Diode

A diode is a t wo-t erminal elect ronic component t hat conduct s current primarily in one direct ion
(asymmet ric conduct ance). It has low (ideally zero) resist ance in one direct ion and high (ideally
infinit e) resist ance in t he ot her.
 Diode

Close-up view of a silicon diode. The anode is

on the right side; the cathode is on the left side
(where it is marked with a black band). The
square silicon crystal can be seen between the
two leads.

Type Passive

Pin configuration Anode and cathode

Electronic symbol
Various semiconductor diodes.
Bottom: A bridge rectifier. In most
diodes, a white or black painted band
identifies the cathode into which
electrons will flow when the diode is
conducting. Electron flow is the
reverse of conventional current
flow.[1][2][3]
 Structure of a vacuum tube diode.
The filament itself may be the
cathode, or more commonly (as
shown here) used to heat a separate
metal tube which serves as the
cathode.

A semiconduct or diode, t he most commonly used t ype t oday, is a cryst alline piece of
semiconduct or mat erial wit h a p–n junct ion connect ed t o t wo elect rical t erminals.[4] It has an
exponent ial current –volt age charact erist ic. Semiconduct or diodes were t he first semiconduct or
elect ronic devices. The discovery of asymmet ric elect rical conduct ion across t he cont act
bet ween a cryst alline mineral and a met al was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in
1874. Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but ot her semiconduct ing mat erials such as
gallium arsenide and germanium are also used.[5]

The obsolet e thermionic diode is a vacuum t ube wit h t wo elect rodes, a heat ed cat hode and a
plat e, in which elect rons can flow in only one direct ion, from cat hode t o plat e.

Among many uses, diodes are found in rect ifiers t o convert alt ernat ing current (AC) power t o
direct current (DC), demodulat ion in radio receivers, and can even be used for logic or as
t emperat ure sensors. A common variant of a diode is a light -emit t ing diode, which is used as
elect ric light ing and st at us indicat ors on elect ronic devices.

Main functions
Unidirectional current flow
The most common funct ion of a diode is t o allow an elect ric current t o pass in one direct ion
(called t he diode's forward direct ion), while blocking it in t he opposit e direct ion (t he reverse
direct ion). It s hydraulic analogy is a check valve. This unidirect ional behavior can convert
alt ernat ing current (AC) t o direct current (DC), a process called rect ificat ion. As rect ifiers, diodes
can be used for such t asks as ext ract ing modulat ion from radio signals in radio receivers.

Threshold voltage
A semiconduct or diode's exponent ial current –volt age charact erist ic result s in more complicat ed
behavior t han a simple on–off act ion.[6] Since exponent ial funct ions can be viewed as having a
"knee" volt age, for simplicit y, a diode is commonly said t o have a forward threshold voltage, above
which t here is significant current and below which t here is almost no current . However, t his is only
an approximat ion as t he forward charact erist ic is gradual in it s current –volt age curve.

Forward threshold voltage for various semiconductors

Type Forward threshold voltage

Silicon diodes 0.6 V t o 0.7 V

Germanium diodes 0.25 V t o 0.3 V

Schot t ky diodes 0.15 V t o 0.45 V

Light -emit t ing diodes 1.6 V (red) t o 4 V (violet ). Light -emit t ing diode physics § Mat erials has
(LEDs) a complet e list .

Since a diode's forward-direct ion volt age drop varies only a lit t le wit h t he current , and is more so
a funct ion of t emperat ure, t his effect can be used as a t emperat ure sensor or as a somewhat
imprecise volt age reference.
Reverse breakdown
A diode's high resist ance t o current flowing in t he reverse direct ion suddenly drops t o a low
resist ance when t he reverse volt age across t he diode reaches a value called t he breakdown
volt age. This effect is used t o regulat e volt age (Zener diodes) or t o prot ect circuit s from high
volt age surges (avalanche diodes).

Other functions
A semiconduct or diode's current –volt age charact erist ic can be t ailored by select ing t he
semiconduct or mat erials and t he doping impurit ies int roduced int o t he mat erials during
manufact ure.[6] These t echniques are used t o creat e special-purpose diodes t hat perform many
different funct ions.[6] For example, t o elect ronically t une radio and TV receivers (varact or
diodes), t o generat e radio-frequency oscillat ions (t unnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes),
and t o produce light (light -emit t ing diodes). Tunnel, Gunn and IMPATT diodes exhibit negat ive
resist ance, which is useful in microwave and swit ching circuit s.

Diodes, bot h vacuum and semiconduct or, can be used as shot -noise generat ors.

History
Thermionic (vacuum-t ube) diodes and solid-st at e (semiconduct or) diodes were developed
separat ely, at approximat ely t he same t ime, in t he early 1900s, as radio receiver det ect ors.[7]
Unt il t he 1950s, vacuum diodes were used more frequent ly in radios because t he early point -
cont act semiconduct or diodes were less st able. In addit ion, most receiving set s had vacuum
t ubes for amplificat ion t hat could easily have t he t hermionic diodes included in t he t ube (for
example t he 12SQ7 double diode t riode), and vacuum-t ube rect ifiers and gas-filled rect ifiers
were capable of handling some high-volt age/high-current rect ificat ion t asks bet t er t han t he
semiconduct or diodes (such as selenium rect ifiers) t hat were available at t hat t ime.

