HAITIAN REVOLUTION 1791

THE PEARL OF THE ANTILLES - CHAPTER 3

HAITI - A LOOK BACK
Haiti comes from the Taino word “ayti” which translates to “land of high mountains” and is located on the island of Hispaniola
which is shared with the Dominican Republic in the Greater Antilles.
At the time of Columbus’ arrival in 1492 there was an estimated 1.1 million first peoples living on the island, though estimates
put that this figure as high as 3 million (Las Casas)
The island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western side, has been inhabited since about 5000 BC by groups of
Indigenous people thought to have arrived from Central or South America. Genetic studies show that some of these groups
were related to the Yanomami of the Amazon Basin. Amongst these early settlers were the Ciboney peoples, followed by
the Taínos.
The island was claimed by the Spanish in 1492 (La Navidad). In 1697 France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island by
way of the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them.
France received the western side and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of Santo Domingo, which
is the name of the Spanish colony on Hispaniola. The French set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast
numbers of slaves imported from West Africa. Saint-Domingue grew to become their richest colonial possession and was
known as the ‘Pearl of the Antilles’ as large plantations were established to grow sugar, coffee, cotton, cocoa which earned
massive amounts of wealth for France. No other colony was as wealthy and prosperous as St. Domingue during the 18 th
century.
CACIQUEDOMS 1492
ISLAND OF HISPANIOLA
INFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 1789
• St Domingue’s society mirrored that of France’s. The economy, politics and anything that
occurred in France had effects on her colony of St Domingue.
• As the 18th century drew to a close, France’s costly involvement in the American
Revolution, and extravagant spending by King Louis XVI and his predecessor, had left the
country on the brink of bankruptcy.
• Not only were the royal coffers depleted, but two decades of poor harvests, drought, cattle
disease and skyrocketing bread prices had kindled unrest among peasants and the urban
poor. Many expressed their desperation and resentment toward a regime that imposed
heavy taxes—yet failed to provide any relief—by rioting, looting and striking.
• In the fall of 1786, Louis XVI’s controller general, Charles Alexandre de Calonne, proposed a
financial reform package that included a universal land tax from which the privileged classes
would no longer be exempt.
• To garner support for these measures and to forestall a growing aristocratic revolt, the king summoned
the Estates-General (les états généraux) – an assembly/parliament representing France’s clergy, nobility
and middle class – for the first time since 1614.
• The meeting was scheduled for May 5, 1789; in the meantime, delegates of the three estates from each
locality would compile lists of grievances (cahiers de doléances) to present to the king.
• France’s population had changed considerably since 1614. The non-aristocratic members of the Third
Estate now represented over 95 % of the people but whose lives were controlled by the top classes.
• The grand and petit blancs in St. Domingue were well aware of this meeting and requested that they be
allowed to send delegates to represent the colony’s interest. The request was refused but delegates
were sent anyways as the top class felt that they wee contributing enough to French coffers to not have
a say in matters of governance especially when it came to the colony. The grand and petit blancs felt
that they were entitled to equal say when it came to policies governing the colony.
• With the French monarch overturned a new government was set up called the National Assembly
CAUSES OF THE HAITIAN REVOLUTION
• American Revolution 1776 – 83 – France fought on the side of the US to secure independence
• French Revolution – watch words “Fraternity, Equality and Liberty” (Jacobins/Rousseau/Voltaire)
• Civil chaos within St Domingue caused by the upheaval of the disagreements among the planter class,
free blacks and coloureds and the French government. All sectors of Haitian society was in chaos/each
with their own grievances
• Inhumane working and living conditions on Haitian plantations
• Outstanding leaders like Makandal (earlier),Toussaint, Boukman, Dessalines, Christophe, Biassou
• 80% of the enslaved population was African born and this united the enslaved as well as tied them to
their ancentral home of West Africa
• Vodoo ceremonies which culturally united enslaved population on the eve of revolution
SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF FRANCE 1789

France 1789
1st estate – monarch, clergy, aristocrats (Ancien Regime)

2nd estate – bourgeoisie, merchants, professionals

3rd estate – peasants (feuds/serfs)

SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF HAITI (ST DOMINGUE)1791

Haiti 1791

grand and petit blancs

free blacks and coloureds (mulattoes)

enslaved
THE THREE REVOLTS
• The struggles that had been occurring for decades prior to the 1791 outbreak of full-scale rebellion in the colony. The
French Revolution was also crucially important, for the conflicts between whites about equality among French men. This
in turn triggered an opportunity for blacks. The issuance of the Declaration of Rights of Man passed in France on August
26, 1789 stated "In the eyes of the law all citizens are equal." While the French government did not want to release this to
their colonies, word got out. News of the Declaration of Rights of Man brought new hopes to the black masses.
Meanwhile, plantation owners and the French government continued to exploit the slaves for profit.
• A series of revolts occurred in 1790, by mulattoes led by Vincent Ogé. Descendents of mixed blood were trying to establish
rights from a recent National Assembly ruling. However the white Colonial Assembly ignored French efforts. These
mulatto-led revolts were the first challenges against French rule and the slaveholding system.
• In August of 1791, the first organized black rebellion ignited the twelve-year San Domingo Revolution. The northern
settlements were hit first, and the flood that overwhelmed them revealed the military strength and organization of the
black masses. Plantations were destroyed, and white owners killed to escape the oppression. Some of the rebellion’s
leaders include Boukman, Biassou, Toussaint, Jeannot, Francois, Dessalines, and Cristophe. These men would help to
guide the Revolution down its torturous, bloody road to complete success, although it would cost over twelve years and
hundreds of thousands of lives. Many of those leaders themselves would fall along the way, but the force of unity against
slavery, a unity deeply embedded in the creole culture that bound the blacks together, would sustain the revolution.
HERE COMES THE FRENCH AND THE BRITISH TROOPS

