TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................................................................................iii

CHAPTER ONE........................................................................................................................................1

1.0 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1

1.1 BACKGROUND...............................................................................................................................1

1.1.1 LOCATION OF BULYANHULU GOLD MINE.......................................................................2

1.1.2 LOCAL GEOLOGY OF BULYANHULU GOLD MINE..........................................................3

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT................................................................................................................5

1.3 OBJECTIVES....................................................................................................................................6

1.3.1 MAIN OBJECTIVE...................................................................................................................6

1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES...........................................................................................................6

1.4 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT..............................................................................................................6

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT...............................................................................................7

CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................................8

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................................................8

2.1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................8

2.2 CABLE BOLT SUPPORT PRINCIPLES.......................................................................................10

2.3 DESIGN FACTORS OF CABLE BOLTING..................................................................................12

2.4 DESIGN OF CABLE BOLT SUPPORT SYSTEM........................................................................14

2.4.1 EMPIRCAL DESIGN RULES DEVELOPED IN PRACTICE................................................14

2.4.2 EMPIRICAL GUIDELINE BASED ON ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION..........................15

2.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING DILUTION ON OPEN STOPE MINING.........................................20

CHAPTER THREE.................................................................................................................................23

3.0 METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................................23

3.1 PROCEDURES...............................................................................................................................23

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 3.2 EVALUATING FACTORS AFFECTING CABLE BOLT PERFORMANCE...............................25

3.3 ANALYSING THE EXTENT OF DILUTION OCCURING ON OPEN STOPE BOUNDARY....27

3.4 DEVELOPING OPTIMAL CABLE BOLT DESIGN.....................................................................28

CHAPTER FOUR...................................................................................................................................30

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION....................................................................................................30

REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................35

APPENDICES.........................................................................................................................................37

1. STOPE PARAMETERS.............................................................................................................37

2. DILUTION ON OPEN STOPE BOUNDARY..............................................................................39

ii
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Location of Bulyanhulu Gold Mine (Source: Google Earth)...........................................3
Figure 2: Typical geological section and rock types (African Barrick Gold: An Overview on
Geology)..........................................................................................................................................5
Figure 3: Flow Chart for Design of Cable Bolt (Brian, 1989).......................................................18
Figure 4: Step D- Cable Bolt Design Flow Chart (Brian, 1989)...................................................19
Figure 5: Graph of Predicted ELOS and Actual ELOS on Competent Ground zone....................30
Figure 6: Graph of Predicted ELOS and Actual ELOS on Highly Foliated zone.........................30
Figure 7: Graph of Predicted ELOS and Actual ELOS on Highly Stressed zone.........................31
Figure 8: Graph of Predicted ELOS and Actual ELOS on Thick Argillite zone..........................31
Figure 9: Wedges of Open stope...................................................................................................34

iii
 CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Once powered drilling machines and bolt installers were developed in the 1940s and 1950s,
cable bolting became mechanized. Underground mine support now has a more feasible option
because to the significant efficiency gains achieved by cable bolting mechanization. In hard rock
mines, where it was employed for ground control in deeply underground excavations, cable
bolting found new applications (Aydan, 2001).
Significant progress in cable bolting technology was accomplished in the 1960s and 1970s, with
new bolt materials such fibre-reinforced polymers and installation methods developed. These
developments made cable bolting more successful and efficient, which contributed to its growing
acceptance in the mining industry (Schwartz, 2004).
Nowadays, cable bolting is a common technique for supporting underground mines and a crucial
part of mining operations. The purpose of current developments in cable bolting technology is to
increase the strength, the lifespan, and resistance to corrosion of cable bolts. Furthermore, studies
are being done on how to use monitoring systems and sensor technology to enhance the
effectiveness and safety of cable-bolted excavations (Sellers, 2011).
Ground control is an essential component of hard rock underground mining operations. If not
well handled, the enormous loads created around excavations can cause rock mass instability and
dilution (Villaescusa, 2014). In huge open stopes, cable bolts are frequently employed as
additional support to reinforce jointed rock masses and prevent loose blocks and unwinding
wedges from falling into the open vacuum. High-capacity tendons called cable bolts are grouted
into holes drilled in stopes' walls and backs.
The effectiveness of cable bolts for stope stability is contingent upon appropriate placement and
complete tendon encapsulation. To do this, boreholes of a suitable diameter must be drilled,
grout must be properly mixed and pumped, and tensioning to compress the cable must be done.
To confirm design assumptions and load capability, installed cable bolts must undergo routine
testing. In order to regulate access and reduce exposure below supporting ground, monitoring
and rib control systems are also required (Tadolini, 2013).

1
Cable bolts play a crucial role in underground mining reinforcing rock structures and providing
stability to prevent collapses. These cable bolts are installed in a pattern to support the
surrounding rock mass, enhancing safety and facilitating efficient ore extraction. Cable bolt
performance depend on factors such as installation techniques, rock conditions and bolt design
(Brady, 2006).
In underground mine cable bolting involves installation of steel cables into drilled holes in the
rock then grouted to create a stable support system. Cable bolts are installed on both sides of the
hanging wall and footwall on the stope to increase the stability of the rock mass, control dilution
of waste material from the stope border and create a safe working environment. The
effectiveness of cable bolting lies in its ability to provide reinforcement to the rock mass
enhancing its structural integrity. These cables act as tensioned elements, anchoring the rock and
distributing loads, thereby reducing the likelihood of fractures and instability. (Kaiser P. K.,
2006).

The cable bolts help to mobilise the inherent strength of Surrounded by competent rock, the steep
dip orebody is extracted using a sublevel open stoping process. Cable bolts, which may pierce
deeply into the rock mass and prevent separation along weak spots like joints, can be used to
reinforce large volumes of rock. The cable bolts help to mobilize the inherent strength of the
rock mass, which improves overall stability.

Dilution affects the total quality and quantity of mined ore, making it a major difficulty in open
stope mining. Lower material recovery rates are the result of waste rock or low-grade material
seeping into the mined ore. Dilution also directly affects stope costs, which in turn affects the
profitability of the mining operation. The expense of mucking, hauling, crushing, hoisting,
milling, and treating waste or low-grade rock that has little to no value has an economic impact
on dilution because it displaces valuable ore and processing capacity (Henning, 2011).

In order to prevent overbreak dilution, or the breaking and falling out of material beyond the ore
boundary. Significant rockfall was experienced in the majority of the stopes in both the hanging
wall and the footwall, where blast damage and an unfavourable structure orientation were
contributing factors (Saiang, 2023).

2
1.1.1 LOCATION OF BULYANHULU GOLD MINE
Bulyanhulu Gold Mine is an underground mine situated in Kahama District, Shinyanga region,
approximately 55km south of Lake Victoria. African Barrick Gold (ABG), a fully owned
subsidiary of Barrick Gold Corporation, is the one who owns and runs it.
In June 1999 ABG purchased Sutton Resources in order to obtain the land. With a total capital
expenditure of about US$ 280 million, the mine was constructed. In April of 2001, it began
commercial operations with the pouring of the first gold. Operations at the mine are expected to
end on 2034 (Barrick, 2012). The development of Bulyanhulu is an underground trackless
mining operation. Four mining techniques are being used to mine it: mechanized drift and fill
stopping, traditional cut and fill stopping, long hole sublevel stoping, and Alimak stoping.

The mine features a tailings storage facility, water management ponds, an appurtenant facility,
and a crushing, grinding, and flotation plant. Additional mining infrastructure includes dozers,
loaders, drill jumbos, scoops, dump trucks, utility vehicles, and handled equipment.

Figure 1: Location of Bulyanhulu Gold Mine (Source: Google Earth)

3
1.1.2 LOCAL GEOLOGY OF BULYANHULU GOLD MINE
Bulyanhulu is a large gold deposit situated in the prospective Lake Victoria goldfields of
Tanzania, within the Sukuma land greenstone belt, an arcuate terrain of the Archean age. The
Bulyanhulu mine is located among the Archean rock formations' shear hosted quartz-vein
deposit. It is home to a sequence of pyroclastic and ash tuffs covering mafic volcanic flows. The
type of rock that has mineralization is called argillite, and it is housed between the mine's mafic
and felsic rocks.

The mine consists of five different deposits, namely the main, East and West zones and Reef 0, 1
and 2. Bulyanhulu mineralization occurred as a results of shear zone occurred many years ago.
Gold mineralization occurs in the reef or quartz veins which are steeply plunging towards north-
west striking structures. The mineralization extends to a strike length of 5km and 2m up to 3m in
width. Most of the mineralization is identified in reef 1. They are currently working at reef 1 and
2 on production and exploration activities.