In 1873, Frederick Gut hrie observed t hat a grounded, whit e-hot met al ball brought in close
proximit y t o an elect roscope would discharge a posit ively charged elect roscope, but not a
negat ively charged elect roscope.[8][9] In 1880, Thomas Edison observed unidirect ional current
bet ween heat ed and unheat ed element s in a bulb, lat er called Edison effect , and was grant ed a
pat ent on applicat ion of t he phenomenon for use in a DC volt met er.[10][11] About 20 years lat er,
John Ambrose Fleming (scient ific adviser t o t he Marconi Company and former Edison employee)
realized t hat t he Edison effect could be used as a radio det ect or. Fleming pat ent ed t he first
t rue t hermionic diode, t he Fleming valve, in Brit ain on 16 November 1904[12] (followed by U.S.
pat ent 803,684 (ht t ps://pat ent [Link]/pat ent /US803684) in November 1905).
Throughout t he vacuum t ube era, valve diodes were used in almost all elect ronics such as radios,
t elevisions, sound syst ems, and inst rument at ion. They slowly lost market share beginning in t he
lat e 1940s due t o selenium rect ifier t echnology and t hen t o semiconduct or diodes during t he
1960s. Today t hey are st ill used in a few high power applicat ions where t heir abilit y t o wit hst and
t ransient volt ages and t heir robust ness gives t hem an advant age over semiconduct or devices,
and in musical inst rument and audiophile applicat ions.

In 1874, German scient ist Karl Ferdinand Braun discovered t he "unilat eral conduct ion" across a
cont act bet ween a met al and a mineral.[13][14] Indian scient ist Jagadish Chandra Bose was t he
first t o use a cryst al for det ect ing radio waves in 1894.[15] The cryst al det ect or was developed
int o a pract ical device for wireless t elegraphy by Greenleaf Whit t ier Pickard, who invent ed a
silicon cryst al det ect or in 1903 and received a pat ent for it on 20 November 1906.[16] Ot her
experiment ers t ried a variet y of ot her minerals as det ect ors. Semiconduct or principles were
unknown t o t he developers of t hese early rect ifiers. During t he 1930s underst anding of physics
advanced and in t he mid-1930s researchers at Bell Telephone Laborat ories recognized t he
pot ent ial of t he cryst al det ect or for applicat ion in microwave t echnology.[17] Researchers at Bell
Labs, West ern Elect ric, MIT, Purdue and in t he UK int ensively developed point -cont act diodes
(crystal rectifiers or crystal diodes ) during World War II for applicat ion in radar.[17] Aft er World War
II, AT&T used t hese in it s microwave t owers t hat criss-crossed t he Unit ed St at es, and many
radar set s use t hem even in t he 21st cent ury. In 1946, Sylvania began offering t he 1N34 cryst al
diode.[18][19][20] During t he early 1950s, junct ion diodes were developed.

In 2022, t he first superconduct ing diode effect wit hout an ext ernal magnet ic field was
realized.[21]
Etymology
At t he t ime of t heir invent ion, asymmet rical conduct ion devices were known as rect ifiers. In
1919, t he year t et rodes were invent ed, William Henry Eccles coined t he t erm diode from t he
Greek root s di (from δί), meaning 't wo', and ode (from οδός), meaning 'pat h'. The word diode
however was already in use, as were triode, tetrode, pentode, hexode, as t erms of mult iplex
t elegraphy.[22]

Alt hough all diodes rectify, "rectifier" usually applies t o diodes used for power supply, t o
different iat e t hem from diodes int ended for small signal circuit s.

Vacuum tube diodes

 Thermionic diode

A high power vacuum diode used in radio

equipment as a rectifier.

Type Thermionic

Pin configuration Plate and Cathode,

heater (if indirectly
heated)

Electronic symbol
 The symbol for an indirectly heated vacuum
tube diode. From top to bottom, the element
names are: plate, cathode, and heater.

A t hermionic diode is a t hermionic-valve device consist ing of a sealed, evacuat ed glass or met al
envelope cont aining t wo elect rodes: a cat hode and a plat e. The cat hode is eit her indirectly
heated or directly heated. If indirect heat ing is employed, a heat er is included in t he envelope.

In operat ion, t he cat hode is heat ed t o red heat , around 800–1,000 °C (1,470–1,830 °F). A direct ly
heat ed cat hode is made of t ungst en wire and is heat ed by a current passed t hrough it from an
ext ernal volt age source. An indirect ly heat ed cat hode is heat ed by infrared radiat ion from a
nearby heat er t hat is formed of Nichrome wire and supplied wit h current provided by an ext ernal
volt age source.

A vacuum tube
containing two
power diodes
The operat ing t emperat ure of t he cat hode causes it t o release elect rons int o t he vacuum, a
process called t hermionic emission. The cat hode is coat ed wit h oxides of alkaline eart h met als,
such as barium and st ront ium oxides. These have a low work funct ion, meaning t hat t hey more
readily emit elect rons t han would t he uncoat ed cat hode.

The plat e, not being heat ed, does not emit elect rons; but is able t o absorb t hem.

The alt ernat ing volt age t o be rect ified is applied bet ween t he cat hode and t he plat e. When t he
plat e volt age is posit ive wit h respect t o t he cat hode, t he plat e elect rost at ically at t ract s t he
elect rons from t he cat hode, so a current of elect rons flows t hrough t he t ube from cat hode t o
plat e. When t he plat e volt age is negat ive wit h respect t o t he cat hode, no elect rons are emit t ed
by t he plat e, so no current can pass from t he plat e t o t he cat hode.

