1.

Theories of Community Policing

The theory of community policing is based on normative sponsorship theory and critical
social theory. Normative sponsorship theory assumes most people are of good will and willing to
cooperate with others to satisfy their needs. Critical social science assists police and citizens to
gain an understanding of the “quasi-causes” of their problematic situation, which aid citizens to
solve their problems.
Community policing emphasizes proactive problem solving in a systematic and routine
fashion. Rather than responding to crime only after it occurs, community policing encourages
agencies to proactively develop solutions to the immediate underlying conditions contributing to
public safety problems. Problem solving must be infused into all police operations and guide
decision making efforts. Agencies are encouraged to think innovatively about their responses and
view making arrests as only one of a wide array of potential responses. A major conceptual
vehicle for helping officers to think about problem solving in a structured and disciplined way is the
SARA (scanning, analysis, response, and assessment) problem-solving model.

2. Social Structure Theory

Social structure theory emphasizes poverty, lack of education, absence of marketable skills,
and sub-cultural values as fundamental causes of crime. Three sub-types of social structure
theories can be identified: social disorganization theory, strain theory, and culture conflict theory.
Three sub-types of social structure theories can be identified: social disorganization theory,
strain theory, and culture conflict theory. Social disorganization theory encompasses the notion of
social pathology, which sees society as a kind of organism and crime and deviance as a kind of
disease or social pathology. Theories of social disorganization are often associated with the
perspective of social ecology and with the Chicago School of criminology, which developed during
the 1920s and 1930s. Strain theory points to a lack of fit between socially approved success goals
and the availability of socially approved means to achieve those goals. As a consequence,
according to the perspective of strain theory, individuals unable to succeed through legitimate
means turn to other avenues that promise economic and social recognition. Culture conflict theory
suggests that the root cause of criminality can be found in a clash of values between differently
socialized groups over what is acceptable or proper behavior.
Because theories of social structure look to the organization of society for their explanatory
power, intervention strategies based on them typically seek to alleviate the social conditions that
are thought to produce crime. Social programs based on social structure assumptions frequently
seek to enhance socially acceptable opportunities for success and to increase the availability of
meaningful employment.
3. Modern Management Technology Theory
Modern Management Technology Theory was created in direct response to the Classical
Management Theory that states employees are only motivated by money. The Modern
Management Technology Theory recognizes that workers are complex and have many reasons
for wanting to succeed in their job. The Modern Management Theory also believes that rapidly
changing technology can both cause and solve many problems in the workplace. This theory
combines mathematical analysis with an understanding of human emotions and motivation in
order to create a working environment that is maximally productive. A manager using the Modern
Management Theory will use statistics to measure employee performance and productivity and
also try to understand what makes their employees satisfied at their jobs. Modern Management
Theory is actually comprised of three other management theories — Quantitative Theory, Systems
Theory, and Contingency Theory.

4. Democratic Theory
Democratic theory is an established sub-field of political theory that is primarily concerned
with examining the definition and meaning of the concept of democracy, as well as the moral
foundations, obligations, challenges, and overall desirability of democratic governance. Generally
speaking, a commitment to democracy as an object of study and deliberation is what unites
democratic theorists across a variety of academic disciplines and methodological orientations.
When this commitment takes the form of a discussion of the moral foundations and desirability of
democracy, normative theory results. When theorists concern themselves with the ways in which
actual democracies function, their theories are empirical. Finally, when democratic theorists
interrogate or formulate the meaning of the concept of democracy, their work is conceptual or
semantic in orientation. Democratic theories typically operate at multiple levels of orientation. For
example, definitions of democracy as well as normative arguments about when and why
democracy is morally desirable are often rooted in empirical observations concerning the ways in
which democracies have actually been known to function. In addition to a basic commitment to
democracy as an object of study, most theorists agree that the concept democracy denotes some
form or process of collective self-rule. The etymology of the word traces back to the Greek
terms demos (the people, the many) and kratos (to rule). Yet beyond this basic meaning, a vast
horizon of contestation opens up. Important questions arise: who constitutes the people and what
obligations do individuals have in a democracy? What values are most important for a democracy
and which ones make it desirable or undesirable as a form of government? How is democratic rule
to be organized and exercised? What institutions should be used and how? Once instituted, does
democracy require precise social, economic, or cultural conditions to survive in the long term? And
why is it that democratic government is preferable to, say, aristocracy or oligarchy? These
questions are not new. In fact, democratic theory traces its roots back to ancient Greece and the
emergence of the first democratic governments in Western history. Ever since, philosophers,
politicians, artists, and citizens have thought and written extensively about democracy. Yet
democratic theory did not arise as an institutionalized academic or intellectual discipline until the
20th century. The works cited here privilege Anglo-American, western European, and, more
generally, institutional variants of democratic theory, and, therefore, they do not exhaust the full
range of thought on the subject.

