unpredictable circumstances, new/emerg
ing information, rapid changes in people or plans and reactive responses, all of
which can be overwhelming and challenging for those operating within such
environments [36]. In order respond to the ever changing landscape of such
high performing environments, being adaptable has been strongly advocated
as the key to thriving and gaining multiple performance advantages. Adaptation
is an ongoing process that refects our capacities to act and react effectively
to stimuli we perceive as signifcant to ourselves and others [37]. In order to
adapt, one needs to be able to step into different ways of thinking and differ
ent ways of doing according to their situation. A level of tolerance needs to
be displayed to think and do things differently to how we might instinctively/
naturally choose to. There may be times we need to act fast, take our time and
302 Jarred Marsh et al.
gather more information, support or involve others. Refning or reinventing
our responses to the present situation, we fnd ourselves in helps to enhance
our effectiveness and ultimately our performances [36]. Conversely, the op
posite to this would be fxing ourselves to a preferred way of doing things, or
our natural preferences, regardless of the contextual demands. Being adaptable
involves recognising when our natural preferences and biases may not result in
us achieving a goal, with such insight presenting a choice for us to be able to
tap into different behaviours and mindsets that would be more helpful to us
in any given moment. Being adaptable allow us to respond effectively to new
dynamics, cultures, people, social groups, and physical environments within our
organisations. Possessing characteristics such as being agile, fexible, and versa
tile facilitates our adaptability bringing benefts to our own performances and
others we work with.
It is also useful to recognise that our adaptation can be both slow and fast
processes [38]. Fast adaptation processes target aspects that require immediate
responses, including when we have to regulate our emotions [39]. Slow adap
tation processes involve ongoing adaptation to long term demands, for exam
ple, developing our technical and personal competencies [40]. Thinking about
adaptability as a dual temporal approach (fast and slow) in pursuit of our goals,
where we strive to use personal thoughts and emotional resources to achieve
an adaptation state, positions it as a function of the difference between how we
perceive the environment/task (e.g. challenging and threatening) and, in turn,
how we perceive our ability/capacity (i.e. self effcacy) to interact and cope
with such demands. From a performance standpoint, the important thing to
note about adaptability is that it is something we can learn, develop, and grow.

It is not the most intellectual of the species that survives; it is not the strong
est that survives; but the species that survives is the one that is able to adapt
to and to adjust best to the changing environment in which it fnds itself.
– Leon C Megginson [41]

In some situations, being adaptable to one’s environment could be the most

important factor that determines how successful one will be, and perhaps how
long his/her tenure will last within an organisation. Adapting to any new cultural
environment can be very challenging. In elite soccer organisations today, there
are two main models employed in establishing a culture:

• Coach driven model

• Club/Organisation driven model

Coach-driven model
When implementing a coach driven model, the culture and system of play are
directed by the head coach. In this situation, the head coach is responsible for
guiding the team’s approach based on their personal philosophy. Oftentimes,
 Coach and staff integration 303
they are also afforded the opportunity to bring multiple members of his/her
staff as part of the deal. With this approach, coaches are detail oriented and
appointed based on their philosophy being aligned with the direction of the club.
Ideally, the coach needs to receive support from management and achieve com
mendable levels of success. If a practitioner fnds themselves being incorporated
into a new coach’s culture, they must be prepared to adapt to the new style. For
instance, a sport scientist who spent most of their time analysing data for the
previous coach could be expected to spend more time on the feld as a ftness
coach for the new coach. In this case, the sport scientist needs to be fexible and
adaptable to the needs of the new head coach while providing quality care for
the players for the overall success of the team. Without consistent support from
management, coaches who made progress in the early years of their tenure may
fail to sustain progress, resulting in the end of the coach’s tenure at that club. An
increase in coaching turnover may be more prevalent with a coach driven model
when organisations fail to realise the continued need to constantly adapt and
build on prior improvements.
It is also essential for the performance team to recognise that they may have
to adapt to various coaching models during their time at a club. Regardless of
the model, the role of any practitioner is to understand the physical demands
of the style of play and implement a programme to help players achieve the de
sired physical profles. For all practitioners, there will be that frst job and that
frst time you get promoted or get a job with a professional sports team where
the stakes can be higher. Having experience as a licensed coach in the sport
you are working in will make it easier to adapt and present the information to
the coaches. Specifcally, greater adherence is achieved with coaches who may
not understand or agree with how much infuence training data has on training
sessions. Also, as professional sports technology continues to advance, whether
it is GPS, HRV, AMS etc., teams will need to adjust and evolve along with these
enhancements. Therefore, the ‘buy in’ is essential for all to ultimately succeed in
an environment that is becoming increasingly more competitive. The data availa
ble to clubs increases daily, so as a sport scientist or member of a performance
team, it is important to differentiate between noise and reliable information,
and equally important to fnd the best way to present the data to the coaching
staff. Ultimately, building relationships is an important factor in being successful
and data can help practitioners build relationships with coaches and players, if
presented effectively.
One component that has remained consistent for performance staff members
over the years is the number of hours required to do the job well. Normally, the
performance staff is frst in and last out, analysing every piece of data possible
that can help make a difference to the team’s performance. Most coaches will
notice and respect the amount of time and effort that the various practitioners
devote to their jobs. As a result, they are often more receptive to conversations
regarding adjusting training loads or incorporating specifc drills. Although many
coaches understand the importance of sport science and strength and condi
tioning, some remain reluctant to alter the training methods they are familiar
304 Jarred Marsh et al.
with, which is why it is vital to help them adapt for the organisation to continue
to develop in the best way possible. Another situation that requires practition
ers to adapt is when an agreed upon methodology is discarded by coaches be
cause results are not favourable. Being able to adapt to the current environment
while remaining supportive can help the team eventually transition back to the
methodology all involved agreed upon was right for the team in question.
A major drawback of this system is that once the coach departs, his entire
staff usually goes with him, leaving the club back to square one once again. In
addition, the average tenure for a head coach/manager is two to three years,
which can make it diffcult to truly change a club’s culture. As a result, perfor
mance coaches, sport scientists, strength and conditioning coaches and medical
staff may fnd themselves having to adapt to a variety of different coaches/cul
tures during their time at a club.
However, it is becoming more evident in organisations today that head
coaches will not always be able to bring an entire staff with them to a new club.
As a result, coaches will need to possess more of the softer skills to create the
type of culture they want with staff members that worked with previous coaches.

Club-driven model
A different approach is to have a club driven model/culture where the values and
methodology are set by the club’s management personnel. In the club model,
standard operating procedures and expectations are made clear and followed
by everyone involved; the coach is hired based on the assumption that their
philosophies are in line with the existing culture of that team.
The best example of a successful team model is the New Zealand All Blacks
Rugby team. As the most successful sports team in history, New Zealand’s All
Blacks Rugby team epitomises the team model approach. Their credence of ‘No
Dickheads’ keeps the team from being seduced by highly talented divas that will not
ft in with their non negotiable principle of ‘Whanau’ which translates to ‘our family,
our friends, our tribe’ [42]. The All Blacks team culture is unique and based strongly
on New Zealand’s heritage. Every individual connected to the team understands
they are responsible for passing on the legacy to those who will come after them.
It is a powerful message for all coaches and practitioners that whenever you
depart a team or organisation, the positive impact made should be truly evident.
Strong cultures that exist such as the All Blacks are the result of all parties in
volved adapting behaviours to ensure the success of the team.
Regardless of whether an organisation follows either one of the two models
outlined, one thing is for sure – a culture exists in all teams/companies/organisa
tions. Whatever culture exists will have a major impact on whether the organisa
tion is consistently successful or not. In addition, an individual’s ability to adapt to
that culture will determine how effectively they can infuence outcomes.

Emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence, or EQ, has previously been identifed at the ability to
perceive, monitor, employ, and manage emotions within oneself and in others
 Coach and staff integration 305
[43]. A similar defnition for EQ was listed as the capacity to be aware of, con
trol, and express one’s emotions, and to handle interpersonal relationships ju
diciously and empathetically [44].
Some of the most important qualities an individual can possess in an organisa
tion is the ability to be fexible, resilient, and humble. Improving adaptability has
also been regarded as a critical emotional intelligence competency [45]. Adapt
ing quickly to change often presents performance advantages both personally
and professionally. Building momentum and psychological energy for oneself
and others, making intentional choices, not just to embrace change but also to
positively propel it forward are strategies that help build our adaptability and
emotional intelligence capacities.
As emotional intelligence is increased, an individual’s experience of work,
life, and relationships are shifted [46]. A key emotional intelligence capability is
being able to understand the link between our interpretation of an event and
our responses to it, enabling us to choose an alternative way to feel. Achieving
this facilitates higher levels of motivation and our ability to overcome setbacks
and perform at our best.
EQ has been noted to be more important than intelligence quotient or IQ
[47, 48]. Specifcally, it has been suggested that IQ contributes 20 per cent
towards life success and that the remaining 80 per cent of life success may be
attributable to emotional intelligence [49]. Therefore, improving one’s EQ is
vital for performance as it can make individuals more productive and help build
more effective relationships with the coaching staff and other co workers in the
workplace. Coleman lists the following fve key elements for developing greater
EQ [48, 50, 51]:

1 Self awareness
2 Self regulation
3 Motivation
4 Empathy
5 Social skills

Players as stakeholders
A stakeholder is someone who interacts with an organisation in the cocreation
of value or experience. In this case, a soccer player interacts with the staff,
players, and offcials of a soccer organisation to create the soccer product that
is sold in the experience economy. Players are considered internal stakehold
ers whilst fans would be considered external stakeholders. Players and staff
would be presumed to share similar objectives with the organisation and would
therefore be considered high interest stakeholders. The extent to their power
within an organisation can be measured by how involved they are in decisions
within the group and by how their needs are met by the leadership group. As
the players are vital to the survival of the business, they should be considered
primary stakeholders with high power and high interest.
The power of infuence that each player has as a distinct stakeholder in the
high performance culture being created must be considered. In return, they will
306 Jarred Marsh et al.
consider the urgency of the practitioner’s request dependent on the legitimacy
of the relationship shared. This symbiotic relationship must be built slowly and
with care. When analysing players as stakeholders, one must consider their
level of interest and assigned informal or formal power within the group, team,
and club. Careful consideration of their needs and the style of communication
should be considered. Communication can be formal or informal, frequent or
need to know and be personal, face to face or through message. The engage
ment strategy can be ad hoc or structured with a frequency dependent on the
urgency or signifcance of the relationship. The commitment level of the player
should be noted as being committed compliant or resistant.
For a club culture to be embedded more effciently, it is advisable to un
derstand the different groups, positions, needs and demands of the various
groups within it. To do this, the leadership personnel should strategically map
these groups according to how they behave in different environments. The club
leadership should then plan accordingly on how they will manage each group
once the stakeholder identifcation has taken place.
Generally, within an elite soccer club, certain groups of players will feel their
needs are being met by the leadership. Whilst others may not be happy with
current circumstances (Table 11.1).
Leadership must meet the needs, desires, objectives, and demands of the
stakeholders and provide the economic resources to fuse internal and external
motivation that will enhance their commitment to the goals of the organisation.
By managing stakeholder relations, the club is aiming to maximum return on
their investment by gaining discretionary effort and, at worst, compliance from
its employees. By removing any resistance or confict via skilled stakeholder
management, the leadership is pre empting any derailment that might prevent
the various groups from reaching their aligned objectives.

Table 11.1 Grouping of soccer players, categorised by

their current satisfaction with environment

Being met Not happy

Leadership group End of contract
Starting 11 Loan player
Long term rehabber Squad player
Youth player Bomb squad
 Coach and staff integration 307

Step 1: Interview groups and

assess commitment,
Make a list of
Stakeholder different groups
engagement and
communication
identification preference

Step 2: Document needs and

Categorise
Stakeholder stakeholders
management strategy
to meet needs
analysis

Step 3: Social Explore the dynamic

Document the density
and centrality of
interactive
network relationships within
connections that
bridge each
the groups
analysis stakeholder.

Consider how players

Step 4: Develop strategic plan
to manage players as
may behave in
dynamic, complex and
Action plan stakeholders
ambiguous context.

Figure 11.7 Mapping the stakeholders within an elite soccer environment.

Given the intergroup relations of a soccer club, it is wise to identify the

power dynamics within each group and use tactics of infuence accordingly. Un
derstanding the legitimacy of the demands placed upon the group and the ur
gency of the request will allow skilled leadership to create a committed group
of stakeholders that have an aligned vision of success for the club (Figure 11.7).

Understanding power and interest

The High Power High Interest group within a playing group includes the lead
ership group, captains and starting 11 (Figure 11.8). This group is considered
the key stakeholders and should be managed closely with personalised briefngs
and be kept up to date with pressing issues that affect the group. The High
Power Low Interest group should be kept satisfed to maintain their commit
ment to team objectives. Using existing meetings and briefngs to include them
in discussions will meet their needs and demands and prevent any resistance
developing that could derail the group. Understanding the position of the Low
Power Low Interest group and being alert to any information that comes from
them is a secure way to monitor their involvement in team affairs. Assigning a
named person to monitor this group is important for team morale. It is essen
tial the Low Power High Interest group is kept informed of what is happening
as this group is engaged and committed to the success of the group, team, and
308 Jarred Marsh et al.

• Disgruntled players • Leadership

• End of contract group/captains
senior players • Starting 11

High High
Power - Power -
Low High
Interest Interest

Low Power Low Power

- Low - High
Interest Interest
• Loan players • Young players
• Long term rehab • Squad players
players • Long term rehab
senior player

Figure 11.8 Categorising the power/interest relationships with players in elite soccer.

Low Power High Power Low Power High Power

- Low - Low - High - High
Interest Interest Interest Interest

Keep Keep Manage

Monitor
satisfied informed closely

Figure 11.9 Actions to be taken as a practitioner/leader in relation to the power/interest

relationship.

club and will develop more infuence as the structure around the team devel
ops (Figure 11.9). They should be given low risk tasks that allow their leadership
potential to grow.

The science of infuence

Understanding the science of infuence is the key to building powerful commit
ted relationships with players. Infuence sits centrally in two renowned theories
exploring power [52–54]. Both explore how various strengths in social settings
effect followers, positively and negatively, and have become important in how
individuals approach their roles as a colleague, teammates, followers, mentors,
leader and importantly when leading their own context.
 Coach and staff integration 309
Infuence tactics
Hard tactics include requests, legitimisation, and building coalition. Softer tactics
that are more focused on getting what the other want. These tactics include ra
tional persuasion, socialising, exchange, personal appeal, consultation, and inspira
tional appeals (Figure 11.10). Hard tactics are usually used by leaders who have been
assigned a formal power of legitimate authority within a team. They are direct,
commanding, consensus orientated, rule based, and often hierarchical. Soft tactics
on the other hand are more focused on the follower than the leader and are a
source of motivation that aids task acceptance. They can be logical or emotional and
focus on the strength of the relationship between the two parties. A transactional
approach to aid reciprocity or consultation to reach an acceptable solution is both
soft tactics that seek a give and take win–win for all stakeholders. Fusing all soft tac
tics with shared values and perspectives will aid the infuence of inspirational appeals

Applying the appropriate infuence approach

COMMITTED

When an individual stakeholder is enthusiastic about their role, and aligned on

values and purpose, they are willing to go above and beyond the remit of their
role in the club. This internal motivation will power the individual to carry out
most requests even when met by resistance, setbacks or persistent challenges.
Stakeholders who believe their counterparty to be inspirational will create a
powerful relationship built on trust.

COMPLIANT

Hard leadership approaches – requesting, coalition or legitimating – have been

found to create action but little enthusiasm amongst a group. This apathy re
sults in little effort and the possibility of reduced task effort when met with
resistance or setbacks. Hard infuence approaches are suitable when tasks are
straightforward and time of the essence.

• Requesting
Hard
• Legitimising
Tactics
• Coalition

• Rational persuasion
• Socialisation
• Exchange
Soft Tactics
• Personal appeals
• Consultation
• Inspirational appeals

Figure 11.10 Identifying the varieties of hard tactics and soft tactics.
310 Jarred Marsh et al.
RESISTANT

When a group is resistant to the medium, urgency, style of the message or in

fuence of the messenger, they will try to avoid action and refuse to accept the
task, instruction, or message and will seek to derail the instruction.
To avoid this deadlock, leaders should choose inspirational appeal, consulta
tion, personal appeals, and exchange as their tactics.

UNDERSTANDING CONTEXT

The leadership should always consider the situational context before choosing
the infuence tactic. For quick action on simple tasks, hard infuence can be
more effcient. Some examples are as follows.