Semiconductor diodes

Close-up of an EFD108
germanium point-contact
diode in DO7 glass package,
showing the sharp metal wire
(cat whisker) that forms the
semiconductor junction.

Point-contact diodes
Point -cont act diodes were developed st art ing in t he 1930s, out of t he early cryst al det ect or
t echnology, and are now generally used in t he 3 t o 30 gigahert z range.[17][23][24][25] Point -cont act
diodes use a small diamet er met al wire in cont act wit h a semiconduct or cryst al, and are of eit her
non-welded cont act t ype or welded contact t ype. Non-welded cont act const ruct ion ut ilizes t he
Schot t ky barrier principle. The met al side is t he point ed end of a small diamet er wire t hat is in
cont act wit h t he semiconduct or cryst al.[26] In t he welded cont act t ype, a small P region is
formed in t he ot herwise N-t ype cryst al around t he met al point during manufact ure by
moment arily passing a relat ively large current t hrough t he device.[27][28] Point cont act diodes
generally exhibit lower capacit ance, higher forward resist ance and great er reverse leakage t han
junct ion diodes.

Junction diodes

p–n junction diode

A p–n junct ion diode is made of a cryst al of semiconduct or, usually silicon, but germanium and
gallium arsenide are also used. Impurit ies are added t o it t o creat e a region on one side t hat
cont ains negat ive charge carriers (elect rons), called an n-t ype semiconduct or, and a region on
t he ot her side t hat cont ains posit ive charge carriers (holes), called a p-t ype semiconduct or.
When t he n-t ype and p-t ype mat erials are at t ached t oget her, a moment ary flow of elect rons
occurs from t he n t o t he p side result ing in a t hird region bet ween t he t wo where no charge
carriers are present . This region is called t he deplet ion region because t here are no charge
carriers (neit her elect rons nor holes) in it . The diode's t erminals are at t ached t o t he n-t ype and p-
t ype regions. The boundary bet ween t hese t wo regions, called a p–n junct ion, is where t he act ion
of t he diode t akes place. When a sufficient ly higher elect rical pot ent ial is applied t o t he P side
(t he anode) t han t o t he N side (t he cat hode), it allows elect rons t o flow t hrough t he deplet ion
region from t he N-t ype side t o t he P-t ype side. The junct ion does not allow t he flow of
elect rons in t he opposit e direct ion when t he pot ent ial is applied in reverse, creat ing, in a sense,
an elect rical check valve.

Schottky diode
Anot her t ype of junct ion diode, t he Schot t ky diode, is formed from a met al–semiconduct or
junct ion rat her t han a p–n junct ion, which reduces capacit ance and increases swit ching
speed.[29][30]

Current–voltage characteristic
A semiconduct or diode's behavior in a circuit is given by it s current –volt age charact erist ic. The
shape of t he curve is det ermined by t he t ransport of charge carriers t hrough t he so-called
depletion layer or depletion region t hat exist s at t he p–n junct ion bet ween differing
semiconduct ors. When a p–n junct ion is first creat ed, conduct ion-band (mobile) elect rons from
t he N-doped region diffuse int o t he P-doped region where t here is a large populat ion of holes
(vacant places for elect rons) wit h which t he elect rons "recombine". When a mobile elect ron
recombines wit h a hole, bot h hole and elect ron vanish, leaving behind an immobile posit ively
charged donor (dopant ) on t he N side and negat ively charged accept or (dopant ) on t he P side.
The region around t he p–n junct ion becomes deplet ed of charge carriers and t hus behaves as an
insulat or.

However, t he widt h of t he deplet ion region (called t he deplet ion widt h) cannot grow wit hout
limit . For each elect ron–hole pair recombinat ion made, a posit ively charged dopant ion is left
behind in t he N-doped region, and a negat ively charged dopant ion is creat ed in t he P-doped
region. As recombinat ion proceeds and more ions are creat ed, an increasing elect ric field
develops t hrough t he deplet ion zone t hat act s t o slow and t hen finally st op recombinat ion. At
t his point , t here is a "built -in" pot ent ial across t he deplet ion zone.
 A PN junction diode in low forward bias mode. The depletion width decreases as voltage increases.
Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1e15/cm3 doping level, leading to built-in potential of ~0.59V.
Observe the different quasi Fermi levels for conduction band and valence band in n and p regions (red
curves).

Reverse bias
If an ext ernal volt age is placed across t he diode wit h t he same polarit y as t he built -in pot ent ial,
t he deplet ion zone cont inues t o act as an insulat or, prevent ing any significant elect ric current
flow (unless elect ron–hole pairs are act ively being creat ed in t he junct ion by, for inst ance, light ;
see phot odiode). This is called t he reverse bias phenomenon.

Forward bias
However, if t he polarit y of t he ext ernal volt age opposes t he built -in pot ent ial, recombinat ion can
once again proceed, result ing in a subst ant ial elect ric current t hrough t he p–n junct ion (i.e.
subst ant ial numbers of elect rons and holes recombine at t he junct ion). Thus, if an ext ernal
volt age great er t han and opposit e t o t he built -in volt age is applied, a current will flow and t he
diode is said t o be "t urned on" as it has been given an ext ernal forward bias .

At higher current s, t he forward volt age drop of t he diode increases. A drop of 1 V t o 1.5 V is
t ypical at full rat ed current for power diodes. (See also: Rect ifier § Rect ifier volt age drop)
Operating regions

Current–voltage characteristic of a p–n junction

diode showing three regions: breakdown , rever se
biased, for ward biased. The exponential's "knee"
is at Vd. The leveling off region which occurs at
larger forward currents is not shown.