5. Zero Tolerance Theory

Zero tolerance Theory refers to school discipline policies and practices that mandate
predetermined consequences, typically severe, punitive and exclusionary (e.g., out of school
suspension and expulsion), in response to specific types of student misbehavior—regardless of
the context or rationale for the behavior.
Zero tolerance policing is sometimes known as “aggressive policing” or “aggressive order
maintenance” and is sometimes incorrectly tied to “broken windows” policing. A zero tolerance
strategy consists of stopping, questioning, and frisking pedestrians or drivers considered to be
acting suspiciously and then arresting them for offenses when possible, typically for such low-level
offenses as possessing marijuana. A defining difference between zero tolerance interventions and
other strategies is that zero tolerance strategies are not discerning; the focus is on making stops
and arrests to crack down on all types of disorder, generically defined. A common motivation is
that the existence of even low-level offenses implies that an area is not well controlled, which in
turn will lead to people committing more-serious crimes there.

6. Public Relation Theory

Public Relations Theory explores the central principles and theoretical components of
public relations and their practical applications in actual situations. The field of public relations has
progressed far from the research tradition, which primarily focused on production of messages,
campaigns, and mass media effects on audiences (Bruning & Ledingham, 2000; Ledingham &
Bruning, 1998). J. Grunig and Hunt (1984) have provided grounds for the re-conceptualization of
public relations. They defined public relations as “the management of communication between an
organization and its publics” (p. 7). Furthermore, J. Grunig and Hunt (1984) proposed a model of
strategic public relations management. Their strategic public relations management theory
encompasses much of the foundational knowledge in public relations strategy, including the
situational theory of publics TP 1 PT and models of public relations.
7. Communitarian Theory
Communitarianism is a philosophy that emphasizes the connection between the individual
and the community. Its overriding philosophy is based upon the belief that a person's social
identity and personality are largely molded by community relationships, with a smaller degree of
development being placed on individualism.

8. Organizational Structure and Culture Theory

Organizational Culture is a system of shared assumptions, values and beliefs that governs
how people behave in organizations. ... It is based on shared attitudes, beliefs, customs, and
written and unwritten rules that have been developed over time and are considered valid.

9. Broken Window Theory

The broken windows theory states that any visible signs of crime and civil disorder, such as
broken windows (hence, the name of the theory) vandalism, loitering, public drinking, jaywalking,
and transportation fare evasion, create an urban environment that promotes even more crime and
disorder (Wilson & Kelling, 1982).
 DECISION - MAKING CONCEPTS

Decision-making can be seen a problem-solving process that generates a solution that is

considered to be ideal, or at Ieast acceptable. Consequently, it is a mechanism that can be more
or less logical or irrational and based on overt or implicit knowledge and beliefs. In dynamic
decision making process, implicit information is often used to fill holes (Brockmann, 2016).
Typically, all, implicit and explicit, of information are used together in decision making process.

A significant part of decision-making evaluating a finite range of alternatives that are defined in
terms of evaluative criteria. So the challenge would involve be to rate these alternatives in terms or
how appealing they are to the decision-maker while considering all the criteria at the same time.
Another objective may be to find the best alternative or to assess the relative overall value of each
alternative when all the parameters are simultaneously considered.

The Multiple-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) focuses on solving these problems. While very
old, this held of decision-making has drawn attention from many researchers and practitioners,
and is still widely debated as there are many MCDA approaches that can produce very different
results when applied to execute the same data (Triantaphyllou, 2000).

ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE IN DECISION- MAKING

The environment of decision makers will play role in the decision-making process. A factor
affecting cognitive performance, for example, is environmental uncertainty (Davidson, 2006).

A complex environmental is an environmental with a great number potentially different states that
come and go over time (Godfrey-Smith 2001). Studies conducted at the University of Colorado
have shown more complex environments associate with higher cognitive performance suggesting
the setting can affect a decision. One experiment assessed complexity by the amount of small
objects and devices present; less of those items were in a simple environment. The higher
measure of environmental uncertainty has positively improved executive performance, making it
harder to think about the situation and make a rational decision.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DECISION-MAKING (Monahan, 2000).

 Objectives have to be set first.

 Requirements must be graded and placed in order of importance.
 We need to build alternate acts.
 The alternatives must be measured against all targets.
 Tentative decision is the option which can accomplish all the objectives.
 The tentative decision is evaluated for more possible consequences.
 The preliminary decision is reviewed for more potential implications.
 Decisive action is taken and further action is taken to avoid any negative effects from being
issues and to continue all processes all over again.
 There are usually followed step decision model that could be used to assess an optimal
production schedule.

THE NINE (9) CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DECISION

If you don't know how to handle tension or if the results are less than optimal, decision-making can
be the single-greatest weight on your shoulders. So, how do you know what makes a strong
decision Here are the nine attributes of a positive decision:
1. Decisions positively impact others.
 2. Decisions are replicable.
3. Decisions foster opportunity. (Empowers others to act)
4. Decisions include others.
5. Decisions are executable.
6. Decision is systematic.
7. Decisions are accountable.
8. Decisions are pragmatic.
9. Decisions involve self-awareness.

DECISION-MAKING TECHNIQUES

Decision-making techniques can be separated into two broad categories:

1. Group Decision-Making Techniques

2. Individual Decision-Making Techniques

Individual decision-making techniques can also often be applied by a group.

GROUP DECISION-MAKING

Also known as "Collaborative Decision-Making" a situation faced when individuals

collectively make a choice from the alternatives before them. The decision is then no longer
attributable to any single individual who is a member of the group. This is because the result
applies to certain systems of individual result classes such as social power. Community and
decision often vary from those taken by individuals.

Collaborative decision-making in workplace environments is one of the most effective

models for creating buy-in rom over stakeholders, building trust and promoting 1nnovaulon. In
keeping with the concept of cooperation, collective decisions often appear to be more successful
than decisions made by a single person. In this way, such collective agreements have the ability to
deliver, better net output results than individuals working alone (Larson, 2010).

Collaborative or collective decision-making would often be preferred under normal daily

circumstances and will produce more benefits than individual decision making when there is room
for proper deliberation, negotiation and dialogue. This can be achieved using committee, teams,
organizations, alliances or other social collaboration processes.

For certain cases, however, this approach may also have disadvantages. Certain methods
of decision making may be better in serious emergencies or crisis situations because emergency
actions can need to be taken quicker, with less time for deliberation.

On the other hand, additional considerations must also be taken into account when
appropriateness of a decision-making framework. For instance, the likelihood of group
fragmentation may often decision occur, causing certain groups to make more drastic decision in
the direction of individual inclinations than those of their individual members (Moscovici, 1969)

INDIVIDUAL DECISION-MAKING

In general, a person takes prompt decision. When in a group, keeping any one person
reasons for a wrong decision is not easy. Human decision taking usually saves time, resources,
and energy as individual make timely and rational choices. Although taking group decision takes a
lot of time, money and energy.

DECISION MAKING APPROACHES

We make the majority of the decisions, as individuals. It is important to look at the

approaches that we follow in our individual decision-making in the effort to take more successful
decisions.

As the outcomes of the decisions are not clear, it necessary to concentrate on how a
decision is made to increase the consistency of the decision. By looking at the approaches t0
decision-making, we aim to highlight certain potential for change that can be accomplished
regardless of a particular decision strategy.

There are a variety of ways to describe decision-making methods but we will find three
broad groupings for our purposes. For certain cases, we all prefer to take actions at one time or
another using all of the methods. Think about which approach will better describe how you make
most of your choices, or prefer making your choices.