• Routine tasks
• Standard procedures
• Unambiguous directives
• Urgency
• Where the leader has legitimate authority and relevant knowledge

In more dynamic situations, when there is level of complexity and ambiguity, it

is important to be purposeful with time, and choose the correct set of softer
tactics that will tap into the inner motivations of the stakeholder you wish to
infuence. Soft approaches are heard to scale, are time consuming, and involve
targeted one to ones to gain commitment. For example;

• Organisation wide decisions

• Complex tasks
• Consensus seeking agreements
• Empowerment of low power stakeholder groups
• Gaining commitment to change
• Emotionally charged events
• Developing in group leaders

Diversity in action
Diversity is more than buzz words on wall or a hiring quota in a strategic doc
ument. Teams require diversity of opinion, experience, and people. Recently,
there has been a push for intersectionality where race, class, and genders in
tersect and are afforded equal opportunity. Diversity of opinion requires that
everyone within the team has a voice. It is closely related to psychological safety
(members of the team should feel safe, have a voice, and be given space to
lead) and ensures all levels of the team can participate in the high performance
culture and feel their contribution is valid. A confdent and curious leadership
team should also make space for individuals who have a diversity of lived ex
perience. These experienced individuals bring a personal knowledge about the
 Coach and staff integration 311
world gained through direct, frst hand involvement in everyday events rather
than through traditional academic pathways.
To prevent groupthink and aid creativity and innovation, it is essential that
there is cognitive diversity amongst the group. As well as helping teams solve
problems more quickly and effectively, cognitive diversity also prevents an echo
chamber from forming in team discussions. When hiring the team, leadership
should project their thoughts to fve years in the future to judge what the team
will look like if they hire by selecting a ‘culture ft’ or ‘culture add’ candidate.
A culture ft strategy favours candidates who match the company’s DNA and
would ft in well with the team whilst a culture ad model looks for people who
value an organisation’s standards and culture, but also brings something differ
ent that positively contributes and affects change and innovation. When making
the right cultural additions, one can create a stronger organisation and shine a
light on the blind spots in your high performance model. Choosing the diverse
hire over the safe hire will drive new ideas, creative ways of seeing process and
new era of solving problems. Diversity of thought drives innovation.

Diversity in a high-performance team

A high performance team that is built without diversity runs the risk of myopic
group think. Sameness is when the homogeneity of a group leads to conform
ity and consistency and the individuals resemble each other, share values and
are in balance. This can have positives as the power is held centrally amongst
the group and dissipated allowing quicker decision making and less consensus
seeking. Furthermore, this state can also have a positive effect on group dy
namics and improve group cohesion. The ability to recognise that everyone is
pulling in the same direction may give a competitive advantage and reduce the
complications of managing a diverse group.
Diversity training allows a culture of awareness of otherness to develop.
This breeds respect and patience and promotes curiosity. Slowing down the
speed of decision making also allows incubation of creativity and innovation
and removes common heuristic mistakes and jumping to conclusion. The ad
vantages of diversity are manifold. However, an elite soccer organisation needs
to be prepared and patient for the move away from sameness. Cultural dif
ferences inside a team and seriously affect cohesion, dynamics, morale, and
effectiveness. To enhance the positive effects of diversity, an elite soccer or
ganisation must resource team leaders to engage all staff in diversity training,
cultural awareness, and communication development. Leadership must be able
to conduct a gap analysis on its supportive measures for managing a diverse
team. Being able to diagnose the root cause of issues within a dysfunctional
forming team will allow all new team members to feel safe and commit to the
challenges of this environment.
Whilst diversity in the workplace should inspire individual thought, team
work, creativity, and innovation, there can be serious obstacles to working
together. Diverse teams fnd it hard to share information due to ineffective
312 Jarred Marsh et al.
communication. This can lead to confusion, low morale, division, confict, and
decreased effcacy. Something as simple as communication is often overlooked
by leadership when adding diversity to the group.

Barriers to communication in a high-performance team

There are several barriers to communication, such as the following:

Direct versus indirect communication

Understanding the cultural interpretation of giving and receiving messages is
essential to a diverse team. A simple head nod may be regarding as an ac
knowledgement or an affrmation. Without seeking clarity that instructions are
understood, it is possible for confusion to ensue. Silence may be regarded as
respect in some cultures but obstinance in others.
TIP: communication experts verbal-nonverbal

Trouble with accents and fuency

A multicultural high performance team built up of coaches, players, and staff
from a variety of backgrounds creates a melting pot of languages and dialects.
Group cohesion is diffcult when language forms a barrier to understanding the
message on off the pitch court. This can lead to frustration, confict, confusion,
and apathy. The team may become less engaged, motivated, independent and
the negative affect on performance, culture, and collaboration is easily meas
ured by results. Individuals can feel unnoticed, unappreciated and experts can
disengage from the group as they fnd it diffcult to get their message across.
TIP: Language lessons, interpreters, support

Different attitudes toward hierarchy and authority

Understanding the role of the group leader as a representative and advocate is
essential in diverse teams. Certain team members will have come from a culture
that recognises the hierarchy of mature matriarchal status whilst others have
been born into a fat distributive collective. Interpreting the needs and demands
of the team will give all groups the autonomy to voice their feelings in the way
that feels normal to them.
TIP: Investigate cultural awareness of hierarchy, autonomy, and authority in team
members.

Conficting norms for decision-making

Cultural norms on how information is shared, with whom and what level of con
sensus is required, will be different amongst all diverse staff members. The level
of detail required, and amount of discussion allowed will slow down decision
making but increase inclusiveness and therefore autonomy agency engagement
 Coach and staff integration 313
[55]. Taking a frst principles approach to how the decision will be made is com
pletely different approach to choosing the best outcome. The different ways
of approaching a problem require basic agreement before hand to iron out
miscommunication.
TIP: Create a model-process on how complex and common problems are approached

Successful approaches to handling the stresses of the

diverse team

Adaptation
This requires the leadership to acknowledge the cultural gaps openly and build
structures and programmes that allow the team to work around them

Structural intervention
Teams rely on process and relational congruence. Sometimes interpersonal
confict can develop that limits the cohesion of the group. Different techniques
include changing the shape or makeup of the team.

Managerial intervention
Strong guidance is required when building a diverse team. Group tasks may be
secondary to individual task motivation; therefore, creating an aligned vision is
important.

Exit
Sometime removing a team member when other options have failed is required.
Prior to that, it is important to seek understanding, mediate any confict and
create other opportunities in the organisation that may remove the obstacles
to success.
Leadership must be agile and empathic to understand the needs of its team
and the context of any disputes that are derailing the group. Complications that
can be met head on with openness, cultural sensitivity and curiosity will give
confdence to the group. Having set ground rules, norms and process guidelines
for discovery of issues will remove the fear of personal confict and move to
wards a collaborative approach to solving problems that are holding back the
group.

Practical application of soft skills

Practitioner/coach
Although potentially problematic, a coach wants to do rondos for twenty min
utes before the warm up starts and then gives you ten minutes for a warm up
314 Jarred Marsh et al.
prior to 11v11 or he/she decides to talk to the team for ten minutes in cold
weather following a sprint preparation warm up etc.; it is still the practitioner’s
role, diffcult as it may be at times, to remain upbeat and enthusiastic in front of
the players and staff. Potentially troublesome situations should not be ignored
by any means, but emotions should be managed and thoughts should be organ
ised to present a case for why the previously mentioned scenarios may not be
in the player’s best interest. A stress response by a practitioner, whether it be
verbal or purely evident in body language, could be viewed by players that the staff
is not unifed. If negative situations continue unchecked, something that appears
as a small leak to begin with, could over time contribute to a massive problem.
Any problematic occurrence should be used as an opportunity to have a private
conversation with the coach to work on a solution and decide how to move for
ward. During conversation, explain in further detail why, possibly, the practices
could be planned together in advance with fexibility to address both the techni
cal/tactical needs and the physical performance goals to enhance players’ perfor
mance. These challenging situations should be seen as an opportunity to adapt to
the environment and an opportunity to improve as a practitioner. Another area
where it is important to be able to adapt is when dealing with elite athletes.