A diode's current –volt age charact erist ic can be approximat ed by four operat ing regions. From
lower t o higher bias volt ages, t hese are:

Breakdown: At very large reverse bias,

beyond the peak inverse voltage (PIV), a
process called reverse breakdown
occurs that causes a large increase in
current (i.e., a large number of electrons
and holes are created at, and move
away from the p–n junction) that usually
damages the device permanently. The
avalanche diode is deliberately designed
for use in that manner. In the Zener
diode, the concept of PIV is not
applicable. A Zener diode contains a
heavily doped p–n junction allowing
electrons to tunnel from the valence
band of the p-type material to the
conduction band of the n-type material,
such that the reverse voltage is
"clamped" to a known value (called the
Zener voltage), and avalanche does not
occur. Both devices, however, do have a
limit to the maximum current and power
they can withstand in the clamped
reverse-voltage region. Also, following
the end of forwarding conduction in any
diode, there is reverse current for a short
time. The device does not attain its full
blocking capability until the reverse
current ceases.
Reverse biased: For a bias between
breakdown and 0 V, the reverse current
is very small. For a normal P–N rectifier
diode, the reverse current through the
device in the micro-ampere (μA) range is
very low. However, this is temperature
dependent, and at sufficiently high
temperatures, a substantial amount of
reverse current can be observed (mA or
more). There is also a tiny surface
leakage current caused by electrons
simply going around the diode as though
it were an imperfect insulator.
Forward biased: The current–voltage
curve is exponential modeled by the
Shockley diode equation. When the
forward voltage is smaller than the
barrier potential of the p-n junction, this
current is relatively small. However,
when the forward voltage is increased
above a certain value, the diode starts to
conduct significantly, which gives rise to
the names forward threshold voltage or
cut-in voltage. When plotting using a
large linear current scale, this voltage
level appears at the smooth "knee" of a
sharp exponential rise, so it may be
called the knee voltage.
Note: This voltage may loosely be
referred to simply as the diode's
forward voltage drop (or just voltage
drop, hence the label Vd in the
picture), since a consequence of the
steepness of the exponential is that
a diode's voltage drop will not
significantly exceed the threshold
voltage under normal forward bias
operating conditions. Datasheets
typically quote a typical or
maximum forward voltage (VF) for a
 specified current and temperature
(e.g. 20 mA and 25 °C for LEDs),[31]
so the user has a guarantee about
where in the knee a certain amount
of current will kick in.

Leveling off : At larger forward currents

the current–voltage curve starts to be
dominated by the ohmic resistance of
the bulk semiconductor. The curve is no
longer exponential, it is asymptotic to a
straight line whose slope is the bulk
resistance. This region is particularly
important for power diodes and can be
modeled by a Shockley ideal diode in
series with a fixed resistor.
Shockley diode equation
The Shockley ideal diode equation or t he diode law (named aft er t he bipolar junct ion t ransist or
co-invent or William Bradford Shockley) models t he exponent ial current –volt age (I–V)
relat ionship of diodes in moderat e forward or reverse bias. The art icle Shockley diode equat ion
provides det ails.

Small-signal behavior
At forward volt ages less t han t he sat urat ion volt age, t he volt age versus current charact erist ic
curve of most diodes is not a st raight line. The current can be approximat ed by
as explained in t he Shockley diode equat ion art icle.

In det ect or and mixer applicat ions, t he current can be est imat ed by a Taylor's series.[32] The odd
t erms can be omit t ed because t hey produce frequency component s t hat are out side t he pass
band of t he mixer or det ect or. Even t erms beyond t he second derivat ive usually need not be
included because t hey are small compared t o t he second order t erm.[32] The desired current
component is approximat ely proport ional t o t he square of t he input volt age, so t he response is
called square law in t his region.[26]: p. 3

Reverse-recovery effect
Following t he end of forwarding conduct ion in a p–n t ype diode, a reverse current can flow for a
short t ime. The device does not at t ain it s blocking capabilit y unt il t he mobile charge in t he
junct ion is deplet ed.

The effect can be significant when swit ching large current s very quickly.[33] A cert ain amount of
"reverse recovery t ime" tr (on t he order of t ens of nanoseconds t o a few microseconds) may be
required t o remove t he reverse recovery charge Qr from t he diode. During t his recovery t ime, t he
diode can act ually conduct in t he reverse direct ion. This might give rise t o a large current in t he
reverse direct ion for a short t ime while t he diode is reverse biased. The magnit ude of such a
reverse current is det ermined by t he operat ing circuit (i.e., t he series resist ance) and t he diode is
said t o be in t he st orage-phase.[34] In cert ain real-world cases it is import ant t o consider t he
losses t hat are incurred by t his non-ideal diode effect .[35] However, when t he slew rat e of t he
current is not so severe (e.g. Line frequency) t he effect can be safely ignored. For most
applicat ions, t he effect is also negligible for Schot t ky diodes.

The reverse current ceases abrupt ly when t he st ored charge is deplet ed; t his abrupt st op is
exploit ed in st ep recovery diodes for t he generat ion of ext remely short pulses.