On December 2011, the mine has 28.10 million tons of proved probable reserves, graded at
11.73g/t Au (10.63 Moz gold equivalent), 0.669% Cu, and 9.38g/t Ag. The distribution of
sulphide ore within the reefs that drop sharply is linked to the gold. The mine hosts high grade
gold (Au) and low-grade copper (Cu) and silver (Ag). (Barrick Gold, 2012).
The rock types found at Bulyanhulu are bimodal mafic and felsic volcanic of the west kahama
segment of the nyanzanian age greenstone belt. The mafic rocks are predominantly flows
overlain by a series of felsic and ash tuff. The ore is characterized by sub-continuous lenses and
veins of black-quartz concentrated in narrow shear zones. An initial stage syn-depositional
barren clastic pyrites has been identified, overprinted by a poly metallic hydrothermal event
associated with gold and copper mineralization.

Alteration, dominantly carbonization with the major introduction of Fe, Ca, As, Zn and S is
restricted to less than 5m around the mineralized quartz veins, initial fluid inclusion studies
suggest the mineralizing fluid was carbonic and methane bearing at 300 to 400°C (Barrick Gold,
2012).

Petro physics and Reefs descriptions

At Bulyanhulu gold mine there are two reefs of mineralization which are reef 1 and reef 2

4
  Reef 1: Main mineralized zone, coincident strong chargeable and moderate conductive
source and weak magnetic due to pyrrhotite.
 Reef 2: Have weak to moderate chargeable response. Resistive bulk character through
interconnected chalcopyrite which can cause local conductivity.

Figure 2: Typical geological section and rock types (African Barrick Gold: An Overview on
Geology)

Lithological units often dip from 85° to 90° in a north-eastern direction and strike between 315°
and 320°. Shear zones consisting of a complex of graphite and quartz-sulphide veins are home to
gold, silver, and copper mineralization found in greenstones. Reef horizons normally have a
sharp dipping angle of 85° to 90° and are sub-parallel to the lithological units.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Bulyanhulu Gold Mine is an underground mine that uses sublevel open stoping method to extract
an ore body located in different geotechnical zones. One of the challenges that facing the process
of extracting those ore bodies from different zones is stope dilution. Extraction of an ore body is
taking place on an open stope, on these stopes cable bolt has been installed to both side of the
stope wall (Hanging wall and Footwall) for the aim of preventing dilution by evaluating the
overall performance to control the unplanned dilution on stope boundaries.

5
There are many factors that contributing to unplanned dilution in open stope mining like drilling
and blasting, stope design factors and geological factors on different zones. The study conducted
by (Henning, 2011) on the influence of stope type and cable bolt reinforcement on unplanned ore
dilution justify that cable bolt performance plays a significant role in causing stope dilution in
underground excavation if it is not well designed and installed when other factors are well
managed. The extent of dilution that happens during ore extraction as a result of improper
installation or poor performance of already installed cable bolts is directly impacted by the
effectiveness of cable bolting, which also affects the stability of the rock mass.

Poor performance of cable bolt led to the occurrence of Equivalent Linear Overbreak Slough
(ELOS) on some mined stopes. Minimum allowable overbreak is 0.5 m mean that actual ELOS
should not exceed the standard. The planned dilution set by company range between 10% up to
15% on the mined-out stopes, but due to the ineffective performance of cable bolt led to an
increase in ELOS values. According to the geotechnical zone ELOS heat map show the range of
ELOS on different zones such as 0.5 m for competent ground, 0.5-1.1 m for highly foliated, 1.0-
2.0 m for highly stress and > 2 m for thick argillite. The contribution of this project is to improve
cable bolt performance for controlling dilution, maximizing ore recovery and reducing the
operation costs.

1.3 OBJECTIVES
1.3.1 MAIN OBJECTIVE
 To assess influence of cable bolt performance on dilution in open stope mining

1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

 To evaluate factors affecting cable bolt performance
 To analyse the extent of dilution occurring on open stope boundary
 To develop optimal cable bolting design to minimize dilution in open stope.

1.4 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

This project is expected to assess the cable bolt performance so as to control the dilution in open
stope during mining operations to reduce the unwanted material that will lead to the lower
material recovery that results in dilution which has a direct influence on the cost of stope, and
ultimately on profitability of mining operation. The selection criteria used for study is limited to

6
geological properties on the geotechnical zones with similar properties are grouped together,
then one zone is selected as representative to other remained zones with similar geological
properties. Selection made as follows, for all zones with Thick Argillite (GZ-TA) zone 2 will be
representative, for all zones with Competent Ground (GZ-CG) zone 9 will be representative, for
all zones with Highly Foliated (GZ-HF) zone B will be representative and finally for zones with
Highly Stress (GZ-HS) zone C will be representative. The selected zones will be representatives
to other zones with the same geological characteristics of rock mass of an open stope.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

This project will improve the cost-effectiveness, safety, and operational efficiency of the open-
stope mining operations. The study offers important insights into enhancing ground support
systems and reducing stope dilution. The results of this study will help improve decision-making
procedures, which will increase productivity, lower operational hazards, and increase the
financial sustainability of mining operations.

7
 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Cable bolt is a measure of effectiveness in maintaining the overall stability of the hanging pillar.
Cable bolts enables safe drilling from two top sill, maximizing ore recovery and saving costs.
The problem associated with ore body geometry where cable bolt design adopted to varying ore
body geometry, allowing for optimal stope layout and increased ore extraction. Ore body
geometry varies specifically between hanging wall and footwall across the strike length of the
various ore bodies, these variability in the ore body geometry poses some planning difficulties to
recover ore from stope area where ore body is wider compared to adjacent stopes where ore body
is narrower on the same level. On 880 ore body original ore body wireframe with a narrow width
on 2660 L and wider on 2800 L. During mining stopes found between 2660 L and 2800 L
indicates that ore body increasing in width than on the strike length on 2660 L. These variability
in ore body geometry signify that mine planner should plan to drive two sills on the top of cut for
maximizing the ore extraction between mined stopes at 2660 L and 2800 L (Chinnasane, 2014).

Among the best reinforcing ground support elements for many applications in underground hard
rock mining has been proven to be the cable bolt. In a variety of ore bodies, ten stopes have been
mined successfully utilizing cable bolts to support hanging pillars while mining. When stopes
were mined utilizing two sills, these cable bolts proved to be very helpful in preserving the
overall stability of the hanging pillar, improving the safety of underground work. Because ore
body geometry varies locally, it would have been possible to enhance ore recovery from stopes
when more ore was available without using cable bolts as reinforcing elements (Chinnasane,
2014).

Stress changes in surrounding rock mass after installation of cable bolt have tendency to affect
bond strength of cable bolt (Kaiser P. Y., 1992; Hyett, 1993). When stress increases lead to
increase in bond strength while stress decrease can reduce the bond strength (Hutchinson, 1993).

8
The bond strength of cable bolt in bottom section of the pillar may have been weakened due to
stress variation that led to the challenges on the effectiveness of cable bolt in stabilizing pillar
such as lower portion of the pillar sometimes experiences partial failure due to vibration, lack of
confinement and stress changes.

The effectiveness of cable bolting in reducing overbreak shows that stopes with cable bolt
reinforcement often show less hanging-wall overbreak than stopes without. For instance, it was
discovered that in Block 5, the hanging-wall overbreak connected to secondary stope types was
7% greater than that of primary stope types. Nonetheless, it was demonstrated that the existence
of cable bolt reinforcement affected the amount of hanging-wall dilution in Block 5. The average
hanging-wall overbreak associated with secondary stopes was found to be 16% more than that of
primary stope types when examining only those Block 5 stopes supported by cable bolts set in an
unfavourable orientation (cable bolts fanning upward). This means that the orientation of the
cable bolts with relation to the expected direction of hanging-wall sloughage affects the
efficiency of the reinforcing. Only Block 5 stopes supported by cable bolts fanning upward, or in
an unfavourable orientation, were taken into account. It was discovered that the average hanging-
wall overbreak associated with secondary stopes was 16% greater than that of primary stope
types. This implies that when installing cable bolt reinforcement in stopes, cable bolt orientation
is important factor to consider. Overall, the study of stope type and cable bolt reinforcement on
unplanned ore dilution highlights the importance of cable bolt reinforcement in reducing
unplanned ore dilution and improving the profitability of mining operations (Henning, 2011a).