Practitioner/player
The practitioner–athlete relationship is at the heart of coaching. Coaching is
a process and practice within which engagement, interaction and communi
cation between coaches and athletes occur continuously and simultaneously.
The combined interactions between practitioners/coaches and players helps
defne the effectiveness of coaching processes and practices and ultimately the
success of the coaching. The coach–athlete relationship is embedded in the
dynamic and complex coaching process, providing the means through which
both needs of the coaches’ and athletes ‘needs are expressed and fulflled [56].
Effective coach–athlete relationships are holistic, placing emphasis on positive
growth and development as well as athlete/coach and as a person [57]. Achiev
ing effective relationships requires things like having a degree of empathic un
derstanding; being honest and supportive; displaying levels of acceptance; being
responsive, friendly, cooperative, caring, and respective, as well as displaying
and offering genuine positive regard [56].
In today’s environment, teams are far more diverse than they have ever been.
Players and staff come from many different countries, and as a result, hold
various values and beliefs. If the club has an established successful culture, the
chances of scouting and signing players that ft that model are increased. As a
result, the transition for new players should be easier. However, as previously
mentioned, not all organisations have established a good culture and many of
them operate in a dysfunctional manner. Various practitioners can be the cul
tural architects for the club. First and foremost, the athlete must understand
that he/she is genuinely cared about. In addition, the practitioner’s approach
must be both professional and consistent every day. As a result, at the very least
the athletes will respect the practitioners. Quite often performance coaches
 Coach and staff integration 315
do their best work with the players who buy into their programmes. How
ever, frustration can set in when players are not as enthusiastic about the same
programmes.
In addition, much like the head coach needs to spend more time talking to
the players who are not playing as much to get the most out of them, when
needed, performance coaches must fnd ways to motivate the most reluctant
athletes. The performance departments that adapt their programmes to help
the less enthusiastic participants are the ones who bring the most value to the
players and their clubs. Teams with quality practitioners that can easily adapt
usually have a high percentage of their players available on match day over the
course of the season. To be the most effective, it is necessary to understand
the different methods and cultures that the players have come from, to help
them transition to the current programme in the best way possible. It is always
important to try to develop relationships and build thrust with the athletes.
Performance coaches who cannot foster this environment may in fact add stress
to the players, which can contribute to mental fatigue, and possibly, a decrease
in performance. For example, practitioners can fnd themselves in the awkward
position of causing tension with coaches and players by dissuading players from
performing extra work post training. The concern is due to a potential overload
for the player. The player, on the other hand, feels the work is necessary to keep
themselves sharp for the upcoming game and the coach will want to facilitate
the players wishes.
Managing training loads is obviously an important role for performance
coaches/sport scientists but it is equally, if not more, important to work with the
athlete to understand what they feel is necessary for them to be mentally and
physically ready to perform. The ability to step out of a comfort zone, whether
it is communicating with coaches or analysing and adjusting your programme
to suit individual players’ needs, will ultimately lead to increased productivity
and development as a practitioner. These situations are an opportunity to dis
cuss with the player and coach as to how to, collectively, design an appropriate
functional training programme to help the player reach their full potential. In
Dr Susan David’s book, Emotional Agility, she discusses the importance of being
able to ‘move on’:

Moving On: Small deliberate tweaks to your mindset, motivation, and

habits – in ways that are infused with your values, can make a powerful
difference in your life. The idea is to fnd the balance between challenge and
competence, so that you are neither complacent nor overwhelmed. You
are excited, enthusiastic, invigorated.
[58]

This principle is applicable in sports, as coaches, players and staff constantly

must ‘move on’ – a game is played, analysed, positives highlighted and mistakes
identifed that require additional focus. Plans quickly shift to the next opponent
in a cyclical process that takes place daily. In clubs with an effective culture,
ideally this happens as a group effort with all parties involved. However, in some
316 Jarred Marsh et al.
situations, the process still occurs in silos where most of the discussions are
held by technical staff with little or no input from members of other depart
ments, such as the sports science and medical team, who play an integral role
in the team’s overall performance. It is important to manage any frustrating
emotions, and once again, adapt to fnd ways to help the team.

Practicality of soft skills in elite soccer

Many times, the methods of training executed by the head coach may be dif
ferent, in terms of how to condition a team, than a performance practitioners’
methods. In these situations, it is extremely important to be patient and an ac
tive listener (IE exhibit EQ and adaptability). A coach who was brought to a club
to implement his model using a performance staff that he inherited may fnd it
diffcult at frst to trust the expertise of the existing staff at the club. Gaining the
coach’s trust is key to being an effective member of the team. The time it takes
to gain this trust could determine the overall success of the club.
Professional sport is a highly stressful environment and the position that is
under the most stress is the head coach/manager. Practitioners need to be
aware of this situation and understand that their role is supposed to help reduce
the stress for a coach in terms of the amount of energy he/she needs to focus
on strength and conditioning/physical performance/sports science/rehab/nutri
tion, etc. Practitioners may need to adapt their methodology to better serve
the team. Practitioners need to learn strategies to be effective in their role in
this environment while managing different personalities and sometimes differ
ent agendas. It is important to remember: if we looked at the ten best soccer
teams from around the world and the ten best performance coaches, no two
teams or coaches would use the same exact approach. Some coaches incorpo
rate conditioning through tactical periodisation, made popular by Vitor Frade in
Portugal and applied in multiple team sports [59]. The use of small sided games
is another popular conditioning method, while others may like to incorporate
more pure running drills to achieve similar levels of ftness [60, 61]. Players also
need to maximise their strength and power development. Certain coaches de
vote more time to strength and power work in the gym, lifting heavier weights
to improve performance, whereas others use feld based sessions using lighter
weights with circuits and small sided games to achieve their goals.
Regardless of the methodology of the coach, it is the job of the practitioner
to fnd a way to enhance the programme for the players within the current
framework. Establishing a cohesive working relationship can be a diffcult sit
uation and may require a great deal of patience and fnesse. There is no ‘best
way’. A difference of opinion regarding training methods can cause some friction
among coaching and performance staff. However, the coach’s job is the most
diffcult, as he/she must deal with management, staff, players, media, sponsor
ship, etc. Also, he/she may be in a situation where when he/she looks out on the
feld, he/she does not see players that refect the system of play that he wants
his teams to play. The coach and management may also be working through an
 Coach and staff integration 317
adaptation period as management tries to facilitate the coach by providing the
players, he believes he needs to be successful.
Frustrations can lead to contentious and aggravating interactions with upper
management about acquiring or selling players. These disappointing situations
can arise in teams that have not truly established a cohesive culture. As a result,
a team may operate in a roller coaster existence from year to year, as new play
ers are brought in to fll in gaps but are not necessarily the ones the coach may
want. A coach may feel pressured to make a deal because it is just a matter of
who is available that can make the team better than they were the year before.
During these transitional periods, the performance staff must be prepared for
various changes or alterations to previous plans that are, at times, a result of a
coach’s frustration at the teams’ results and how helpless he/she may feel when
it comes to changing player personnel.
A good practitioner will be able to work with players, coaching staff and man
agement to diffuse some of the anxiety in the environment and be a liaison to
all parties involved. Younger practitioners can fnd these situations more chal
lenging as the art of ‘reading the room’ comes with experience and is diffcult to
teach in a university setting. However, fnessing a diffcult conversation can lead
to a positive outcome and an opportunity to build a trusting relationship with
the parties involved [35].

The big picture

Take advantage of any opportunity given to express your thoughts to try to
help educate members of the staff as to why certain methods may or may not
be benefcial to the team. Understanding and observing the environment is
a key tactic in deciding how to infuence the process. Many excellent practi
tioners have tried to emphasise a particular methodology without frst really
understanding the Head coach’s approach. As mentioned earlier, a coach’s
tenure at a club can be brief, so it is imperative that the performance staff
works quickly to understand the coaches’ methods quickly and begins working
collectively as soon as possible. A practitioner who is placed in their frst per
formance director role and inherits a staff that operates with an established
system can encounter some diffcult obstacles to overcome. If the approach
is too authoritarian, some of the staff can end up making the transition very
diffcult and damage performance as a by product of personality clashes. The
total quality management (TQM) business course taught in many universities
across the world could be a helpful resource [62]. Sports is a big business and
understanding the principles of TQM could help practitioners as they enter
new environments or the current environment changes. In a TQM effort, all
members of an organisation participate in improving processes, products, ser
vices and the culture in which they work [63].
The more individuals understand how important their personal approach is
and how they can adapt to their environment, the better the culture of that or
ganisation will be. Ideally, everyone wants to work in a cohesive, collaborative,
318 Jarred Marsh et al.
and trustworthy environment. All involved must put their egos and insecurities
aside to work side by side pursuing a common goal. Having all the scientifc
knowledge may not guarantee success. Being self aware and possessing the abil
ity to adapt to various environments and personnel will enhance the possibility
of having a greater impact on how effciently one performs their role.