Types of semiconductor diode

Current–voltage curves of several types of diodes

Normal (p–n) diodes, which operat e as described above, are usually made of doped silicon or
germanium. Before t he development of silicon power rect ifier diodes, cuprous oxide and lat er
selenium was used. Their low efficiency required a much higher forward volt age t o be applied
(t ypically 1.4 t o 1.7 V per "cell", wit h mult iple cells st acked so as t o increase t he peak inverse
volt age rat ing for applicat ion in high volt age rect ifiers), and required a large heat sink (oft en an
ext ension of t he diode's met al subst rat e), much larger t han t he lat er silicon diode of t he same
current rat ings would require. The vast majorit y of all diodes are t he p–n diodes found in CMOS
int egrat ed circuit s,[36] which include t wo diodes per pin and many ot her int ernal diodes.
Avalanche diodes
These are diodes that conduct in the
reverse direction when the reverse bias
voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage.
These are electrically very similar to
Zener diodes (and are often mistakenly
called Zener diodes), but break down by
a different mechanism: the avalanche
effect. This occurs when the reverse
electric field applied across the p–n
junction causes a wave of ionization,
reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to
a large current. Avalanche diodes are
designed to break down at a well-
defined reverse voltage without being
destroyed. The difference between the
avalanche diode (which has a reverse
breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the
Zener is that the channel length of the
former exceeds the mean free path of
the electrons, resulting in many
collisions between them on the way
through the channel. The only practical
difference between the two types is they
have temperature coefficients of
opposite polarities.
Constant-current diodes
These are actually JFETs[37] with the
gate shorted to the source, and function
like a two-terminal current-limiting
analog to the voltage-limiting Zener
diode. They allow a current through
them to rise to a certain value, and then
level off at a specific value. Also called
CLDs, constant-current diodes, diode-
connected transistors, or current-
regulating diodes.
Crystal rectifiers or crystal diodes
These are point-contact diodes.[26] The
1N21 series and others are used in
mixer and detector applications in radar
and microwave receivers.[23][24][25] The
1N34A is another example of a crystal
diode.[38]
Gunn diodes
These are similar to tunnel diodes in that
they are made of materials such as
GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of
negative differential resistance. With
appropriate biasing, dipole domains
form and travel across the diode,
allowing high frequency microwave
oscillators to be built.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
In a diode formed from a direct band-
gap semiconductor, such as gallium
arsenide, charge carriers that cross the
junction emit photons when they
recombine with the majority carrier on
the other side. Depending on the
material, wavelengths (or colors)[39]
from the infrared to the near ultraviolet
may be produced.[40] The first LEDs
were red and yellow, and higher-
frequency diodes have been developed
over time. All LEDs produce incoherent,
narrow-spectrum light; "white" LEDs are
actually a blue LED with a yellow
scintillator coating, or combinations of
three LEDs of a different color. LEDs can
also be used as low-efficiency
photodiodes in signal applications. An
LED may be paired with a photodiode or
phototransistor in the same package, to
form an opto-isolator.
Laser diodes
When an LED-like structure is contained
in a resonant cavity formed by polishing
the parallel end faces, a laser can be
formed. Laser diodes are commonly
used in optical storage devices and for
high speed optical communication.
Thermal diodes
This term is used both for conventional
p–n diodes used to monitor temperature
because of their varying forward voltage
with temperature, and for Peltier heat
pumps for thermoelectric heating and
cooling. Peltier heat pumps may be
made from semiconductors, though they
do not have any rectifying junctions, they
use the differing behavior of charge
carriers in N and P-type semiconductor
to move heat.
Photodiodes
All semiconductors are subject to
optical charge carrier generation. This is
typically an undesired effect, so most
semiconductors are packaged in light-
blocking material. Photodiodes are
intended to sense light (photodetector),
so they are packaged in materials that
allow light to pass, and are usually PIN
(the kind of diode most sensitive to
light).[41] A photodiode can be used in
solar cells, in photometry, or in optical
communications. Multiple photodiodes
may be packaged in a single device,
either as a linear array or as a two-
dimensional array. These arrays should
not be confused with charge-coupled
devices.
PIN diodes
A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or
intrinsic, layer, forming a p-
type/intrinsic/n-type structure.[42] They
are used as radio frequency switches
and attenuators. They are also used as
large-volume, ionizing-radiation
detectors and as photodetectors. PIN
diodes are also used in power
electronics, as their central layer can
withstand high voltages. Furthermore,
the PIN structure can be found in many
power semiconductor devices, such as
IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors.
Schottky diodes
Schottky diodes are constructed from
metal to semiconductor contact. They
have a lower forward voltage drop than
p–n junction diodes. Their forward
voltage drop at forward currents of
about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to
0.45 V, which makes them useful in
voltage clamping applications and
prevention of transistor saturation. They
can also be used as low loss rectifiers,
although their reverse leakage current is
in general higher than that of other
diodes. Schottky diodes are majority
carrier devices and so do not suffer
from minority carrier storage problems
that slow down many other diodes—so
they have a faster reverse recovery than
p–n junction diodes. They also tend to
have much lower junction capacitance
than p–n diodes, which provides for high
switching speeds and their use in high-
speed circuitry and RF devices such as
switched-mode power supply, mixers,
and detectors.
Super barrier diodes
Super barrier diodes are rectifier diodes
that incorporate the low forward voltage
drop of the Schottky diode with the
surge-handling capability and low
reverse leakage current of a normal p–n
junction diode.
Gold-doped diodes
As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as
recombination centers, which helps the
fast recombination of minority carriers.
This allows the diode to operate at
signal frequencies, at the expense of a
higher forward voltage drop. Gold-
doped diodes are faster than other p–n
diodes (but not as fast as Schottky
diodes). They also have less reverse-
current leakage than Schottky diodes
(but not as good as other p–n
diodes).[43][44] A typical example is the
1N914.
Snap-off or step recovery diodes
The term step recovery relates to the
form of the reverse recovery
characteristic of these devices. After a
forward current has been passing in an
SRD and the current is interrupted or
reversed, the reverse conduction will
cease very abruptly (as in a step
waveform). SRDs can, therefore, provide
very fast voltage transitions by the very
sudden disappearance of the charge
carriers.
Stabistors or forward reference diodes
The term stabistor refers to a special
type of diodes featuring extremely
stable forward voltage characteristics.
These devices are specially designed for
low-voltage stabilization applications
requiring a guaranteed voltage over a
wide current range and highly stable
over temperature.
Transient voltage suppression diode
(TVS)
These are avalanche diodes designed
specifically to protect other
semiconductor devices from high-
voltage transients.[45] Their p–n
junctions have a much larger cross-
sectional area than those of a normal
diode, allowing them to conduct large
currents to ground without sustaining
damage.
Tunnel diodes or Esaki diodes
These have a region of operation
showing negative resistance caused by
quantum tunneling,[46] allowing
amplification of signals and very simple
bistable circuits. Because of the high
carrier concentration, tunnel diodes are
very fast, may be used at low (mK)
temperatures, high magnetic fields, and
in high radiation environments.[47]
Because of these properties, they are
often used in spacecraft.
Varicap or varactor diodes
These are used as voltage-controlled
capacitors. These are important in PLL
(phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-
locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning
circuits, such as those in television
receivers, to lock quickly on to the
frequency. They also enabled tunable
oscillators in the early discrete tuning of
radios, where a cheap and stable, but
fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator
provided the reference frequency for a
voltage-controlled oscillator.
Zener diodes
These can be made to conduct in
reverse bias (backward), and are
correctly termed reverse breakdown
diodes. This effect called Zener
breakdown, occurs at a precisely
defined voltage, allowing the diode to be
used as a precision voltage reference.
The term Zener diodes is colloquially
applied to several types of breakdown
diodes, but strictly speaking, Zener
diodes have a breakdown voltage of
below 5 volts, whilst avalanche diodes
are used for breakdown voltages above
that value. In practical voltage reference
circuits, Zener and switching diodes are
connected in series and opposite
directions to balance the temperature
coefficient response of the diodes to
near-zero. Some devices labeled as
high-voltage Zener diodes are actually
avalanche diodes (see above). Two
(equivalent) Zeners in series and in
reverse order, in the same package,
 constitute a transient absorber (or
Transorb, a registered trademark).