For stopes with less effective upward-fanning cable bolts nonetheless having lower overbreak
than stopes with no reinforcement. Cable bolt orientation relative to the anticipated direction of
hanging wall sloughing plays a crucial role in their effectiveness. It was discovered that
downward-fanning cable bolts are more effective than upward-fanning ones at mobilizing tensile
load under shear. Cable bolts fan down of primary stopes (P1, P2, P3) and secondary stope (S2)
have higher performance, means that is important to consider the orientation of cable bolts when
implementing cable bolt reinforcement in stopes. Other factors like stope dimension, rock mass
quality and stress condition were not conclusively explored as potential factor contributing
overbreak.

9
The stability analysis involves assessing the stability of the rock mass in the mining area, while
cable bolt support design involves designing a support system to prevent falling along existing
discontinuities in the rock mass. The integrated method for increasing stope roof stability
through cable bolt support design as technique used to evaluate the stability of rock masses in
mining locations and build a support system to prevent falling along existing discontinuities in
the rock mass. The method involves the combination of empirical and numerical methods to get
quantitative stability assessment and optimum cable bolt support design for deep large span stope
roof. Stability graph and rock mass rating are two techniques employed on the empirical method.
Cable bolt density needed to sustain the stope can be found using the cable bolt spacing design
graphs that are produced using the stability graph. Through the block size (parameter RQD/Jn)
and the ratio of block size (parameter RQD/Jn) and Hydraulic Radius of the stope surface, the
cable bolt density and jointing frequency are correlated. When cable bolt support density has
been determined, cable bolt support system can be constructed.

The study identifies probable instabilities and designs a cable bolt system that is customized to
the particular conditions by combining empirical (RMR, stability graph) and numerical
(Rocscience) assessments with a thorough characterization of the rock mass. cable bolt system
increases the safety factor of unstable wedge blocks while also reducing the thickness of the
plastic zone and the stope roof's vertical displacement. This illustrates how the integrated method
may be used to optimize cable bolt support for better stope roof stability and safer mining
activities (Zhao et al., 2019).

The kind of mining method selected has a big influence on the amount of dilution. When it
comes to controlling dilution, selective mining techniques such as room and pillar or cut and fill
are superior than bulk mining techniques like sublevel caving, which are vulnerable to
contamination from host rock and backfill (Villaescusa, 2014).
Geotechnical monitoring it is an essential part of the mine design optimization procedure that is
needed to accomplish the safest and most cost-effective extractions. The measurements have
three stages: before, during, and after excavation. The characterization of the geotechnical
environment as a component of the excavation design is typically the focus of earlier
measurements. Measurements are utilized during excavation to warn of potential hazards such as
deformation, excessive rock tension, and the extent of damage envelope surrounding the

10
underground apertures. After an excavation, measurements are made to gather the information
needed to optimize the designs of subsequent excavations (back analysis of performance). To
evaluate the response, the geotechnical monitoring procedure is necessary.

2.2 CABLE BOLT SUPPORT PRINCIPLES

The several steel strands that make up cable bolts are grouted into a borehole. The cohesion and
interlocking between the cable and surrounding matrix will transfer the weight of the rock mass
to the steel strands when the grout strengthens. Grouting and cable installation can be done after
the borehole has been dug. Applications and lengths for cable bolts at Bulyanhulu Gold Mine
range from comparative lengths of 6 m, 8 m, 10 m, and 12 m that hold substantial ground masses
surrounding different types of underground openings. The following are the main ideas of cable
bolt support:
1. Reinforcement
By enhancing competence along discontinuities and weaknesses, cable bolts reinforce rock
mass. To preserve stability, shear resistance is provided along potential failure planes by the
cables that are fixed in the competent ground. The purpose of installing cable bolts is to increase
shear strength along possible failure planes by crossing geological discontinuities and
weaknesses. Passive resistance to shear movement is provided by the high tensile strength strand
that is anchored in the competent ground. Clamping rock layers together reduces shear
displacement and functions as a strengthened beam.
The enhanced proficiency limits block rotation, slab detachment, buckling, and unraveling.

2. Restraint
By offering passive resistance to opening displacements, cable bolts prevent the separation of
rock slabs and wedges. This keeps loose blocks contained and limits the expansion, unraveling,
and the unravelling of the fractured ground surrounding openings.
The separation of rock strata and opening displacement caused by confinement are restrained by
cable bolts. Reactive tension loading is provided by the cables when the surrounding rock tries to
relax and dilate to release strain. The granite slabs or stones surrounding the entrance are
prevented from loosening, unraveling, or detaching by this passive resistance. Limitation reduces
the rate at which loosening occurs and regulates the deformation of fractured ground (Li, 2017)
3. Suspension

11
 By using cable trussing and beam-building techniques, cable bolting can keep loose or
disconnected blocks suspended and confined. These preserve opening integrity and offer safe
working conditions. Blocks that are unstable or detachable can be suspended in a restricted
condition using the concepts of cable bolt support. Because of their ability to truss and beam, the
wires can withstand weight from gravity. This makes it possible for cracked ground to be safely
and carefully hung from a capable anchorage zone. Suspension keeps sidewalls from unraveling
and preserves the stability of the hanging wall.

2.3 DESIGN FACTORS OF CABLE BOLTING

In underground mines, dilution cable bolts are frequently utilized to support and reinforce the
surrounding rock mass. They are intended to help lessen stope dilution and minimize rock
mass failure, protecting mine personnel. Nonetheless, the following elements impact how well
cable bolts function in deep mines.

a) Geological condition
The performance of the cable bolt is significantly impacted by geological condition. A number of
variables, including the kind of rock, its strength, joints, bedding planes, fault zones, and the
availability of water, can affect the rock mass's stability, which in turn affects how well cable
bolts work. For instance, weak or fractured rock needs extra support or changes to the bolt design
to ensure adequate reinforcement. Because weak rock is weak, stopping near it during mine
operations may cause an overbreak while the dilution cable bolt is being installed on it. Rock
mass characterization help to study the rock strength to which type of cable bolt is more suitable
for the rock type present on the stope.
b) Stope Geometry
The efficiency of cable bolts is largely dependent on the stope geometry. The distribution of
stresses inside the rock mass and the process of load transfer are influenced by the stope's
dimensions and shape. The stope has three dimensions: strike length, stope breadth, and stope
height. A longer cable bolt is required for installation of the stope at its highest height. Complex
or irregular stope geometry causes unequal loading on the cable bolts, which increases the risk of
failure or lowers performance. In order to provide appropriate load transfer and support, it is
crucial to take into account the interaction between the surrounding rock mass and the cable bolts
while constructing the stope geometry.

12
In geologic setting, jointing frequency and cable bolt density are correlated through block size
(parameter RQD/Jn). The Hydraulic radius of the stope surface and the block size ratio
(parameter RQD/Jn) are crucial factors in figuring out the cable bolt support density. A cable
bolt design graph that links cable bolt density to a relative block size factor has been effectively
produced by the research. This graph was not meant to be used in hanging wall design; instead, it
was created from a database of cable-bolted stope backs (Zhao et al., 2019).
An important element for figuring out the cable bolt support density in the geologic setting is the
relative block size factor, which is successfully correlated with cable bolt density in the
research's cable bolt design graph. This graph was not meant to be used in hanging wall design;
instead, it was created from a database of cable-bolted stope backs. Mining engineers can create
cable bolt support systems that are ideal for the particular geologic conditions of the mine by
using this graph.

c) Bolt design, Installation and Grouting

The efficacy of cable bolts is greatly influenced by the design, installation, and grouting
techniques employed. The design of a cable bolt is dependent on the particular geological
conditions; if an operator makes a mistake in the design while drilling a borehole or installing a
cable bolt, it will function less well. To improve weight transfer capacities, a solid link between
the surrounding rock mass and the cable bolts must be achieved through effective grouting. To
guarantee sufficient tensioning of the bolts and appropriate contact with the rock mass, correct
installation and grouting in accordance with the design are necessary. Cable bolt of different
length commonly used are 6m, 8m,10m and 12m long. These are installed by spacing of 2m and
grouting is place then cable bolts are tensioned. Most common method used for grouting of cable
bolt is breather tube method used for up holes only and with optimum grouting ratio of 0.4 water
to cement ratio (W:C).
The load carrying capacity of the cable is determined by several factors, including the
installation method. The cable is inserted into the hole and then tensioned to a specified load.
The installation process can affect the cable's load carrying capacity, and if not done correctly, it
can lead to reduced performance.
d) Load and stress distribution