Conclusion
When in a leadership position in an elite soccer organisation, such as a perfor
mance director, a lot of intangible skills are required to be successful. The main
objective of a leader in a high performance environment is to create harmony
across all personnel in order to achieve the organisation’s vision and mission.
Various skills such as leadership, confict resolution, adaptability and emotional
intelligence are required to not only get the best from the players, but the staff
too. For support staff to be effcient in an elite soccer environment, the per
formance director can be relied on to bridge the gaps between performance,
medical, and technical staffs. Understanding and applying the power of infu
ence, via appropriate tactics, can aid in the process. Creating a healthy, diverse
environment allows for best practice within an elite soccer organisation, re
sulting in high performance. Whilst acknowledging the barriers and limitations
with certain facets, such as communication, leadership, and decision making,
performance directors can build a high performance environment in an elite
soccer organisation with high levels of intangible skills.

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Index

Note: Bold page numbers refer to tables and italic page numbers refer to fgures.

absolute thresholds 170–172, 172 athlete workload injury cycle 152, 153
academy environments, staff turnover athletic development: modern-day athlete
16–17 24–25; 9–12s (foundation phase) 25–27,
acceleration 38–39 26, 27; 13–16s (youth development
acceleration-based thresholds 172, 172 phase) 27–28, 29; U17+ (perform) 28;
accents, in communication 312 U17s (earn the right) 28
ACL injuries see anterior cruciate ligament authoritarian leadership 299
(ACL) injuries authority, attitudes toward 312
active recovery 212, 264 autonomic nervous system (ANS) 151, 152
Acute:Chronic Workload ratio (ACWR) availability 84–87; conditioning to
model 154–156, 155 maximise 108–109
acute infammatory phase: rehabilitation average acceleration (AvgAcc) 120, 122,
process 236, 236–237; staff integration/ 169, 173
continuum 248, 249
adaptability 301–302; club-driven model balance of friendliness 11
304; coach-driven model 302–304; ball-in-play (BiP) time 150
emotional intelligence 304–305; fast ballistic training 91
adaptation processes 302; handling Balyi, I. 22
stresses of team 313; slow adaptation Banister, E.W. 154
processes 302 Beep tests 57, 70
adductor:abductor strength ratios 86 beta-alanine 201, 202
aerobic capacity 111–112 BFR see blood fow restriction (BFR)
aerobic interval training 132 biceps femoris long head (BFLH) 227
agility 112, 115, 203 bio-banding 49
altitude, periodisation 278 biological age 46–49, 47
Anaerobic Speed Reserve (ASR) 171 biological maturation 46–49, 47, 48
anaerobic threshold 111, 112 block periodisation 28
anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries blood fow restriction (BFR) 252
223, 230 body surface area and body mass
arbitrary metrics, wearable (BSA:BM) ratio 209
technology 173 bodyweight (BW) 34, 37, 39, 194–198,
athletes: communication between 200, 203
multidisciplinary team and 204; injury Bomb Squad 294
(see injured athlete); performance Buchheit, Martin 75
baselines of 57; see also individual entries
athlete self-reported measures (ASRMs) caffeine 202–203
147–148, 149 calf injuries 230; mechanisms of 234
324 Index
carbohydrates 194–195; game/match day sweet-spot 126; head coach’s philosophy
197–199, 198; during match-play 199; 125; hybrid approach 113–114, 115;
post-match recovery 199–200; pre- importance of 108; integrated approach
match day 196, 196–197 114, 115; isolated approach 113, 115;
certifcations 3, 3–4, 4 knowing how hard to train 125; knowing
Champion Data player ranking system 110 your cohort of players 123–125; to
change of direction 40–41 maximise availability 108–109; to
Change of Direction Defcit (CODD) 68 optimise performance 109–110, 110;
change of direction (COD) qualities 26, 26 practical application 127–134; running
chief executive offcer (CEO) 1 only prescriptions 117–119, 119; speed
chronological age 22, 46–49, 47, 85 112; training approaches to 112–114,
club-appointed role 12 115; type of 110–111, 111; use of
club-driven model 304 SSG for 119–121, 120, 121; warm-up
CMJ see counter movement jump (CMJ) 115–116; without ball 118–119
coach: periodisation 279; soft skills confict 295; avoiding 296, 296; dealing with
313–314; stress for 316 295; escalation 296, 297
coach-appointed role 13 congested periods, conditioning during
coach–athlete relationship 314 133–134, 134
coach-driven model 302–304 constraints 120, 120–121, 121
coaching staff 58, 59; communication contemporary issues: within coaching-
between performance team, leadership, orientated staff 5–6; current issues
and 85; contemporary issues within 5–6; with professional soccer players 6–7;
leadership styles and 300 limitations with nutritional advice 6;
CODD see Change of Direction Defcit within medical/physio staff 6
(CODD) content of gym sessions 94, 97
cohort/group testing 66–67, 68, 69–71, 70 continuous professional development
cohort-related benchmarks, tests with 70, 70 (CPD) 50
cold conditions, periodisation 278 contrast water therapy (CWT) 208, 211
cold water immersion (CWI) 208; controlled sport-specifc: rehabilitation
external characteristics 209, 210, 211; process 238, 239, 240, 240–241; staff
internal characteristics 209; protocol integration/continuum 250, 250
characteristics 208, 208–209 counter movement jump (CMJ) 87,
cold water, recovery modalities 207–208 145, 146
collagen, injured athlete 206–207 CPD see continuous professional
common injuries 223; hamstring muscle development (CPD)
injuries 223, 224, 224, 227; head injuries creatine 201; injured athlete 206–207
231, 232; knee injuries 230–231; lateral CWT see contrast water therapy (CWT)
ankle ligament injuries 231; match
injuries 223, 225; muscle injuries 223, daily obstacles and limitations 8–9;
224, 227–230; training injuries 223, 226 importance of empowerment 10;
communication: barriers in high- optimising communication 9; priorities
performance team 312–313; between and delegation 10; relationships, balance
coaching staff, leadership, and high- of friendliness and respect 11
performance team 85; direct vs. indirect David, Susan: Emotional Agility 315
312; between multidisciplinary team and decision-making 96, 148, 149, 248, 311;
athletes 204; optimising of 9; power of conficting norms for 312–313
15; surviving, industry 19 delegation 10; of task 289, 293–294
competitive nature 25 democratic leadership 299
compression garment, recovery modalities development: biological maturation
213 and physical development 46–49,
conditioning 42, 42, 135; aerobic capacity 47, 48; education 49–51; limitations
111–112; agility 112; with ball 119, 119; and challenges 46–52; mobility
barriers to 123–126, 124; drill design and stability 32, 32–33; movement
116–123; environment 126; fnding competency 33, 33–34, 35; phases of
 Index 325
21–24; psychological wellbeing and EUR see Eccentric Utilization Ratio (EUR)
performance mindset 51–52; qualities exercise selection: common exercises
for 30–32; specialisation model vs. used 92–94, 93; injury prevention
late specialisation models of 22, 23; exercises 94
strength 34 exercising HR (HRex) 151, 152
differential-RPE (dRPE) 147 exit, handling stresses of team 313
digital natives 25 extensive session, periodisation 261
direct communication 312 extensive training days 44
diversity 310–311; in high-performance external motivation 306
team 311–312 external training load 142, 142–143, 166;
‘divide and conquer’ principle 294 monitoring of 182
DLS see Dynamic Stress Load (DLS) extrinsic motivation 12
drill design 116; common errors with 122,
122, 123; peak match intensity and fast adaptation processes 302
116–117, 117; running only conditioning fat 193, 196, 197, 209
prescriptions 117–119, 119; use of SSG fatigue 143–144, 152, 189, 192
for conditioning 119–121, 120, 121 feedback 13, 19, 27, 116, 176, 178, 179, 181,
drills 114; position-specifc production 294, 296, 300
drills 280;Y-drill, ways to progress 41, 41 fbre type profling 85
drop jump (DJ) 145 Fight of Flight Response 190