Graphic symbols
The symbol used t o represent a part icular t ype of diode in a circuit diagram conveys t he general
elect rical funct ion t o t he reader. There are alt ernat ive symbols for some t ypes of diodes, t hough
t he differences are minor. The t riangle in t he symbols point s t o t he forward direct ion, i.e. in t he
direct ion of convent ional current flow.
Diode

Light-emitting diode (LED)

Photodiode

Schottky diode
Transient-voltage-suppression diode (TVS)

Tunnel diode
Varicap

Zener diode
 Typical diode packages in same alignment
as diode symbol. Thin bar depicts the
cathode.

Numbering and coding schemes

There are a number of common, st andard and manufact urer-driven numbering and coding
schemes for diodes; t he t wo most common being t he EIA/JEDEC st andard and t he European Pro
Elect ron st andard:

EIA/JEDEC
The st andardized 1N-series numbering EIA370 syst em was int roduced in t he US by EIA/JEDEC
(Joint Elect ron Device Engineering Council) about 1960. Most diodes have a 1-prefix designat ion
(e.g., 1N4003). Among t he most popular in t his series were: 1N34A/1N270 (germanium signal),
1N914/1N4148 (silicon signal), 1N400x (silicon 1A power rect ifier), and 1N580x (silicon 3A power
rect ifier).[48][49][50]
JIS
The JIS semiconduct or designat ion syst em has all semiconduct or diode designat ions st art ing
wit h "1S".

Pro Electron
The European Pro Elect ron coding syst em for act ive component s was int roduced in 1966 and
comprises t wo let t ers followed by t he part code. The first let t er represent s t he semiconduct or
mat erial used for t he component (A = germanium and B = silicon) and t he second let t er
represent s t he general funct ion of t he part (for diodes, A = low-power/signal, B = variable
capacit ance, X = mult iplier, Y = rect ifier and Z = volt age reference); for example:

AA-series germanium low-power/signal

diodes (e.g., AA119)
BA-series silicon low-power/signal
diodes (e.g., BAT18 silicon RF switching
diode)
BY-series silicon rectifier diodes (e.g.,
BY127 1250V, 1A rectifier diode)
 BZ-series silicon Zener diodes (e.g.,
BZY88C4V7 4.7V Zener diode)
Ot her common numbering/coding syst ems (generally manufact urer-driven) include:

GD-series germanium diodes (e.g.,

GD9) – this is a very old coding system
OA-series germanium diodes (e.g.,
OA47) – a coding sequence developed
by Mullard, a UK company

Related devices

Rectifier
Transistor
Thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier
(SCR)
TRIAC
 DIAC
Varistor
In opt ics, an equivalent device for t he diode but wit h laser light would be t he opt ical isolat or,
also known as an opt ical diode,[51] t hat allows light t o only pass in one direct ion. It uses a Faraday
rot at or as t he main component .