13
The distribution of stress and load inside the rock mass are important variables influencing the
performance of cable bolts. Numerous variables, including the mining technique, the order of the
stopes, and the tension that neighbouring excavations create, affect how the loads are distributed.
Reduced efficiency of the cable bolts or localized failure are caused by uneven loads or
excessive concentrations of stress. The main purpose of these bolts, which are inserted into rock-
drilled boreholes, is to transfer load from the rock mass to the bolt itself. This lowers the risk of
rock mass failure and guarantees the stability of the underground mine. Each bolt's unique load
bearing capacity and resistance to deformation or failure under load are directly impacted by the
load distribution. Different failure types of cable bolts can be caused by non-uniform distribution
of stress and load. Higher loads than the bolts can withstand can cause the bolts to yield, fracture,
or pull out. Lower-loading bolts might not offer enough support to keep the granite mass from
collapsing. While non-uniform stress distribution might lead to differential displacements and
possible failure modes, uneven load distribution caused premature failure or inefficient use of
bolts.
The integrated empirical and numerical method utilized to generate the best cable bolt support
design for deep large-span stope roofs and a quantitative stability assessment is responsible for
the success of the cable bolt design in this study. A cable bolt design graph that links cable bolt
density to a relative block size factor a crucial variable for figuring out the cable bolt support
density in the geologic setting was produced by the empirical technique. The cable bolt support
system derived from the empirical method was further evaluated by the numerical method
utilizing Rocsciences. The results of the analysis showed that the maximum plastic zone
thickness and vertical displacement at the stope roof decreased significantly, and the safety factor
of the unstable wedge block increased significantly after installing the cable bolt support systems
recommended by the empirical method. This indicates that the cable bolt support system was
effective in stabilizing the stope roof and reducing the risk of rock falls (Zhao et al., 2019).

2.4 DESIGN OF CABLE BOLT SUPPORT SYSTEM

Design of cable bolt support system is based on the following criteria
1) Empirical design rules developed from field practice
2) Empirical support design guidelines related to rock mass classification

14
2.4.1 EMPIRCAL DESIGN RULES DEVELOPED IN PRACTICE
The most significant and challenging parameter to compute for the design of cable bolt support
systems is the assessment of the rock mass to be supported. Numerous assumptions must be
made because there are a lot of unknown geological and physical characteristics. They mainly
only apply to local circumstances hence they will differ amongst mines. The empirical design
method connects the conditions to the actual experience gathered from prior experience.
Traditionally, empirical design guidelines derived from practical field experience have been
applied to the construction of rock bolt and cable bolt support systems (Rajaie, 1990).
Many empirical design recommendations have been established through practical application;
examples include empirical equations derived from laboratory experiments and design guidelines
for empirical support in rock mass categorization investigations. The support specification for
every cable bolt failure mechanism is taken into consideration, together with the geometry and
rock mass conditions. Furthermore, to simulate the cable bolt in underground excavations,
numerical models based on the finite element approach have been developed. These models
simulate various cable bolting patterns and serve to validate the experimental findings. In
general, the design of cable bolts utilizing empirical design criteria that have been created
through practice combines assumptions based on local conditions, geological and physical
factors, and practical experience.

The density of cable bolts per unit area, the angle at which the cable bolts are oriented with
respect to the horizontal, the mechanical properties of the bonding element between the cable
and the borehole wall, and the mechanical and geological structure of the rock mass are some of
the factors that affect an adequate implanted cable length.
Here is a basic formula to determine cable bolt spacing

S=
√ N ×U×V
T × SF ×(sin ∝)3
… … … … … … … … … … … … … … .(i)

Where
S = spacing between cable bolts (ft)
N = number of cables per hole
U = ultimate tensile strength of the cable (ton)
V = specific volume of rock mass (cubic ft/ton)
T = Max. thickness of rock mass to be supported

15
∝ = angle that the cable makes with horizontal
SF = safety factor

2.4.2 EMPIRICAL GUIDELINE BASED ON ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION

Underground mining uses cable bolt support systems that are designed using empirical standards
based on the classification of rock masses. The majority of empirical design approaches are
based on the classification of rock masses. The design of cable bolt support systems has been
limited to empirical design guidelines derived from practical field experience. The most crucial
and challenging factor to determine when designing cable bolt support systems is the assessment
of the rock mass that needs to be supported. Many assumptions must be made due to the large
number of unknown characteristics, both physical and geological. These will vary from mine to
mine because they typically only apply to local conditions. The empirical method of design
relates practical experience gained on previous experience to the conditions. Empirical support
design guidelines related to rock mass classification studies have been developed to take into
account the geometry and rock mass conditions, as well as the support specification for each
cable bolt failure mode (Rajaie, 1990).
The Method put out by Matthews it involves plotting a stability number (N) derived from the
combination of certain geotechnical parameters against a shape factor (F) in order to
experimentally evaluate the stability of an open stope's surface boundary. The orientation of
exposed surfaces, stress status, and quality of the rock mass are all taken into consideration by
the stability number.
The size and shape of the opening are taken into account by the shape factor. As a result, stable
exposures should be represented by a high stability number and a low form factor, and instability
should be represented by the inverse. A basic explanation of the stability number is given below.
'
N=Q × A × B ×C … … … … … … … … … … … … …....(ii)
' RQD Jr
But, Q= × … … … … … … … … … .(iii)
Jr Ja
where
Q' = Modified Rock mass rating
A = stress factor
B = rock orientation factor
C = design surface orientation factor

16
RQD/Jn is a measure of block size for a jointed rock mass
Jr/Jn is a measure of joint surface strength and stiffness
Potvin updated the stability graph method to create design suggestions. To calculate the ideal
stope size, the main parameters that characterize the rock mass and stress conditions are
determined. The graph defines the conditions in which cable bolt systems can stabilize open
stope. The stable and unstable zones make up the two parts of the stability graph. On the graph,
the left side corresponds to the stable zone and the right side to the unstable zone. The graph
defines the conditions in which cable bolt systems can stabilize open stopes. As a case draws
closer to the dashed line, it makes sense to infer that the bolting intensity should rise.
Flow Chart Design for Cable Bolt
Flow chart provides a systematic approach to designing cable bolt support systems for
underground mining, taking into account the rock mass classification, opening size and
orientation, and other important design parameters (Rajaie, 1990).
The chart outlines the steps involved in designing a cable bolt support system for underground
mining.
1) Determine the required support capacity based on the rock mass classification and the
size of the opening.
2) Select the appropriate cable bolt pattern based on the orientation of the opening and the
stability of the rock mass.
3) Determine the cable bolt length and diameter based on the hydraulic radius of the
opening. The hydraulic radius is calculated using the opening width and height, and the
cable bolt length is determined based on the required support capacity and the cable bolt
diameter.
4) Select the appropriate grout type and mix design. The grout is used to fill the annulus
between the cable bolt and the rock mass, providing additional support.
5) Install the cable bolts and grout, and to monitor the performance of the support system
over time.

17
 Define/Estimate
size/shape/Movement Direction of STEP D1
Potential Failure Zone
PROBLEM
DEFINITION
Figure 3:
Define/Estimate Force tending to STEP D2
Destabilize Rock Mass Flow Chart
for Design
of Cable Bolt
Determine Cable Bolt Performance STEP D3
(Brian,
1989)

CABLE BOLT Define/Estimate Allowable STEP D4

PERFORMANCE Movement of Exposed Rock Surface

Calculate Cable Bolt Restraining STEP D5

Force (Opening or Sliding)

Define Access for Cable Bolt Support STEP D6

ACCESS AND
Determine Cable Bolt Efficiency
SUPPORT STEP D7
(Opening or Sliding)
EFFICIENCY

Examine Potential for Surface STEP D8

Fittings

Calculate Number of Cable Bolt STEP D9

Required

SUPPORT Calculate Cable Bolt Spacing STEP D10

SPECIFICATION

Calculate Cable Bolt Length STEP D11

18
 Failure Mode/s STEP C

Cable Design for one

cable type STEP D

Select Alternative Cable

Type or Access

STEP E
Total Cost Installed

Cost for Alternative Cable STEP F

Types for one Failure Mode

Support Specification for STEP G

each Failure Mode

Figure 4: Step D- Cable Bolt Design Flow Chart (Brian, 1989)

19
Table 1: Cable Bolt Design Parameters at Bulyanhulu Gold Mine (Source: Barrick, 2023)

S/N PARAMETER UNIT APPLICATION FOR DESIGN

1 Hole length 6m, 8m, 10m and Combination of lengths
12m
2 Ring spacing 2.5 m Fixed
3 Collar spacing Variable
4 Toe spacing Variable
5 Grout 0.4 Water: Cement Fixed
6 Curing time 3-7 days
7 Cable bolt type Bulbed 7 wire Fixed
single stranded
8 Cable bolt tensile 265 kN Fixed
strength
9 Cable bolt capacity 4 tonnes/m
(Max load/m)
10 Angle to design 90 degrees Always less due to mining
shape method used, but >/= 20 degrees
minimum