DSI see Dynamic Strength Index (DSI) frst team, staff turnover 16
Dynamic Strength Index (DSI) 89 ftness-fatigue continuum 260
Dynamic Stress Load (DLS) 173 ftness, testing for 77–78
5-day ‘lead-in’ methods 265, 266–269
eccentric exercises 93–94, 236 5-Day Training Model 43
eccentric hamstring strength 86 fxture congestion 94, 96, 97
Eccentric Utilization Ratio (EUR) 146 fuency, in communication 312
education 49–51 FootEval 77
effective coach–athlete relationships 314 FOR see functional overreaching (FOR)
effective communication 300 force plate testing 145–146
Elite Player Performance Plan (EPPP) force-velocity curve 90, 90–91; power
framework 21 prescription 91, 92
elite soccer: confict in 295–297; leadership foundation phase (9–12s) 25–27, 26, 27
styles in 297–300; practical application 4-day ‘lead-in’ methods 265, 270, 271, 271
of wearable technology 175–181; frustrations 299, 312, 315, 317
practicality in 316–317; recovery in functional overreaching (FOR) 189, 190
190–193; self-report measurement 148
elite soccer, coach role in: contemporary game/match day (MD) nutrition
issues 5–7; professional soccer 197–199, 198
structure 1–5 general macronutrient requirements 194;
Emotional Agility (David) 315 carbohydrates 194–195; fat 196; protein
emotional intelligence (EQ) 304–305 195, 195
empowerment 10, 297, 298 generation Z 25, 27
energy, injured athlete 205 global positioning system (GPS) 10, 114,
energy system development guide 42, 42 144, 145, 238, 261; wearable technology
English Premier League 64, 65, 130, 171, 193 165, 168–169
environment: conditioning 126; creation glucose transporters type 4 (GLUT4) 206
of 46 glycogen 197–200
environmental factors, periodisation 277; goalkeeper reports, wearable technology
altitude 278; coach 279; cold conditions 176–178
278; hot conditions 277–278; travel 279 GPS see global positioning system (GPS)
EPPP framework see Elite Player graded exercise testing (GXT) 168
Performance Plan (EPPP) framework grey zone 130
EQ see emotional intelligence (EQ) group cohesion 312
326 Index
group-style approach 294 hybrid (intensive/extensive) training days 45
gym-based progressions 34, 35 hyper personalisation 25
gym sessions: content of 94, 97; scheduling
for seven-day microcycle 94, 95 IGT see Integrative Governor Theory (IGT)
gym strength-programme 7 implicit vs. explicit learning 26, 27
indirect communication 312
hamstring muscle: risk to 64–65; strength individual testing 68, 68, 72–73, 73, 74
exercises 87 infuence tactics 309, 309
hamstring strain injuries (HSIs) 85, 224, injured athlete 204–205; creatine, omega-
227, 251; mechanisms of 231–233, 233, 3, and collagen 206–207; energy 205;
233; muscle injuries 224, 227; strength immobilization/atrophy stage 204;
testing 243, 243 protein 205–206; rehabilitation phase
hard leadership approaches 309 204–205
hard tactics 309, 309 injuries 83–84; incidence of 227; rates of
head coach: game-model of 123; 86, 89
periodisation 279; philosophy 125 injury delay period 153, 154
head injuries 231, 232 injury mechanisms 231; calf 234;
heart rate (HR) 146–147, 165, 261; hot hamstrings 231–233, 233, 233; hip and
conditions, periodisation 277; measures groin 234; rectus femoris 234
174–175, 175; monitoring, wearable injury prevention: and availability 84–87;
technology 167–168; responses exercises 94; programmes 84
151–152 injury risk 152, 152–153, 166, 167; ACWR
heart rate recovery (HRR) 151, 152 model 154–156, 155; training load and
heart rate thresholds/zones 174, 175 153–154, 154; training stress balance 154
heart rate variability (HRV) 151, 152, 175 injury risk tests 57–58, 60, 69, 69, 71;
hierarchy, attitudes toward 312 cohort considerations 70; individual
higher purpose, practitioners 11–12 considerations 73, 73; positional
high-intensity interval training (HIIT) 77 considerations 71
‘High-Low’ loading model 130, 263 InStat Index 110
high-performance culture 301, 305, 310 integrated conditioning approach 114, 115
high-performance professional soccer 14–15 integrated training approach 110, 110
high-performance team 291; approaches integration, value of 5
to handle stresses of 313; barriers Integrative Governor Theory (IGT) 144
to communication in 312–313; intelligence quotient (IQ) 305
communication between coaching staff, intensity: level of 120–121; peak match
leadership, and 85; diversity in 311–312 116–117, 117
High-Power High Interest group 307, 308 intensive session, periodisation 261
High-Power Low Interest group 307, 308 intensive training days 44
high-speed running (HSR) 166, 244, 265, interest, understanding of 307–308, 308
270, 272, 276, 280;ACC/DEC 177, 178; internal motivation 306, 309
modalities of 280–281, 281; sprint 177, internal training load 142, 142–143;
178 consequence of 166, 166
hip and groin injuries 229; mechanisms International Olympic Committee 204
of 234 international role 13, 13–14
hip thrusts 93 Interval Shuttle Run Test (ISRT) 70
Hoff test 77 intramuscular tendon injuries
hot conditions, periodisation 277–278 227–229, 228
HSIs see hamstring strain injuries (HSIs) intrinsic motivation 12, 52
HSR see high-speed running (HSR) IQ see intelligence quotient (IQ)
human physiology: investigation of 57; isolated training approach 113, 115
systematic testing of 57 isometric testing 88, 244
human thermoregulatory system 277 ISRT see Interval Shuttle Run
hybrid conditioning approach 113–114, 115 Test (ISRT)
 Index 327
joints, mobility vs. stability of 32, 32 LSGs see large-sided games (LSGs)
LTAD pathway see long-term athletic
key performance indicators (KPIs) 12, 14, development (LTAD) pathway
85; application of testing in RTP 244;
decision-based RTP model 241, 241; magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
testing in RTP setting 242, 242–243, 227–228
243; training and match data as 244, managerial intervention, handling stresses
245, 246, 247 of team 313
knee injuries 230–231 manual massage therapy 211–212
Krogh, August 57 massage therapy 211–212
match day (MD): match nutrition 197–199,
laissez-faire leadership 299 198;‘top up’ conditioning 130–131, 131,
landing training 38 132
large-sided games (LSGs) 128 match day-1 (MD-1) 194, 196, 197, 272,275
lateral ankle ligament injuries 231 match day-2 (MD-2) 179, 272, 281;
leadership 306; communication re-group for 133; warm-up on 133
between coaching staff, match day-3 (MD-3) 94, 96; two-day split
performanceteam and 85; gap analysis (total body) 97–98; two-day split (upper
311; in high-performance environment and lower body) 98
318; hiring team 311; understanding match day-4 (MD-4) 94, 96; two-day split
context 310 (total body) 97; two-day split (upper and
leadership structures, team 290 lower body) 98
leadership styles 297–298; authoritarian Match Day +1 (MD+1) 194, 212,
leadership 299; and coaching 300; 272, 276
democratic leadership 299; laissez-faire Match Day +2 (MD+2): second-day
leadership 299; transactional leadership recovery (‘re-entry’) days 45; testing
298; transformational leadership 298, 242–243
298–299 match-minute exposure 85
‘lead-in’ methods 264; 1-day 272, match nutrition: game/match day (MD)
273–274; 2-day 271–272; 4-day 197–199, 198; during match-play 199;
265, 270, 271, 271; 5-day 265, 266–269; post-match recovery 199–200; pre-
match day (-1) (reactive/preparation match day (MD -1) 196, 196–197
session) 270; match day (-2) (moderate match-play workloads, feld-based
area session with speed) 270; match day progressions 244, 245
(-3) (large area session) 270; match day maturity offset 48, 48
(-4) (tight area session) 270 Matveev, L.P. 259
licensed massage therapist maximal ftness tests 59
(LMT) 211 maximal oxygen uptake (VO2MAX) 111
ligament injuries 230 maximal strength 59, 66, 88, 90, 91
linear-based sports 167 maximum aerobic speed (MAS) 10, 42,
LMT see licensed massage 70–71, 77, 171
therapist (LMT) Maximum Multistage 20m Shuttle Run Test
load management 86, 139, 144, 148, 151, (MMSRT) 70
154, 156, 244 maximum velocity (Vmax) 10, 31, 39–40, 59,
locomotor demand 144, 146, 151 73, 87, 114, 171, 244
longitudinal reports, wearable technology MDT see multi-disciplinary team (MDT)
178, 178–179 medial collateral ligament (MCL) injuries
long-term athletic development (LTAD): 230–231