Applications

Radio demodulation

A simple envelope demodulator circuit.

The first use for t he diode was t he demodulat ion of amplit ude modulat ed (AM) radio broadcast s.
The hist ory of t his discovery is t reat ed in dept h in t he cryst al det ect or art icle. In summary, an
AM signal consist s of alt ernat ing posit ive and negat ive peaks of a radio carrier wave, whose
amplit ude or envelope is proport ional t o t he original audio signal. The diode rect ifies t he AM radio
frequency signal, leaving only t he posit ive peaks of t he carrier wave. The audio is t hen ext ract ed
from t he rect ified carrier wave using a simple filt er and fed int o an audio amplifier or t ransducer,
which generat es sound waves via audio speaker.

In microwave and millimet er wave t echnology, beginning in t he 1930s, researchers improved and
miniat urized t he cryst al det ect or. Point cont act diodes (crystal diodes ) and Schot t ky diodes are
used in radar, microwave and millimet er wave det ect ors.[29]
Power conversion

Schematic of basic ac-to-dc power supply

Rect ifiers are const ruct ed from diodes, where t hey are used t o convert alt ernat ing current (AC)
elect ricit y int o direct current (DC). Aut omot ive alt ernat ors are a common example, where t he
diode, which rect ifies t he AC int o DC, provides bet t er performance t han t he commut at or or
earlier, dynamo. Similarly, diodes are also used in Cockcroft–Walton voltage multipliers t o convert
AC int o higher DC volt ages.

Reverse-voltage protection
Since most elect ronic circuit s can be damaged when t he polarit y of t heir power supply input s
are reversed, a series diode is somet imes used t o prot ect against such sit uat ions. This concept
is known by mult iple naming variat ions t hat mean t he same t hing: reverse volt age prot ect ion,
reverse polarit y prot ect ion, and reverse bat t ery prot ect ion.

Over-voltage protection
Diodes are frequent ly used t o conduct damaging high volt ages away from sensit ive elect ronic
devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conduct ing) under normal circumst ances. When
t he volt age rises above t he normal range, t he diodes become forward-biased (conduct ing). For
example, diodes are used in (st epper mot or and H-bridge) mot or cont roller and relay circuit s t o
de-energize coils rapidly wit hout t he damaging volt age spikes t hat would ot herwise occur. (A
diode used in such an applicat ion is called a flyback diode). Many int egrat ed circuit s also
incorporat e diodes on t he connect ion pins t o prevent ext ernal volt ages from damaging t heir
sensit ive t ransist ors. Specialized diodes are used t o prot ect from over-volt ages at higher power
(see Diode t ypes above).

Logic gates
Diode-resist or logic const ruct s AND and OR logic gat es. Funct ional complet eness can be
achieved by adding an act ive device t o provide inversion (as done wit h diode-t ransist or logic).

Ionizing radiation detectors

In addit ion t o light , ment ioned above, semiconduct or diodes are sensit ive t o more energet ic
radiat ion. In elect ronics, cosmic rays and ot her sources of ionizing radiat ion cause noise pulses
and single and mult iple bit errors. This effect is somet imes exploit ed by part icle det ect ors t o
det ect radiat ion. A single part icle of radiat ion, wit h t housands or millions of elect ron volt , s of
energy, generat es many charge carrier pairs, as it s energy is deposit ed in t he semiconduct or
mat erial. If t he deplet ion layer is large enough t o cat ch t he whole shower or t o st op a heavy
part icle, a fairly accurat e measurement of t he part icle's energy can be made, simply by
measuring t he charge conduct ed and wit hout t he complexit y of a magnet ic spect romet er, et c.
These semiconduct or radiat ion det ect ors need efficient and uniform charge collect ion and low
leakage current . They are oft en cooled by liquid nit rogen. For longer-range (about a cent imet er)
part icles, t hey need a very large deplet ion dept h and large area. For short -range part icles, t hey
need any cont act or un-deplet ed semiconduct or on at least one surface t o be very t hin. The
back-bias volt ages are near breakdown (around a t housand volt s per cent imet er). Germanium and
silicon are common mat erials. Some of t hese det ect ors sense posit ion as well as energy. They
have a finit e life, especially when det ect ing heavy part icles, because of radiat ion damage. Silicon
and germanium are quit e different in t heir abilit y t o convert gamma rays t o elect ron showers.
Semiconduct or det ect ors for high-energy part icles are used in large numbers. Because of energy
loss fluct uat ions, accurat e measurement of t he energy deposit ed is of less use.

Temperature measurements
A diode can be used as a t emperat ure measuring device, since t he forward volt age drop across
t he diode depends on t emperat ure, as in a silicon bandgap t emperat ure sensor. From t he
Shockley ideal diode equat ion given above, it might appear t hat t he volt age has a positive
t emperat ure coefficient (at a const ant current ), but usually t he variat ion of t he reverse
sat urat ion current t erm is more significant t han t he variat ion in t he t hermal volt age t erm. Most
diodes t herefore have a negative t emperat ure coefficient , t ypically −2 mV/°C for silicon diodes.
The t emperat ure coefficient is approximat ely const ant for t emperat ures above about 20 kelvin.
Some graphs are given for 1N400x series,[52] and CY7 cryogenic t emperat ure sensor.[53]

Current steering
Diodes will prevent current s in unint ended direct ions. To supply power t o an elect rical circuit
during a power failure, t he circuit can draw current from a bat t ery. An unint errupt ible power
supply may use diodes in t his way t o ensure t hat t he current is only drawn from t he bat t ery when
necessary. Likewise, small boat s t ypically have t wo circuit s each wit h t heir own
bat t ery/bat t eries: one used for engine st art ing; one used for domest ics. Normally, bot h are
charged from a single alt ernat or, and a heavy-dut y split -charge diode is used t o prevent t he
higher-charge bat t ery (t ypically t he engine bat t ery) from discharging t hrough t he lower-charge
bat t ery when t he alt ernat or is not running.

