SCIENCE REVIEWER

Four measurable properties gases

- Pressure
- Volume
- Temperature
- Number of moles
Scientific laws – are description of an observed phenomena
- They are concise statements based on repeated number of experiments or observation
of a phenomena
- Are set to establish standards and resolve disputes
Proportionality – refers to the quality of being in proper balance or relation as to size, number,
or quantity
Directly proportional – means that when one quantity increases/decreases, another quantity
increases/decreases at the same time respectively
Inversely proportional – means that when a quantity increases, another quantity decreases.
Gas – is a state of matter that has no definite shape and volume and with that gases have lower
density than other states of matter such as solids and liquids.
GAS LAWS
1. Boyles law – relationship between pressure and volume
- Robert Boyle – an anglo-irish chemist, was able to investigate the relationship between
pressure and volume of a gas using a J-shaped tube apparatus that was closed to one
end
- The volume of a given mass of gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to
its pressure
- Inversely proportional
- P1V1=P2V2
2. Charle’s Law – relationship between volume and temperature
- Jacquez Alexandre Charles – Performed an experiment in a balloon, hot water, and cold
water, discovered the relationship between the volume and the temperature of gases at
constant pressure.
- The kelvin temperature and the volume of a gas are directly related when there is no
change in pressure of a gas
- V1/T1=V2/T2
3. Avogadro’s Law – relationship between volume and number of moles
 - Amedeo Avogadro – Italian chemist, he found out in his experiment the relationship
between the volume and number of mole of gas
- States that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain an
equal number of molecules
- Mole – to represent the amount of gas or number of particles contained in a substance
- V1/N1 = V2/N2
- Directly proportional
4. Ideal Gas Law – Is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas
- Pressure, volume, and temperature and moles are combined with the three property of
gas to establish the relationship among the four variables affecting the behavior of gases
- R = 0.0821
- PV=nRT
5. Gay-lussac’s law – the relationship between pressure and temperature
- Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac – French chemist and physicist, conducted an experiment and
discovered the relationship between temperature and pressure, he found out that the
pressure of gas increased or decreased proportionally with a change in temperature.
- One of the postulates in the kinetic molecular theory is the effect of temperature on the
motion of gas particles
- P1/T1 = P2/T2
- Directly proportional
6. Combined gas law - relationship of 3 properties of gas, volume, and temperature and
sometimes mole
- P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 OR P1V1/T1N1 = P2V2/T2N2
- General gas law, allows you to directly solve for the change in pressure, volume, or
temperature.
Biochemistry – is a branch of both biology and chemistry
- It is the study of the substances found in living organisms and of the chemical reactions
underlying the processes of life
- Its goal is to understand the structure and behavior of biological molecules
Biomolecules – are organic molecules produced by living organisms which consists mainly of the
elements Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen, these elements are non-metals that
combined in various ways to form biomolecules through a covalent type of bonding.
- Four different classes: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
- Polymers – in Greek polus means “many”
- Monomers – in Greek monos meaning “single”
- Polymers - are macromolecules comprised of chain of monomers, have have higher
viscosities, and higher boiling points.
Food – is an important factor for our body to keep stronger and for us to stay alive
IMPORTANCE OF FOOD LABELS
1. It helps you make food choices
2. it helps people with food allergies
3. it informs you if it contains additives that you must avoid
4. it controls weight and improves health
Replenish – refers to making something full or complete again by supplying what has been used
up or is lacking
Food additive – is an artificial substance added to food to enhance its flavor or taste.
Food labels – are important features in products’ packaging, yet these are often ignored by
consumers.
Calorie – is the measure of how much energy a food provides
Percent daily value – shows the amount of nutrients an average person is required from eating
one serving of that food
CLASSES OF BIOMOLECULES
1. Carbohydrates – the most abundant class of biomolecule, they are known to be the chief
source of energy for almost all living organisms
- Has one basic role in our body, that is to supply energy
- Too high or too low glucose can lead to Improper insulin production
- Fruits – are the ideal source of carbohydrates
- Micromolecule monosaccharide, the macromolecules disaccharide and the
polysaccharides
- Monosaccharides – the simple sure, unlike other types of sugar, monosaccharides are
the only sugar that can be absorbed and utilized by the body
- Glucose – sometimes referred to as dextrose is the most important and also the most
abundant monosaccharide in nature, it is also found in the blood stream
- Optical isomers – are two compound having the same number and kind of atoms but
differ in the spatial arrangement of atoms
- Galactose – is different from glucose and fructose in such a way that it does not occur
free in nature
- Disaccharides – contain two monosaccharides units bound together by a covalent bond
known as glycosidic linkage
- Sucrose – is composed of one molecule of each of the two monosaccharides D-glucose
and D-fructose, French word for sugar – sucre, table sugar, cane sugar, and beet sugar
- Maltose – also known as malt sugar, French word for malt, beer
- Lactose – is know as milk sugar, latin word for milk – lact
- Polysaccharide – ten units of carbohydrates. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are the
common polysaccharides
- Glycogen – is the stored carbohydrate in animals
- Starch - is the stored carbohydrates in plants
- Two types of polysaccharides: Homopolysaccharides and Heterosaccharides
- Homopolysaccharide – if it is formed by the same type of monosaccharide
- Heterosaccharides – are those formed by different types of monosaccharides
- Cellulose – is another important polysaccharide, major component of the plant’s cell
wall
- Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
- Building blocks – monosaccharides
2. Proteins – are complex biomolecules that contain amino acids links
- They have molecular weights rangine from about 6000 to over 1,000,000 grams per
mole
- They are considered the most versatile biomolecules since they serve numerous
essential functions in biological processes
- Primary constituents of living organism
- Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
- Plays the catalysts, anti-bodies, enzymes, contractile proteins, hormonal proteins,
structural prteins, and transport proteins
- Amino acid – are the building blocks of protein, is composed of a central carbon bonded
to hydrogen, carboxyl group, amino group, and side chain. Are compounds that make up
proteins to maintain good health and normal functioning
- 20 amino acids that can provide the many different possible sequences of proteins in
our body
- Essential amino acids - they cannot be synthesized by the body but can be obtained
from food, are important for one’s body to function orderly
- Four structure of protein: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary
- Versatility – is the capability to change easily from one activity to another or the ability
to be used for many different purposes
- Essential – refers to a characteristic of being extremely important and necessary
- Primary structure – is the linear sequence of amino acids that form a protein
- Secondary structure – is the spatial arrangement of the polypeptide chain of protein.