• After the revolutionaries’ initial successes in overwhelming the institution of plantation slavery on the Plaine du
Nord, Le Cap fell into the hands of French republican forces. Toussaint and thousands of blacks joined them in
April 1793. The agreement was if the blacks fought against the royalists, the French would promise freedom.
Thus, on August 29, 1793, Commissioner Légér-Felicité Sonthonax abolished slavery in the colony. Then with
self-interest in mind, revolutionary France’s British enemies tried to seize an opportunity to grab the colony - the
greatest single source of colonial wealth in the whole world. Furthermore, the British wanted to put down the
slave rebellion in order to protect their own slave colonies.
• In June of 1794 British forces landed on the island and worked with Spain to attack the French. Yet, the British
forces soon fell victim to yellow fever. With more uncertainties presenting themselves, Toussaint decided to
pledge his support to the French, on May 6, 1794. Toussaint was appointed governor in 1796 and he continued
to follow his ideas for an autonomous black- led San Domingo. By January 1802, Toussaint was the head of a
semi-independent San Domingo. Napoleon saw this as a threat and sent his brother-in-law Victor-Emmanuel
Leclerc from France with 20,000 troops to capture Toussaint, and re-establish slavery in the colony. Toussaint
was deceived in 1802, captured and shipped to France, where he eventually died in prison.
HAITIAN INDEPENDENCE
• The struggle for independence continued and by late 1803 the north and south portions of the island
united and defeated the French under Rochambeau. Dessalines, Toussaint’s former lieutenant
proclaimed the independence of the colony on January 1 st 1804 and removed the French name,
restoring the original Taino name of Haiti. He later declared himself Emperor. He was assassinated in
1806, and the country divided between rival successors. The rebels had shattered the enslaved colony
and forged from the ruins the free nation of Haiti. Haiti remained divided until 1820 by Jean Pierre
Boyer but conflict remained.
• Haiti became an independent nation on January 1st 1804 and was the first black republic in the
Americas.
• Haiti’s history has long been tainted with corruption, dictatorship, debt and conflict among its leaders.
The territory is considered one of the poorest nations in the Western Hemisphere.
CONSEQUENCES FOR HAITI AND THE WIDER
CARIBBEAN
Haiti
• Destroyed the economy – cocoa, coffee, sugar plantations were destroyed
• Indebtedness to European countries especially France who demanded compensation for the loss of their colonial
investments
• Divided politically/society in shambles/no revenue

Wider Caribbean
• Many Haitians fled to other parts of the Caribbean (Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guadeloupe, Martinique) and the
US
• Jamaica replaced Haiti as main colonial producer on the world market
• The slave owners on the islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe were very mindful of the influx of migrants from St.
Domingue and the spread of rebellion among the colonies. Some took strong measures to control migration and to
keep a tight control over the enslaved population.
RESOURCES

• Haitian Revolution - [Link]

• Haitian Revolution and the US - [Link]
• French Revolution - [Link]
• Voodoo - [Link] (watch with your parents)
• Haitian landscape - [Link]
• Haitian landscape - [Link]

•
INDEPENDENT WORK
• Why was King Louis 16th considered an absolute monarch?
• Who was Louis 16th wife and what saying is she famous for? What did that statement mean? And what did it suggest of
her?
• Identify the restrictions placed on free blacks and coloureds in St Domingue p.27
• Identify the main issues Frenchmen faced on the eve of the French Revolution 1789 p.25
• Check out the myth that surrounds Makandal p. 28
• Research Toussaint and give 5 bio-facts and a pic of him
• Imagine you are Toussaint and you are on the eve of revolt, write a speech of about 200 words inspiring the black army
• What was Napoleon’s name for Toussaint and what does it suggest to you? p. 32
• Voodoo is a part of the cultural fabric of Haitian society give an example of a voodoo ceremony – include a picture (ask
your parents for help here)
• A Historian by the name of C.L.R. James wrote a phenomenal account of the Haitian Revolution called “The Black
Jacobins”, what do you understand by the title? Finding out about the Jacobins will help understand the author’s choice of
title.
• Haiti is one of the poorest nation in the Americas, however, there are many positive attributes that can be seen, identify 3
positive and 3 negative aspects of Haiti – landscape, architecture, art, music, cuisine are some suggestions