2.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING DILUTION ON OPEN STOPE MINING

Dilution in underground mine is influenced by numerous of factors interacting in various ways.
Analysing this phenomenon require accounting for a wide range of potential contributing factors,
these factors are categorized into four groups given below (Jang, 2014).

a) Geological factors
Underground stoping's unplanned dilution and ore loss are significantly affected by geological
conditions. Some resistance from harder rocks reduces overbreak, but instability and sloughing
from weaker rocks can lead to dilution. Joints and other discontinuities function as weak points
during blasting, which allows for uncontrollably breaking objects. High stress levels from
previous excavation and blasting may contribute to diluting risks by causing rockfalls.
Furthermore, groundwater causes rock to become more unstable and break down, which could

20
result in dilution. In order to reduce unexpected dilution and ore loss, blast design and stope
stability require thorough consideration of the intricate interactions between these geological
factors.
b) Blasting factors
Blasting Geometry: The layout and size of blastholes have a significant impact on the manner in
which the explosive energy fractures the rock. Adequate dimension, distance, weight, and angle
can produce unfavourable results. Excessive overbreak caused by large diameters or close
spacing may lose good ore and dilute it with waste rock. On the other hand, large spacing or tiny
diameters may leave unblasted rock (underbreak), which could result in lost minerals. The
direction of breaking is controlled by the angle (deviation from perpendicular) and the burden
(distance between the hole and the face), which both affect fragmentation. Errors in the drilling
process that cause deviations from the intended geometry compound these problems.
Explosive Type and Powder Factor: It's important to choose the appropriate explosive for the
properties of the rock and the intended fragmentation. Selecting an explosive with excessive
force (high powder factor) might cause overbreak and fractures in nearby rock, which will dilute
the explosive more. On the other hand, underpowered explosives may not produce the desired
effects or may need larger powder loads. Making the incorrect explosive choice can also result in
ineffective breakage and increased dilution.
Blasting Sequence and Timing: Stress distribution and rock behaviour are greatly impacted by
the sequence and timing of blasts within a stope. Improper sequencing can result in stress
imbalances, which can then cause instability and rockfalls, which can eventually cause dilution.
Dilution potential can be increased by blasting adjacent stopes very closely together or without
the appropriate delay timing, which can cause significant ground vibration and damage.
Inaccurate blast timing can also cause dilution and diverge from the intended fragmentation,
which can affect overall efficiency.
c) Stope design factors
Stope geometry: One of the most important factors in minimizing unexpected dilution and ore
loss is stope design. Stress distribution and stability are influenced by the shape, size, and
orientation of the stope. Higher stress concentrations in narrow stopes make them more
susceptible to overbreak and dilution. On the other hand, sloughing, in which loose rock falls
from the hanging wall and dilutes the ore, can occur in large stopes. The excavation sequence, or

21
stope sequencing, affects stability as well. Stress imbalances brought on by improper sequencing
might cause instability and dilution in succeeding stopes. Overcutting and undercutting add to
the complexity. The hanging wall is weakened by excessive undercutting, which raises the
possibility of instability and diluting of barren rock into the mining zone. By adding undesired
waste rock, overcutting also dilutes the mineral. Lastly, ground support like cables bolts is
essential for regulating the movement of rocks. Stresses cannot be adequately managed by
inadequate support systems, which causes instability and dilution.
d) Human errors and other factors
Unexpected dilution and ore loss can also be greatly impacted by human factors and outside
variables. For the intended blast geometry to be achieved, drilling accuracy is vital. Overbreak,
underbreak, and uneven fragmentation can result from deviations from intended patterns caused
by human mistake or equipment constraints, which eventually increases dilution. Moreover,
equipment malfunctions or constraints may make it difficult to excavate precisely, which could
cause a deviation from the intended design and add to dilution. During blasting and excavation, it
is crucial to have efficient communication and oversight in place to ensure protocol compliance
and avoid errors. Misunderstandings and oversights brought on by inadequate supervision or
communication could lead to the possibility of dilution. Management choices that are made
without taking adequate geological consideration can also lead to undesirable circumstances,
such as incorrect stope sequencing or support systems, which increase the danger of dilution.

22
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
Activities and materials required during data collections

The materials and activities that is utilized to gather data are thoroughly outlined about their
respective specialized goals. Take a look at the summaries of the tasks and resources that utilized
to accomplish the following project goals.

3.1 PROCEDURES
In order to accomplish the objective of this project/study, the following steps will be taken:
 Reviewing the data that was recorded on the operation of mined stopes, the installation of
cable bolts, and stope performance.
 Evaluating the current cable bolt design based on the stability analysis
 Conducting surveys using the cavity monitoring system to measure sloughage and
overbreak.
 Using numerical modelling to evaluate the stability of the stope wall and possible causes
of failure.
The methodology for assessment of cable bolt performance on open stopes for controlling
dilution at Bulyanhulu Gold Mine involves a comprehensive data collection process in the field.
This data collection was conducted to study the performance of cable bolts within different
geotechnical zone through the following process:
 Reviewing the mined stopes operations data that was recorded by the company.
The data collection process involved reviewing the recorded operational data of mined stopes.
This review included detailed assessment on the performance of cable bolt in controlling
dilution, focusing on the extent of dilution and effectiveness of cable bolt in each specific zone.
The review of recorded operational data provided valuable insights into the actual performance
of performance of cable bolts.
 Conducting survey using cavity monitoring system to measure sloughage and overbreak
occurring on open stope.
The survey using cavity monitoring system involved conducting detailed measurements to
quantify sloughage and overbreak occurring within the open stopes. The survey done to different
geotechnical zone to measure the overbreak and sloughage occurring on open stope where

23
production was proceeded. The method used to analyse overbreak and sloughage in both hanging
wall and footwall of open stope, also survey method measures the cross-sectional of the stope,
total volume of material was measured after blasting and stable shape of design volume of an
open stope.
 Quantifying the dilution occurring on the open stope boundary.
The quantification of dilution involved measuring and recording the actual extent of dilution
occurring on open stope boundary. This process included detailed surveys and measurements to
quantify the volume and extent of dilution within the stopes. It aimed to provide accurate data on
dilution level, allowing for assessment of cable bolt performance in controlling dilution. The
performance of cable bolt was determined using ELOS as a measure of effectiveness of ground
support system in minimizing dilution and maintain stope stability. Comparison between
predicted ELOS against actual ELOS values measured in different geotechnical zones. This
comparison aimed to assess the accuracy of prediction and actual performance of cable bolts in
controlling dilution.
These dilutions were calculated as
3
Footwall dilution volume (m )
Footwall Dilution ( % )= ×100 %
Stope stable shape design volume ( m )
3

Hanging wall dilution volume (m3)

Hanging wall Dilution ( % )= ×100 %
Stope stable shapedesign volume ( m3 )
3
Hanging walldilution volume(m )
Hanging wall ELOS ( m) =
Cross−sectional area ( m )
2

Footwall dilution volume (m3)

Footwall ELOS ( m )=
Cross−sectional area ( m2 )
Total ELOS ( m )=HW ELOS ( m ) + FW ELOS (m)
3
Total volume dilution(m )
Total Dilution ( % ) =
Stope stable shape design volume(m3 )
Total Dilution ( % ) =FW dilution ( % ) + HW dilution ( % )