Two types: alpha helix (is held together by hydrogen bonds between the loops of coil)
and beta pleated sheet (held together by hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains)
- Tertiary structure - it refers to the final 3-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide
molecule where the alpha helix and the pleated sheet are folded forming a globular
protein
- Quaternary – contains more than one chain
3. Nucleic Acids – building blocks of living organisms
- Blueprint of life
- Responsible for encoding, transmitting, and expressing genetic information
- Are formed from polymerizing nucleotides
- Three components: phosphoric acid molecule phosphate, five-carbon sugar molecule,
pentose, and molecule of a nitrogen containing base
- Were first isolated from the nuclei of white blood cells by friedrich Miescher in the
1860s.
- The origin of the name nucleic acid came from “nuclein”, the term used by Miescher to
describe a weak acidic substance that he found in the cell nuclei
- Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Does not contain sulfor
- Two types of nucleic acid: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – contains the genetic instructions used in the
development of functioning of all modern living organisms
- Long term storage and transmission of genetic information
- Can be damaged by exposure to ultraviolet rays
- Double stranded molecule
- A-T (adrenine-thymine) G-C (Guanin-cytosine)
- Four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine
- Is self -replicating
- Deoxyribose
- Ribonucleic Acid – a single stranded chain of alternating phosphate and ribose units with
the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil bonded to ribose
- Protein synthesis and sometimes in the transmission of genetic information
- Transform the genetic code needed for the creation of proteins from the nucleus to the
ribosomes
- More resistant to damage by ultra violet rays
- Single stranded molecule
- A-U (Adenine-Uracil), G-C (Guanine-cytosine)
- ribose
- Is synthesized from DNA when needed
4. Lipids – are generally insoluble in water, thus, they are considered hydrophobic. They are
formed from heated fats and oils with aqueous solution of bases
- Can be dissolved away by either ether, acetone, or benzene which are nonpolar solvents
- Are glycerol and fatty acids
- Are important components of the cell membrane, which is the bilipid layer
- Can be found in every cell of the body since they are formed whenever there are excess
carbohydrates in the body has no stored triglycerides
- Contain 9 calories of energy per gram as compared to 4 calories per gram that
carbohydrate contains
- Triglycerides – subgroups of lipids
 - 3 types of lipids: Triglycerids, steroids, and phospholipids
- Triglycerides – also know as triacylglycerols, are the triesters of fatty acids with glycerol
- Is commonly found in both plans and animals and is composed mainly of hydrogen and
carbon
- Solid triglycerides are classified as fats
- Steroids – it is produced by the liver to meet our body’s needs
- Cholesterol – is a steroid and is one of the most plentiful lipids in our bodies
- Other steroids acts like testosterone, progesterone, and estrogen
- Four ring structure: one ring with 5 carbons and three ring with 6 carbons.
- They use steroids to build their muscles
- Are medicines designed to act as hormones to reduce inflammation in the body
- Phospholipids – a major component of cell membranes. Its molecule is composed of two
fatty acids, a glycerol unit and phosphate group, and a polar molecule
- Hydrophobic – is a property of a substance that resists water or of not absorbing water
Kwashiorkor – is a disease that affects children and is caused by lack of protein in the diet
- It is usually develops in areas afflicted by famine or drought or in places where food is
scarce
Chemical reaction - is a process in which one set of new substances called reactants is
converted to a new set of substances called products
- Occurs naturally and continuously once it is started
- Are all around us and we experience them everyday and everywhere
CHARACTERISTIC OF A CHEMICAL REACTION
1. The atoms of the substances re-arrange but the total number of atoms remains the
same after the reaction
2. The original substances lose their identities and can no longer be recognized in the
newly formed products
3. Energy is also involved in the chemical reaction
4. The total mass of the reactants is equal to the total mass of the products
Collision theory - they collide with each other which in turn causes chemical reactions
- 2 types of collision: effective collision and the ineffective collision
- Ineffective collision – does not cause any reaction and does not lead to the formation of
products
- Effective collision - sufficient energy and right orientation at the moment of impact to
break the existing bonds and form new bonds
Kinetic molecular theory – molecules of a substance are always moving and when they move
Activation energy - is involved in breaking some of the original bonds
 - The reactants must have an energy that is equal to or higher than the activation energy
to produce a reaction.