Diodes are also used in elect ronic musical keyboards. To reduce t he amount of wiring needed in
elect ronic musical keyboards, t hese inst rument s oft en use keyboard mat rix circuit s. The
keyboard cont roller scans t he rows and columns t o det ermine which not e t he player has pressed.
The problem wit h mat rix circuit s is t hat , when several not es are pressed at once, t he current can
flow backward t hrough t he circuit and t rigger "phant om keys" t hat cause "ghost " not es t o play.
To avoid t riggering unwant ed not es, most keyboard mat rix circuit s have diodes soldered wit h t he
swit ch under each key of t he musical keyboard. The same principle is also used for t he swit ch
mat rix in solid-st at e pinball machines.

Waveform clipper
Diodes can be used t o limit t he posit ive or negat ive excursion of a signal t o a prescribed volt age.

Clamper

This simple diode clamp

will clamp the negative
peaks of the incoming
waveform to the common
rail voltage

A diode clamp circuit can t ake a periodic alt ernat ing current signal t hat oscillat es bet ween
posit ive and negat ive values, and vert ically displace it such t hat eit her t he posit ive or t he
negat ive peaks occur at a prescribed level. The clamper does not rest rict t he peak-t o-peak
excursion of t he signal, it moves t he whole signal up or down so as t o place t he peaks at t he
reference level.
Computing exponentials & logarithms
The diode's exponent ial current –volt age relat ionship is exploit ed t o evaluat e exponent iat ion and
it s inverse funct ion t he logarit hm using analog volt age signals (see Operat ional amplifier
applicat ions §§ Exponent ial out put ​and Logarit hmic out put ).

Abbreviations
Diodes are usually referred t o as D for diode on PCBs. Somet imes t he abbreviat ion CR for crystal
rectifier is used.[54]

See also

Electronics
portal

Active rectification
Diode modelling
Fast/ultrafast diode
Flame rectification
 Lambda diode
Lr-diode
p–n junction
Small-signal model

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Further reading

Historical circuit books

50 Simple LED Circuits; 1st Ed; R.N.

Soar; Babani Press; 62 pages; 1977;
ISBN 978-0859340434. (archive) ([Link]
[Link]/Archive-Bookshel
f/Author-Groups/Babani/42-Soar-50-Simple-LED
-[Link])

38 Practical Tested Diode Circuits For the

Home Constructor; 1st Ed; Bernard
Babani; Krisson Printing; 48 pages; 1972.
(archive) ([Link]
m/Archive-Bookshelf/Author-Groups/Bernards%

20Radio%20Manuals/09-38-Practical-Tested-Di
[Link])

Diode Circuits Handbook; 1st Ed; Rufus

Turner; Howard Sams & Co; 128 pages;
1963; LCCN 63-13904. (archive) ([Link]
[Link]/Archive-Bookshelf/
Author-Groups/Rufus-Turner/Diode-Circuits-Han
[Link])
40 Uses for Germanium Diodes; 2nd Ed;
Sylvania Electric Products; 47 pages;
1949. (archive) ([Link]
o/SemiconductorHistory/40%20Uses%20for%20

Germanium%[Link])

Historical periodicals

Rectifier Applications Handbook; On

Semiconductor; 270 pages; 2001.
(archive) ([Link]

7093106/[Link]
cationNotes/Rectifier%20Applications%20Hand
[Link])

Silicon Rectifier Handbook; 1st Ed; Bob

Dale; Motorola; 213 pages; 1966.
(archive) ([Link]
CRsTriacs-MotorolaSiliconRectifierHandbook19
66OCR/)

Electronic Rectification; F.G. Spreadbury;

D. Van Nostrand Co; 1962.
Zener Diode Handbook; International
Rectifier; 96 pages; 1960.
F.T. Selenium Rectifier Handbook; 2nd Ed;
Federal Telephone and Radio; 80 pages;
1953. (archive) ([Link]
[Link]/Archive-Bookshelf/Technology/Federa
[Link])

S.T. Selenium Rectifier Handbook; 1st Ed;

Sarkes Tarzian; 80 pages; 1950. (archive)
([Link]
Handbook_Sarkes-Tarzian_Company/)
Historical databooks

Discrete Databook ([Link]

etails/bitsavers_nationaldaDiscreteSemi
conductorProducts_42478563) ; 1989;
National Semiconductor (now Texas
Instruments)
Discrete Databook ([Link]
etails/bitsavers_fairchilddldDiscreteDat
aBook_35122751) ; 1985; Fairchild (now
ON Semiconductor)
Discrete Databook ([Link]
etails/bitsavers_sgsdataBooDevices5ed
_46325378) ; 1982; SGS (now
STMicroelectronics)
 Semiconductor Databook ([Link]
[Link]/details/1965MotorolaSemiconduc
torDataManual) ; 1965; Motorola (now
ON Semiconductor)

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related

to Diodes .

Retrieved from
"[Link]
title=Diode&oldid=1212518615"
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