initial goal 31; pathway of 21–23; medical assessments, advancement in 58
pyramid of 30, 30 medical staff 85; contemporary issues
Low-Power High Interest group within 6
307, 308 Mendez-Villanueva, Alberto 75
Low-Power Low Interest group 307, 308 metabolic conditioning 237
328 Index
metabolic power (PMET), wearable multiple games per week 272, 275–276,
technology 173–174 275–276
metric integration 110 muscle imbalances 84
micro-cycle period 108 muscle injuries 223–224; calf injuries
microcycles: lead-in 264–274; models 230; common ligament injuries 230;
262–264; multiple games per week 272, hamstring injuries 224, 227; hip and
275–276, 275–276; perfect training plan groin injuries 229; incidence of injury
262, 263; prelude 264; for starters and 227; intramuscular tendon 227–229,
non-starters 282, 283–285 228; quadricep injuries 229–230
microdosing 40 muscle protein synthesis 205
Midweek Recovery 44 muscle strength 84, 86
mission, of teams 290–291
MMSRT see Maximum Multistage 20m needs analysis 64–65; categories and
Shuttle Run Test (MMSRT) rationale 65–69
mobility 32, 32–33; and stability nervous system and role in recovery 190
32, 32–33 New Zealand All Blacks Rugby team 304
modern-day athlete 24–25 NFOR see non-functional overreaching
modern-day professional soccer clubs, (NFOR)
organogram of 289 nitrates 203–204
modifable factors, injuries 84, 109 nitric oxide (NO) 203
Modifed 505 (M505) test 68 non acquisition days 133
monitoring 139–140; approach to problem non-functional overreaching (NFOR)
140, 140; assessing fatigue 143–144; of 189, 190
external training load 182; injury risk non-linear sprint training 39–40
(see injury risk); subjective-objective/ non-modifable risk factors 84, 85
internal-external 141–143, 142; non-starting players, planning training for
testing 57–58; training processes 141; 279–280; high-speed running modalities
understanding physical demands of 280–281, 281; planning for one game
soccer 144–145 per week 282, 283–285; planning for
monitoring strategies: heart rate responses two games per week 281
151–152; physical performance analysis NordBord 71, 244
149–151; rate of perceived exertion Nordic hamstring exercise 93, 94
146–147; self-report measures of nutrition 189, 193–194, 213; general
wellbeing 147–149, 149; use of force macronutrient requirements 194–196;
plate testing 145–146 match nutrition 196–200; periodisation
monotony 44, 45, 238 261–262; and recovery 191–192
most demanding passages of play (MDPP) nutritional advice, limitations with 6
242, 245
motivation 12, 51, 75, 146, 295, 309; ‘off the ball’ exercises 132
external 306; extrinsic 12; internal 306, Olympic lifting exercises 93
309; intrinsic 12, 52 omega-3 fatty acids, injured athlete
movement competency 33, 33–34, 35 206–207
movement experience 30, 31, 33 1-day ‘lead-in’ methods 272, 273–274
movement selection 34; acceleration 38–39; 1-RM back squat test 88
change of direction 40–41; conditioning one-size-fts-all approach 126, 127
42, 42; maximum velocity 39–40; patterns on-feld conditioning 43
and examples 34, 36; periodisation order of session 45
options 36–37; plyometrics 37–38, 38; overloading 153, 190
power 37; prescription options 36–37; overreaching 127, 190
ways to progress Y-drill 41, 41 overtraining syndrome (OTS) 189, 190
multi-disciplinary team (MDT) 5, 8, 13,
14, 124, 246; communication between pain free vs. pain threshold rehabilitation 251
athletes and 204 ‘paralysis by analysis’ 87
 Index 329
parasympathetic alterations 190 PlayerLoad (PL) 173
passive recovery 264 players: availability of 108–109; durability
PBM see Psychobiological Model of Fatigue and resilience of 85; grouping of soccer
(PBM) player 306, 306; knowing your cohort of
peak height velocity (PHV) 22, 23, 48, 123–125; mapping stakeholders within
48–49; stages of 24, 24 soccer environment 307, 307; science of
peak match intensity 116–117, 117, 150 infuence 308–310; soft skills 314–316;
peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) 171 as stakeholders 305–310; sweet-spot
peak speed exposure 280 for 126; tracking and monitoring (see
percussion massager 212 monitoring); understanding power and
performance: barriers to 123–126; interest 307–308, 308
measurement of 109 player-tracking technology 166
performance-based process 235 plyometric-based exercises 91
performance-based tests 67, 69; plyometric progression system 37, 38
cohort considerations 70; individual plyometrics 37–38, 38, 93
considerations 73, 73; positional plyometric training 37, 38, 237
considerations 71 positional testing 66–67, 68, 71, 71–72, 72
performance department 3, 101; modelling position-specifc high-speed-running
7–8; practitioners in 8 protocol 110, 110
performance director, role of 300; high- position-specifc production drills 280
performance culture creation 301; role post-exercise HRV 175
modelling 301 post-match recovery, nutrition 199–200
performance mindset 51–52 power 37, 261; of infuence 305–306;
performance practitioners 17, 19, 21; holy understanding of 307–308, 308
grail for 126; running only conditioning power-based exercises 91
prescriptions 117–119, 119 power training 37, 39; content of gym
performance staff 59, 60, 113, 303; sessions 97; fxture congestion 96, 97;
problems within 6 importance of 83–84; misconceptions of
performance tests 57–58; approach 60–61, 99; scheduling 94, 95, 96; two-day split
61; parameters 61–63, 62; test exercise 97–98
selection 63–64 practical application, conditioning 127;
periodisation 259, 286; assessing variables alternatives for volume 132–133; during
260–261; environmental factors congested periods 133–134, 134; grey
277–279; intensive and extensive zone 130; match day ‘top up’
261; microcycles 262–276; practical 130–131, 131, 132; starting point
application 279–282, 281, 283–285; 127–129, 129
recovery/nutrition 261–262; resistance practical application, of soft skills: big
training 261; visual representation of picture 317–318; practicality in elite
structure 259, 259 soccer 316–317; practitioner/coach
PHV see peak height velocity (PHV) 313–314; practitioner/player 314–316
physical demands, understanding of practical application, of wearable
144–145 technology 175, 175; delivering
physical development 46–49, 47, 48 data 176–180; displaying change
physical performance analysis 149–151 179; goalkeeper reports 176–178;
physical qualities 21, 24, 30, 31, 33, 36, longitudinal reports 178, 178–179;
42,52, 65, 69, 83, 88, 116, 128, primary barriers of delivery 179–180;
270–272, 279 reporting 176, 177
physiological demand 146 practical application, periodisation
physiology, recovery modalities 207–208 279–282, 281, 283–285
physio staff, contemporary issues within 6 practitioner–athlete relationship 314
planes of motion 31, 34 practitioners 83; fxture congestion
platelet-rich plasma (PRP) injections 252 94, 96, 97; higher purpose 11–12;
player-centred approach 301 high-performance management 148;
330 Index
live tracking for 181; need to learn affecting cold water immersion
strategies 316; operating as solo methodology 208–211; massage therapy
practitioner 7–11; in performance 211–212
department 8; positive effects rectus femoris, injury mechanisms 234
production training 281; previous work reductionist management theory 292
experience 4, 4; roles within industry regular maximum velocity exposures
12–14; soft skills 313–316; strength- 31–32
testing parameters 88–89; surviving rehabilitation process: acute infammatory
industry 16–19; training-recovery cycle phase 236, 236–237; controlled sport-
141; unwritten laws of industry 14–15 specifc and RTP phase 238, 239, 240,
pre-match days (MD-1) 45; nutrition 196, 240–241; designing framework 235–241;
196–197 key performance indicators (see key
pre-match rituals 290 performance indicators (KPIs)); phases
pre-season games-based conditioning of 235; re-conditioning phase 237–238,
programme 128–129, 129 238; staff integration/continuum 246,
pre-season testing 58–60, 86 248–250
priorities 9, 10, 33, 113, 207, 265 rehydration 200
production training 280, 281, 282 relationships 11; creating and managing 17
professional soccer: common strength relative thresholds 170–171
and power tests performed in 87, 88; reliability: of tracking technologies 145;