- Maxwell-boltzmann distribution – is a plot of the number of particles vs a particular
energy
Reaction mechanism – the description of the path, or sequence of steps, by which a reaction
occurs
- Is an educated guess based on experiments and theory
- Involves different elementary processes that express how actually molecules or ions
reach with each other
- Unimolecular – if the step involves one reactant particle
- Elementary process – that involves the decomposition of a molecule into its components
is a unimolecular reaction.
- Bimolecular – if the step involves two reactant particles
- Trimolecular process – involves the collision three molecules where the rate of reaction
is third order
Exothermic process – is a reaction that gives off energy, releases heat, and causes the
temperature of the immediate surroundings to rise
Endothermic process – absorbs heat and cools the surrounding
Spontaneous reaction – it only requires little activation energy and this energy can be absorbed
as heat from the surroundings
- Happens with so little energy added to the start of a reaction that it seems no energy is
needed to allow it to react
- Occur without outside intervention
Nonspontaneous reaction – reaction that needed a continuous supply of energy of them to
proceed
Photosynthesis – is a nonspontaneous process that needed a continuous supply of light energy
for it to take place in the leaves of plant
Collision – is a crash or clash, an encounter between two or more bodies resulting in an
exchange or transformation of energy
Enthalpy - refers to the sum of the internal energy of the system added to the produce of the
pressure of the gas in the system and its volume
Reaction – is said to be spontaneous if it occurs without being driven by some outside force
- Two driving forces of all chemical reactions: enthalpy and entropy
Enthalpy change – the change in the amount of heat after a chemical reaction
Entropy – is a measure of the disorder of a system and systems tend to favor a more disordered
system: nature tends toward chaos
Combustion reactions – help release energy to heat our homes and move our vehicles, heat
popcorn, or bake a cake or pancakes during or snack time and even in the process of
photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide and water are changed into sugars by plants and the
rotting of fruits and vegetables
LAWS OF CHEMICAL CHANGE
1. Law of conservation of mass – also known as the Lomonosov-lavoisier law, states that
the total quantity of mass of substance remains constant regardless of any change that
takes place
- Antoine Lavoisier – discovered that mass is neither created nor destroyed in chemical
reactions leads to the formulation of the law of conservation of mass
2. Law of definite composition – this law was observed by French chemist louise proust,
then after 50 years, Jean Servais Stas experimentally confirmed proust’s observation.
- It states that elements combine to form a compound that always contains exactly the
same proportion of elements by mass
3. Law of multiple proportion – sometimes called the dalton’s law, after its discoverer
- It states that if two element s forms more than one compound, the ratios of the masses
of the second element combined with a fixed mass of the first elements will be in a ratio
of small whole numbers
Chemical equation – is used to illustrate a chemical reaction using symbols, formulas, and signs.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION
1. Combination or synthesis reaction – two or more substances react to form one product
- The general formula for combination or synthesis reaction A + B -> AB
- AB stands for the compound
2. Analysis or decomposition reaction – is a reaction in which a single compound is broken
down into two or many smaller compound or elements
- This reaction is the reverse of the combination reaction
- General form of AB -> A + B
- Decomposition – is a process of rotting or decaying, the breaking down of a compound
into a smaller compounds or elements
- Oxidation state – is a number assigned to an element that represents the number of
electrons lost or gained by an atom
3. Single replacement reactions – an uncombined element displaces an element that is
part of a compound
- Are always one element and one compound
- Covalent bond – combination of non-metal to non-metal
- Ionic bond – non metal to metal
 - A + BC -> B + AC
- The most common type of this reaction is one in which a metal replaces another metal
ion from a solution
- Yung babaliktadin yung most reactive metal
4. Double replacement or metathesis reaction – atoms or ions from two different
compounds replace each other
- Is the presence of two compounds as reactants and two compounds as products
- AB + CD -> AD + CB
Coefficients – are whole numbers written in front of the symbols or formula which represents
the number of its atom or molecule
FACTORS AFFECTING RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTION
- Temperature
- Surface area
- Concentration – is the amount of a substance present in a mixture which is usually
expressed in terms of mass per unit volume
- Catalyst – is any substance that speeds up the rate of reaction without itself being
consumed
APPLICATION OF THE FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF REACTION
1. Food and pharmaceutical products preservation
2. Preservation or decomposition of specimens
3. Medication or poison affecting the body
4. Dating, restoration, and preservation of artifacts
5. Combustion of coals
6. Control of fires

Sa gagamit nito, sana maperfect mo :^