24
3.2 EVALUATING FACTORS AFFECTING CABLE BOLT PERFORMANCE
1. Rock mass quality
The quality of the rock mass plays a crucial role in the effectiveness of cable bolts. If the rock is
inherently weak or fractured become ease to undergo overbreak regardless the cable bolt is
reinforced on that stope. The cable bolt not able to sufficiently reinforce the ground, resulting in
the overbreak. The rock mass was differ depending on the specific zone where cable bolts were
reinforced for purpose of minimizing dilution on open stope boundary. The analysis of the rock
mass quality for each specific zone:
a) Highly foliated zone: The rock mass in the highly foliated zone is characterized by a high
degree of foliation, which lead to the plane weakness within the rock structures. This
weakness makes challenging for the cable bolts to adequately reinforce the ground.
Presence of foliations planes results in fracturing and instability, contributing to dilution
beyond acceptable limits.
b) Highly stressed zone: The rock mass in highly stressed zone is subjected to significant
stress levels which lead to rock failure. The highly stressed level weakens the rock and
become easy to undergo sudden failures and fractures which make difficult for cable
bolts to effectively reinforce the ground. The rock quality in this zone contributes to
overbreak and dilution.
c) Thick argillite zone: The rock mass in this zone has a brittle property which makes it to
fracture without much plastic deformation. This brittleness result in the rock failures and
dilution problem to areas where cable bolts were reinforced. The nature of thick argillite
rock being brittle makes it challenging for the cable bolt to provide adequate
reinforcement on open stopes to minimize dilution.
d) Competent ground zone: The competent ground zone consists of stable and competent
rock mass. In cases where cable bolts were reinforced and not performing well due to the
localized geological features within a competent ground such as fault zones, joint and
shear zone that weakens the rock mass.
2. Cable bolt density and orientation
Cable bolt density refer to the number of cable bolts installed per unit area in the rock mass to
provide reinforcement and support. It is a measure of how closely spaced the cable bolt are
within a specific stope. A higher cable bolt density indicates more cable bolts are installed to

25
enhance stability and strength of the rock mass by distributing the load more effectively and
reducing the risk of rock mass failure and dilution.
Cable bolt orientation refer to the direction or pattern in which cable bolts are installed in a rock
mass to provide structural support and reinforcement.
a) Highly foliated zone: In highly foliated zone, a higher cable bolt density helps to
reinforce the rock mass more effectively and reducing the overbreak. Adequate cable
bolts density provides better support in areas with foliation planes, enhancing stability on
open stope. Orientation of cable bolts pattern perpendicular to the foliation planes helps
to reinforce the rock mass across potential failure.
b) Highly stressed zone: Increasing the density of cable bolt installation in the highly
stressed zone improves the reinforcement of the ground, potentially reducing overbreak
through providing better support under high stress. Orienting the cable bolt in radial
pattern around areas of high stress concentration help distribute the reinforcement and
reducing the localized rock failures.
c) Thick Argillite zone: In thick argillite zone where the rock tends to be brittle, a higher
density of cable bolts required to minimize overbreak on open stope. Insufficient cable
bolt density led to poor reinforcement and allowing for rock failure. Utilizing a grid
pattern for cable bolt orientation helps to cover large area of the stope, providing more
comprehensive support and reducing the rock failure along weak zone.
d) Competent ground zone: Even in a competent ground zone, the cable bolt density is
critical for minimizing overbreak. Medium cable bolt density enhances reinforcement and
stability of the rock mass on open stope. Orienting cable bolts along failure planes enable
to provide good support for the rock mass. If cable bolt fails to minimize overbreak
indicates that the orientation did not adequately address the potential failures zones.
3. Grouting strength, cable bolt tensile strength and capacity.
a) Grouting: The grouting strength determined by water-cement ration, affect the bond
between the cable bolt and the surrounding rock mass. A higher grouting strength
enhances the anchorage of the cable bolt, improving its stability to resist movement and
deformation.

26
 b) Cable bolt tensile strength: The tensile strength of the cable bolt indicates its ability to
withstand a pulling force. A higher tensile strength ensures that cable bolt provide
effective support to the rock mass by maintaining stability and prevent rock failures.
c) Cable bolt capacity: This representing the maximum load the cable bolt can bear. A
higher capacity allows the cable bolt to withstand greater stresses, enhancing its
performance by reinforcing the ground effectively.

3.3 ANALYSING THE EXTENT OF DILUTION OCCURING ON OPEN STOPE

BOUNDARY
The analysis aims to describe the extent of dilution based on each geotechnical zone, providing
insights into the performance of cable bolt within these zones.
a) Competent ground zone: In this zone cable bolt have well performed in controlling
dilution within a certain range. About 70% of open stope in this zone have an extent
dilution that falls within an acceptable range between 4% up to 15% where cable bolts
have been effective. Conversely, about 30% of the stopes in this zone exhibit dilution
level that exceed the range where cable bolts have been effective. These stopes have
dilution levels greater than 15%, indicating poor performance of cable bolt in controlling
dilution within this higher range. On the hanging wall side about 2 stopes
9_3926W_C138 and 9_3946E_B184 have dilution 33% and 56% which more than 15%,
this indicates that higher dilution occurring mostly on the hanging wall side of the stope
where the cable bolts were not effective on minimizing dilution.
b) Highly foliated zone: Within highly foliated zone cable bolts were performed well in
controlling dilution in almost 60% of the open stopes. These stopes have the dilution
range within 2% up to 15%, where cable bolts have effectively minimized dilution. 40%
of the remaining stopes extent of dilution ranges between 25% and 65%, indicating poor
performance of cable bolt in controlling dilution. The extent of dilution within the stope
boundary hanging wall and footwall indicates that 3 stopes on their hanging wall sides
have dilution more than 15% as well as 3 stopes on their footwall sides have greater than
15% mean that in this zone the higher dilution occurring on the both stope wall.
c) Highly stressed zone: About 60% of the stopes in highly stressed zone where cable bolts
were reinforced and were capable to minimize the dilution within a range between 2% up
to 15%. The rest 40% of open stopes have dilution level exceeding the allowable dilution.

27
 Dilution in these stopes falls within the range of 25% up to 65% signifying that there was
significant rock failure and poor performance of cable bolts in minimizing dilution. The
extent of dilution within the stope boundary indicates that 4 stopes namely
C_3600E_A185, C_3660E_F177, C_3620E_H176 and C_3700E_Z181 on their hanging
wall sides have higher dilution than 15%, this mean that in this zone the higher dilution
occurring on the hanging wall side compared to the footwall side of open stope.
d) Thick argillite zone: Approximately 41.67% of open stopes in this zone have effective
performance of cable bolts in minimizing dilution within acceptable range from 2% up to
8%. Conversely, the remaining 58.44% of the stopes in thick argillite zone have
experienced high dilution levels that exceeds the allowable limit. Dilution in these stopes
ranges between 22% up to 50% signifying that there was significant rock failure and poor
performance of cable bolts in minimizing dilution. The extent of dilution within the stope
boundary indicates that 6 stopes on their footwall sides have higher dilution than 15%,
this mean that there was high overbreak occurring on the footwall sides that led to have
high dilution within those stopes.

3.4 DEVELOPING OPTIMAL CABLE BOLT DESIGN

Cable bolt design on open stope mining involve different parameters
1. Patterns
The selection of cable bolt pattern for designing the arrangement of cable bolt within the stope
serves a specific purpose in reinforcing the stope. The pattern used are
a) Staggered pattern: The pattern involves arrangement of cable bolts in an offset or
alternating system along the stope boundary which creates an overlapping and
interlocking network of reinforcement.
b) Square pattern: It involves the arrangement of cable bolt in a square or rectangular grid-
like configuration, providing uniform and orthogonal reinforcement throughout the stope.
This pattern is suitable in regular or blocky stopes.
c) Radial/Fan pattern: This pattern cable bolts are installed from a central point towards the
periphery of the stope in circular system. It is effective for reinforcing the back of stope
and intersection which help to control the potential failure of rock by providing support in
multiple direction.

28
2. Cable bolt spacing: The spacing between individual cable bolts in a designed pattern for the
reinforcement of support. There three cable bolting spacing which depends on the rock mass
quality of the stope;
a) Ring spacing: Refer to the arrangement of cable bolts around the periphery of the
stope where cable bolts are installed in a circular or semi-circular pattern to reinforce
the wall of the stope. The distance between adjacent rings or circular patten of cable
bolts on the stope.
b) Collar spacing: Refer to the distance between adjacent rows of cable bolts in a
pattern. This involves installation of cable bolts near uppermost part of the stope close
to the hanging wall.
c) Toe spacing: The distance between individual cable bolt in a pattern. This
arrangement of cable bolts occurs near the lower part of the stope close to the
footwall.
3. Bolt length: The length of cable bolts should reach far enough into undisturbed ground to
ensure a proper anchor. Consequently, a rough relationship is expected to exist between the
hydraulic radius of stope surfaces and the length of cable bolt used. The cable bolt length is
related to the HR of the supported surface for the stope roof.
Calculated cable bolt length obtained by (Y. Potvin, 1989) through the equation
L=1.5 × HR
4. Density of bolting: The purpose of cable bolts is to prevent the movement along existing
discontinuities. Consequently, the density of bolting should be related to the frequency of
jointing. The ratio of the block size parameter (RQD/Jn) and the hydraulic radius of the stope
surface are useful parameters in representing the relative size of blocks. It is expected that a
higher density of bolting (closer spacing) should be used when the relative block size is small
(Y. Potvin, 1989).