players, issues with 6–7; unwritten wearable technology 166–169
laws 14–15 reporting, wearable technology 176, 177
professional soccer structure 1; resistance training, periodisation 261
certifcations 3, 3–4, 4; different names/ respect 11, 36, 46, 51, 99, 198, 241, 295,
roles/titles 2–3; hierarchy 1, 1; sport staff 296, 303, 311, 312, 314
1–2, 2; value of integration 5 Rest and Digest Response 190
programming 42–43; on-feld conditioning resting HR (RHR) 151
43; training models 43–44; types of resting HRV 152, 175
training days 44–45 restoration day 264
protein 195, 195; injured athlete 205–206 rest periods 45
Psychobiological Model of Fatigue return to play (RTP) 227–228, 228, 253;
(PBM) 144 blood fow restriction in 252; calf injuries
psychological safety 291, 291 230, 234; hamstring strain injuries
psychological wellbeing 51–52 231, 233; key performance indicators,
rehabilitation process 241–246; pain
quadriceps: injuries 229–230; strength 86 free vs. pain threshold rehabilitation 251;
phase, rehabilitation process 238, 239,
rate of force development (RFD) 31, 240, 240–241; phase, staff integration/
90–92, 146 continuum 250, 250; platelet-rich
rate of perceived exertion (RPE) 128, plasma injections 252; quadricep injuries
146–147, 261 229–230; rehabilitation process 235
reactive speed days 45 RFD see rate of force development (RFD)
reactive strength index (RSI) 146 roles, within industry: club-
re-conditioning phase: rehabilitation appointed role 12; coach-
process 237–238, 238; staff integration/ appointed role 13; international
continuum 249, 250 role 13, 13–14
recovery 189, 190–191; active/passive 264; rolling-duration method 116, 117
nervous system role in 190; nutrition Romanian/stiff leg deadlift 93, 93
and 191–192; periodisation 261–262; RPE see rate of perceived exertion (RPE)
sleep 191; training load and 192, RSI see reactive strength index (RSI)
192–193 RTP see return to play (RTP)
recovery modalities 207, 262; active running: conditioning with ball 119, 119;
recovery 212; cold water and physiology conditioning without ball 118–119;
207–208; compression 213; factors variables in 117
 Index 331
scheduling, strength and power training 94, sport scientists 1–3, 76, 139, 151, 153, 156,
95, 96 303, 304, 315
Schneider, C. 152 sport staff 1–2, 2
science of infuence 308; committed sprinting 112; type injuries 231, 233, 233
309; compliant 309; infuence tactics squat jump (SJ) 145, 146
309, 309; resistant 310; understanding SRC see sport-related concussion (SRC)
context 310 stability 32, 32–33
second-day recovery (‘re-entry’) days staff integration/continuum:
(MD+2) 45 acute infammatory phase 248, 249;
second ventilatory threshold (VT2) 171 athlete-centred approach 246, 248;
self-care 17–18, 18 controlled sport-specifc and return to
self-fulflling prophecy 227 play phases 250, 250; re-conditioning
self-report measures, of wellbeing phase 249, 250; return-to-play
147–149, 149 continuum 248, 249
semi-automated video-based tracking staff turnover 16; academy environments
technologies 144, 145 16–17; frst team 16
sensitivity 62, 62 standard day in-season 8–9
sensitivity-specifcity quadrant 62, 62 strength 34, 39; assessing 87–89, 88;
session-RPE (sRPE) 147 importance of 83–84; injury prevention
shared consciousness 292–293 and availability 84–87; testing for 76
single leg jumps (SLJ) 145, 146 strength and conditioning (S&C) practices
sleep 191, 213 83, 84, 87; cultural differences 99–101,
SLJ see single leg jumps (SLJ) 100; limitations 98–99
slow adaptation processes 302 strength-power modules 90–92
smallest worthwhile change (SWC) 179 strength-testing parameters 88–89
small-sided games (SSGs) 112, 128; use strength training 261; content of gym
for conditioning 119–121, 120, 121; sessions 97; fxture congestion 96, 97;
warm-up for 115–116 misconceptions of 99, 100; scheduling
soccer: exercise selection in 92–94; 94, 95, 96; two-day split 97–98
physical evolution of 65; strength and stretching type injuries 231, 233, 233
power in 83–84; understanding physical stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) 37, 237
demands of 144–145 structural intervention, handling stresses
soccer-specifc testing 75–76; testing for of team 313
ftness 77–78; testing for speed 76; subjective-objective/internal-external
testing for strength 76 monitoring 141–143, 142
soft skills, practical application: big picture super compensation 189, 235
317–318; practicality in elite soccer supplements 201; beta-alanine 202; caffeine
316–317; practitioner/coach 313–314; 202–203; creatine 201; nitrates 203–204
practitioner/player 314–316 surviving, industry: attributes to survive
soft tactics 309, 309 17–19; communication 19; continual
soft tissue injuries 152, 236, 236 learning and work ethic 19; creating and
solo practitioner, operating as 7; daily managing relationships 17; expectancies
obstacles and limitations 8–11; and working conditions 18–19; self-care
modelling performance department 7–8 17–18, 18; staff turnover 16–17
specifcity 62, 62, 63 SWC see smallest worthwhile change
speed 112; testing for 76 (SWC)
speed and acceleration metrics 170; switch off 264, 273
absolute thresholds 171–172, 172;
relative thresholds 170–171 Tactical Periodisation approach
speed endurance (SE) interventions 280 262–263,265
split stance exercises 92 tailored nutrition strategy 192
sport-related concussion (SRC) 231 task delegation 293–294
sport science 19; accreditation process for TBD see trap bar deadlift (TBD)
4; advancement in 58; department 1 team cohesion 10, 295
332 Index
teams: divide and conquer 294; GRPI U17+ (perform) 28
model 289, 289; psychological safety U17s (earn the right) 28
291, 291; task delegation 293–294; unwritten laws, practitioners 14–15
team of teams 292, 292–293; vision and
mission 290–291 validity: of tracking technologies 145;
technical mastery 40 wearable technology 166–169
technical team 289, 290 Velocity-Based Training 25
testing 57; categories with associated vision, of teams 290–291
infuential attributes 66, 66; cohort Vitamin C 207
66–67, 68, 69–71, 70; for ftness 77–78;
individual 68, 68, 72–73, 73, 74; for warm-up 115; elements of 115–116; on
injury risk 71; performance, monitoring, MD-2 133
and injury risk 57–58; performance tests wearable technology 165–166, 166;
60–64; positional 66–67, 68, 71, 71–72, arbitrary metrics 173; average
72; pre-season 58–60, 86; for speed 76; acceleration 173; global positioning
for strength 76; types of 69, 69–74 system 168–169; heart rate measures
testing battery 62–63; in elite soccer 174–175, 175; heart rate monitoring
72, 74 167–168; metabolic power 173–174;
tests with-related benchmarks, tests with methodological considerations 181–182;
72, 72 practical application of 175–181; speed
30-15 Intermittent Fitness test (30-15IFT) and acceleration metrics 170–172;
57, 77 utilising live data 181; validity and
time of day 45 reliability 166–169
total quality management (TQM) 317 wellbeing, self-report measures of
TQM see total quality management (TQM) 147–149, 149
tracking technologies: injury risk (see work economy 111
injury risk); validity and reliability of 145 World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) 6
training age 46–47, 47, 49
training days, types of 44–45 Y-drill, ways to progress 41, 41
training impulse (TRIMP) 168, 174 young player: components of
training load (TL) 153–154, 154, 165, 168, power training 37; enrolled in
315; and recovery 192, 192–193 (online) educational programmes
training load–recovery relationship 193 50;exposed to higher training loads
training models 43–45 191; holistic development of 46;
training processes, monitoring of 141 physical development of 46; soccer
training-recovery cycle 141 performance for 30; technical
training stress balance (TSB) model 154 mastery 40; working through exercise
transactional leadership 298 progressions 36
transformational leadership 298, 298–299 youth development phase (13–16s)
trap bar deadlift (TBD) 92 27–28, 29
travel, periodisation 279 youth development programme
2-day ‘lead-in’ methods 271–272 (YDP) 38
two-day split programmes: total body Yo-Yo intermittent tests 57, 58, 70, 77
97–98; upper and lower body 98
2-Game Week 43–44 Zdornyj, A.P. 259