29
 CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data collected were analysed and discussed with the aid of graphs

1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
ELOS (m)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
STOPE ID

PREDICTED ELOS ACTUAL ELOS

Figure 5: Graph of Predicted ELOS and Actual ELOS on Competent Ground zone

30
 2.5

1.5
ELOS (m)

0.5

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
STOPE ID

PREDICTED ELOS ACTUAL ELOS

Figure 6: Graph of Predicted ELOS and Actual ELOS on Highly Foliated zone

2.5

1.5
ELOS (m)

0.5

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

STOPE ID

PREDICTED ELOS ACTUAL ELOS

Figure 7: Graph of Predicted ELOS and Actual ELOS on Highly Stressed zone

31
 1.6

1.4

1.2

1
ELOS (m)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

STOPE ID

PREDICTED ELOS ACTUAL ELOS

Figure 8: Graph of Predicted ELOS and Actual ELOS on Thick Argillite zone

The graph shows a comparison of Predicted ELOS against Actual ELOS values measured in
competent ground zone where cable bolts were reinforced. From the graph indicate that about
70% of the open stopes in competent ground zone have ELOS values less than 0.5m (allowable
ELOS) and have the dilution range between 4% up to 15% while about 30% of the stopes have
ELOS values greater than 0.5m that lead to have more dilution greater than 15%.

The interpretation of the graph aligns with expected performance of cable bolts in minimizing
dilution on open stopes. Cable bolts were effective with good reinforcement on those 70% of the
open stope in competent ground zone for controlling dilution with acceptable limits. The
remaining 30% of open stopes in competent ground zone were ineffective in controlling dilution
which led to the excessive rock failures beyond the planned excavation.

The graph indicates that about 40% of open stopes in highly foliated zone where cable bolts
were reinforced have ELOS values greater than 0.5m and have a dilution greater than 15% while
about 60% of open stope have ELOS values less than 0.5m and have dilution range between 1%
up to 9%.

32
Cable bolts have effective performance which indicates good ground reinforcement on the 60%
open stopes for controlling dilution within acceptable limits. The rest 40% of open stope in
highly foliated zone the reinforced cable bolts on the stope boundary were ineffective to
minimize dilution which led to the excessive rock failures beyond the planned excavation. The
higher rate of ineffective cable bolts in highly foliated zones have weaker rock and more
fractures, which make it more difficult for cable bolts to effectively reinforce the rock mass.

The graph shows a comparison of Predicted ELOS against Actual ELOS values measured in
highly stressed zone where cable bolts were reinforced. From the graph indicate that about 60%
of the open stopes in highly stressed zone have ELOS values less than 0.5m (allowable ELOS)
and have the dilution range between 2% up to 15% while about 40% of the stopes have ELOS
values greater than 0.5m that lead to have more dilution in the range between 25% up to 65%.

Cable bolts were moderately effective in minimizing dilution within highly stressed zone of the
60% of open stopes. ELOS value below 0.5 m indicates good reinforcement despite high stress.
The rest 40% of open stope in highly stressed zone cable bolts were ineffective to minimize
dilution. ELOS value exceeding 0.5 m signifies significant rock failure on the planned
excavation of an open stope. Cable bolt were inadequate in controlling dilution due to the overly
stressed ground where by the rock mass is inherently weak require stronger or more frequent
cable bolts for effective reinforcement, but also complexities of highly stressed zone to have
unpredictable fracturing pattern that are difficult to fully control with cable bolt alone.

According to the graph seven stopes which is equal to 58.33% of all stope in thick argillite
zones where cable bolts were reinforced have ELOS value greater than 0.5 m and have dilution
at range between 22% up to 50% while about 5 stopes which is equal 41.67% of the stopes in
thick argillite zone have ELOS value less than 0.5 m associated with dilution of about 2% up to
8%.

In thick argillite zone of about 41.67% of open stopes cable bolt were effective to minimize
dilution within acceptable limits due to good ground reinforcement which led to minimal
breakage of the rock on open stope boundary. Other 58.33% open stope in thick argillite cable
bolt were ineffective to minimize dilution on the stope boundary due to the excessive rock failure
beyond the excavation. Thick argillite rock tends to be brittle material, thus can fracture or break

33
without much plastic deformations. This can make them prone to sudden failures and requires
careful ground support strategies.

Wedge analysis

A sample representative stopes among the assessed zone used to conduct the structural wedge
analysis using Rocscience software’s “Unwedge”. Figure below shows that wedges formed at
the stope sides and back of the excavation. There is possible wall rock failure on the upper right
side of the excavation where the cable bolts are installed. This is because the upper right wedge
(wedge 7) has a factor of safety (FOS) of 0.801, which is less than the target FOS of 1.5. An FOS
of less than 1 indicates that the wedge is unstable. The factor of safety for the other wedges
ranges from 1.883 to 2.869 have factor of safety greater than 1.5 which indicating stability. The
upper right wedge (wedge 7) has the largest volume (522.290 m3) and weight (1305.724 tonnes)
compared to other wedges. This means it has the greatest potential to cause a major failure, but
also the resisting force (739.97 tonnes) for the upper right wedge is lower than its weight
(1305.724 tonnes), unlike the stable wedges where the resisting force is greater than the weight.
From the wedge analysis suggests that the upper right wedge is the most likely location for rock
failure due to its low factor of safety and high weight. The cable bolts may not be sufficient to
ensure the stability of this wedge. Due to the presence of unstable wedge means there is unstable
block size of the rock mass which needs the high cable bolting density should be installed
perpendicular to the direction of wedge block so as to provide good reinforcement.

34
 Figure 9: Wedges of Open stope

REFERENCES
Aydan, A. A. (2001). Cable Bolting Principles and Practices. Volume 34, No. 5. Rock
Mechanics and Rock Engineering , pp. 425-444.

35
Barrick. (2012). Bulyanhulu Gold Mine: An Overview of African Barrick Gold. Mining
Technology.

Barrick Gold, A. (2012). African Barrick Gold Projects: Bulyanhulu Gold Mine Overview on
Geology, Reserves and Production . Mining Technology.

Brady, B. H. (2006). Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining. Springer.

Brian, O. (1989). Practice at Falconbridge Ltd: Operating Design and Application; Professional
Development Seminar on Cable Bolting. Department of Mining and Metallurgy
Engineering. Montreal, Canada: McGill University.

Chinnasane, M. K. (2014). Use of Cable Bolts to Reinforce the Hanging Pillars and Improves the
Ore Recovery when Stopes Mined Using Double Top Sill at Vale's Copper Mine. 305-
314.

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37
 APPENDICES
1. STOPE PARAMETERS
Competent Ground Geotechnical Zone (Zone 9)

Stope Name Strike Height Induced Stope Dip Cable

Length (m) stress (deg) Bolting
(m) (MPa) HW FW Status on
the Stope
9_3866W_G144 16 38 25 85 87 Reinforced
9_3926W_C138 43 22 21 81 80 Reinforced
9_3946E_B184 42 21 25 77 75 Reinforced
9_3966W_A137 50 23 22.70 84 83 Reinforced
9_3906W_D144 32 25 22 83 83 Reinforced
9_3926W_B142 35 21 23.80 80 83 Reinforced
9_3926W_B145 49 21 27 87 84 Reinforced
9_3946W_A145 40 18 29 83 85 Reinforced
9_3926W_B134 21 21.5 26 80 82 Reinforced
9_3906W_C148 40 20 25.50 84 85 Reinforced
Highly Foliated Zone (Zone B)

Stope Name Strike Height Induced Stope Dip Cable

Length (m) stress (deg) Bolting
(m) (MPa) HW FW Status on the
Stope
B_3640W_C210 38 19 20.50 87 86 Reinforced
B_3600W_A21 48 25 26.95 88 81 Reinforced
2
B_3580W_B205 30 17 21.70 78 80 Reinforced
B_3700E_Z220 30 22 25.60 83 82 Reinforced
B_3640W_C206 41 19 30.50 74 74 Reinforced
B_3680W_A19 31 18 32.40 81 81 Reinforced
7

38
 B_3580E_B221 31 17 30 85 86 Reinforced
B_3540W_D19 40 18 28.80 84 86 Reinforced
2
B_3680W_A18 36 21.30 29.70 83 85 Reinforced
9
B_3660E_B233 30 20 20.55 81 84 Reinforced

Highly Stress Zone (Zone C)

Stope Name Strike Height Induced Stope Dip Cable Bolting

Length (m) stress (deg) Status on the
(m) (MPa) HW FW Stope
C_3600E_A185 40 25.40 28.65 79 80 Reinforced
C_3660E_F177 40 23.98 27.50 81 81 Reinforced
C_3660W_F147 67 22.10 30.22 86 85 Reinforced
C_3640W_G15 53 19.50 23.90 80 82 Reinforced
1
C_3620E_H173 40 20 24.40 84 83 Reinforced
C_3620W_H16 50 18.30 28.10 83 82 Reinforced
0
C_3620E_H176 39 21.05 28.80 81 83 Reinforced
C_3700E_Z181 31 22.20 29.45 80 83 Reinforced
C_3580W_B143 49 19.95 24.15 85 86 Reinforced
C_3640W_G14 54 19.48 28 83 84 Reinforced
5
Thick Argillite Zone (Zone 2)

Stope Name Strike Height Induced Stope Dip Cable Bolting

Length (m) stress (deg) Status on the
(m) (MPa) HW FW Stope
2_4075E_C354 50 21.10 20.80 86 87 Reinforced
2_4095E_B354 35 17 23.80 87 88 Reinforced

39
 2_4010E_H315 30 14.70 19.50 89 87 Reinforced
2_3975W_A33 54 15 19.10 80 83 Reinforced
2
2_3975W_A33 20 17.40 19.70 84 86 Reinforced
7
2_4045W_E338 30 13 19 87 86 Reinforced
2_4055E_D346 40 18 19.50 83 82 Reinforced
2_4045E_E352 40 18 19.20 84 83 Reinforced
2_4055E_D349 40 18.50 25 87 84 Reinforced
2_4075E_C352 40 20 23.90 85 84 Reinforced
2_3975E_A352 40 15 22.30 86 85 Reinforced
2_4024W_F346 36 18 21.60 82 84 Reinforced

2. DILUTION ON OPEN STOPE BOUNDARY

Competent Ground Geotechnical Zone (Zone 9)

Stop Stop Volume (m3 ¿ Cross Dilution Total Actual ELOS (m) Predicte
e ID e - (%) Diluti d ELOS
shap sectio on (m)
e HW FW Tot n area H FW (%) HW FW Total Total
desig al ¿ ¿) W ELOS
n (m)
volu
me (
3
m ¿
G14 2241 88 115 203 626 6% 8% 14% 0.14 0.18 0.32 0.21
4
C138 1796 333 244 577 739 19 14 33% 0.45 0.33 0.78 0.76
% %
B184 2862 151 87 160 949 53 3% 56% 1.60 0.09 1.69 1.02
8 5 %

40
A13 1987 42 69 111 850 2% 3% 5% 0.05 0.08 0.13 0.10
7
D14 2162 334 299 633 1260 15 14 29% 0.24 0.27 0.51 0.45
4 % %
B142 1699 52 46 98 711 3% 3% 6% 0.06 0.07 0.13 0.19

B145 2071 67 12 79 968 3% 1% 4% 0.07 0.01 0.08 0.53

A14 1921 67 12 79 710 3% 1% 4% 0.09 0.02 0.11 0.55
5
B134 1061 44 67 111 437.9 4% 6% 10% 0.10 0.15 0.25 0.22
8
C148 3152 143 63 206 644 5% 2% 7% 0.22 0.10 0.32 0.30

Highly Foliated Zone (Zone B)

Stop Stop Volume (m3 ¿ Cross- Dilution Total Actual ELOS (m) Predicte
e ID e sectio (%) Dilut d ELOS
shap n area ion (m)
e H FW Total ¿ ¿) H FW (%) H FW Total Total
desig W W W ELOS
n (m)
volu
me (
3
m ¿
C21 3912 35. 78. 114.3 979.3 2% 1% 3% 0.0 0.08 0.12 0.20
0 84 84 2 8 4
A21 6489 35. 539 574.5 1318. 1% 8% 9% 0.0 0.41 0.44 0.42
2 38 .19 7 86 3
B20 2366 36. 1.0 37.43 532.6 2% 0% 2% 0.0 0.00 0.07 0.14
5 43 0 4 7
Z22 3651 48. 1.0 49.80 675.7 1% 0% 1% 0.0 0.00 0.07 0.15
0 73 7 5 7

41
C20 3024 20. 118 138.4 843.3 1% 4% 5% 0.0 0.14 0.16 0.22
6 20 .21 1 9 2
A19 2281 352 151 503.6 581.9 15 7% 22% 0.6 0.26 0.87 0.55
7 .51 .13 4 8 % 1
B22 1497 173 308 481.8 427.2 12 21 33% 0.4 0.72 1.13 0.82
1 .13 .72 5 6 % % 1
D19 2053 906 524 1431. 719.7 44 26 70% 1.2 0.73 1.99 1.15
2 .56 .46 02 5 % % 6
A18 3547 149 607 2098. 902.3 42 17 59% 1.6 0.67 2.32 1.18
9 0.9 .57 51 9 % % 5
4
B23 1631 115 13 128 607.6 7% 1% 8% 0.1 0.02 0.21 0.25
3 2 9

Highly Stress Zone (Zone C)

Stop Stope Volume (m3 ¿ Cross Dilution Tota Actual ELOS (m) Predicte
e ID shape - (%) l d ELOS
design sectio Dilu (m)
volum HW FW Total n area H FW tion HW FW Tota Total
e (m3 ¿ ¿ ¿) W (%) l ELOS
(m)
A18 2557 717. 166 884. 1047. 28 7% 35% 0.69 0.1 0.85 0.50
5 49 .98 47 15 % 6
F177 2408 569. 20. 590. 1200. 24 1% 25% 0.51 0.0 0.54 0.40
39 84 23 03 % 3
F147 3908 434 139 573. 1482. 11 4% 15% 0.29 0.0 0.38 0.28
.41 41 46 % 9
G15 2499 19.5 20. 39.6 892.0 1% 1% 2% 0.02 0.0 0.04 0.28
1 6 09 5 2 2
H17 2144 85.3 50. 135. 776.4 4% 2% 6% 0.11 0.0 0.17 0.42

42
3 3 25 58 8 6
H16 2164 163 29 192 939 8% 1% 9% 0.17 0.0 0.20 0.34
0 3
H17 1679 606 114 720 780.9 36 7% 43% 0.78 0.1 0.93 0.45
6 8 % 5
Z181 2876 168 164 1847 909.7 59 6% 65% 1.85 0.1 2.03 1.05
3 5 % 8
B14 2600 58 4 62 1005. 2% 0% 2% 0.06 0.0 0.06 0.25
3 58 0
G14 2808 205 46 251 1092. 7% 2% 9% 0.19 0.0 0.23 0.30
5 82 4

Thick Argillite Zone (Zone 2)

Stop Stope Volume (m3 ¿ Cross Dilution Total Actual ELOS (m) Predicted
e ID shape - (%) Diluti ELOS
desig sectio on (%) (m)
n H FW Tota n HW FW H FW Tota Total
volu W l area W l ELOS
me ( ¿ ¿) (m)
3
m ¿
C354 2986 69 1 70 1052. 2% 0% 2% 0.0 0.0 0.07 0.16
7 7 0
B354 1532 106 7 113 704 7% 0% 7% 0.1 0.0 0.16 0.28
5 1
H315 1484 7.1 56.9 64 663.6 0% 4% 4% 0.0 0.0 0.10 0.25
5 2 2 1 9
A332 3801 156 138. 294. 804.4 4% 4% 8% 0.1 0.1 0.36 0.45
.03 83 86 9 7
A337 1243 1.0 519. 520. 374.7 0% 42 42% 0.0 1.3 1.39 0.84
3 29 32 9 % 0 9

43
E338 1116 20. 539. 559. 418.8 2% 48 50% 0.0 1.2 1.34 0.88
41 44 85 7 % 5 9
D346 3145 63 1002 1065 771 2% 32 34% 0.0 1.3 1.38 0.82
% 8 0
E352 2618 275 280. 556. 581.8 11% 11 22% 0.4 0.4 0.95 0.76
.16 99 16 4 % 7 8
6
D349 2227 30. 929. 961 683.2 1% 42 43% 0.0 1.3 1.41 0.85
95 64 8 % 5 6
C352 2205 8.1 662. 671 795.5 0% 30 30% 0.0 0.8 0.84 0.54
4 41 5 % 1 3
A352 2446 4.6 125. 130. 680.0 0% 5% 5% 0.0 0.1 0.20 0.27
4 98 62 9 1 9
F346 2192 33 799 832 672 2% 36 38% 0.0 1.1 1.24 0.8
% 5 9

44