Software Engineering

Software Life Cycle Model

Organization of this Lecture
▪ Software Life Cycle
▪ Life Cycle Model
▪ Why Model Life Cycle ?
▪ Various Life Cycle Models
▪ Summary
▪ References
 Software Life Cycle

▪ Software life cycle (or software process):

– Series of identifiable stages that a software product undergoes during its life time:
▪ Feasibility study
▪ Requirements analysis and specification,
▪ Design,
▪ Coding,
▪ Testing
▪ maintenance.
Feasibility Study
▪ Main aim of feasibility study: determine whether developing the product
– financially worthwhile
– technically feasible.
▪ First roughly understand what the customer wants:
– different data which would be input to the system,
– processing needed on these data,
– output data to be produced by the system,
– various constraints on the behavior of the system.
Activities during Feasibility Study
▪ Work out an overall understanding of the problem.
▪ Formulate different solution strategies.
▪ Examine alternate solution strategies in terms of:
▪ resources required,
▪ cost of development, and
▪ development time.
Activities during Feasibility Study
▪ Perform a cost/benefit analysis:
– to determine which solution is the best.
– we may determine that none of the solutions is feasible
due to:
▪ high cost,
▪ resource constraints,
▪ technical reasons.
Requirements Analysis and
Specification
▪ Aim of this phase:
– understand the exact requirements of the customer,
– document them properly.
▪ Consists of two distinct activities:
– requirements gathering and analysis
– requirements specification.
Goals of Requirements Analysis
▪ Collect all related data from the customer:
– analyze the collected data to clearly understand what the
customer wants,
– find out any inconsistencies and incompleteness in the
requirements,
– resolve all inconsistencies and incompleteness.
Requirements Gathering

▪ Gathering relevant data:

– usually collected from the end-users through interviews
and discussions.
– For example, for a business accounting software:
▪ interview all the accountants of the organization to find out their
requirements.
Requirements Analysis (CONT.)

▪ The data we initially collect from the users:

– would usually contain several contradictions and
ambiguities:
– each user typically has only a partial and
incomplete view of the system.
Requirements Analysis (CONT.)

▪ Ambiguities and contradictions:

– must be identified
– resolved by discussions with the customers.
▪ Next, requirements are organized:
– into a Software Requirements Specification (SRS)
document.
Requirements Analysis (CONT.)

▪ Engineers doing requirements analysis

and specification:
–are designated as Analysts.
Design
▪ Design phase transforms requirements
specification:
– into a form suitable for implementation in some
programming language.
Design
▪ In technical terms:
– during design phase, software architecture is derived from
the SRS document.
▪ Two design approaches:
– traditional approach,
– object oriented approach.
 Coding
▪ During this phase:
– each module of the design is coded,
– Here the design is translated into a suitable programming
language.
Testing

▪ The purpose of testing is to check whether the

software is working correctly by satisfying all its
requirement specified in SRS.
▪ It is broadly classified into three categories – Unit
testing, Integration testing and System testing
 Unit and Integration Testing

▪ Unit testing :
– test if individual modules work correctly.
– a set of program modules that have been tested individually.
▪ Integration Testing :
▪ Different modules are integrated in a planned manner:
– modules are almost never integrated in one shot.
– Normally integration is carried out through a number of steps.
▪ During each integration step,
– the partially integrated system is tested.
 System Testing

▪ After all the modules have been successfully integrated

and tested:
– system testing is carried out.
▪ Goal of system testing:
– ensure that the developed system functions according to its requirements as specified in the SRS
document.
– It is carried out in three ways:
– Alpha testing, Beta testing and Acceptance testing.
Maintenance

▪ Maintenance of any software product:

– requires much more effort than the effort to develop
the product itself.
– development effort to maintenance effort is
typically 40:60.
Maintenance (CONT.)

▪ Corrective maintenance:
– Correct errors which were not discovered during the product development
phases.
▪ Perfective maintenance:
– Improve implementation of the system
– enhance functionalities of the system.
▪ Adaptive maintenance:
– Port software to a new environment,
▪ e.g. to a new computer or to a new operating system.
 Life Cycle Model

▪ A software life cycle model (or process model):

– a descriptive and diagrammatic model of software life cycle:

– identifies all the activities required for product development,

– establishes a precedence ordering among the different activities,
– Divides life cycle into phases.
Why Model Life Cycle ?

– Forms a common understanding of activities among

the software developers.
– Helps in identifying inconsistencies, redundancies,
and omissions in the development process.
– Helps in tailoring a process model for specific
projects.
 Why Model Life Cycle ? (Cont.)

▪ The development team must identify a suitable life cycle

model:
– and then adhere to it.
– Primary advantage of adhering to a life cycle model:
▪ Helps development of software in a systematic and disciplined
manner.
Why Model Life Cycle ? (Cont.)

▪ When a program is developed by a single

programmer ---
– he has the freedom to decide his exact steps.
Why Model Life Cycle ? (Cont.)

▪ When a software product is being developed by a

team:
– there must be a precise understanding among team
members as to when to do what,
– otherwise it would lead to chaos and project failure.
Why Model Life Cycle ? (Cont.)

▪ A software project will never succeed if:

– one engineer starts writing code,
– another concentrates on writing the test document first,
– yet another engineer first defines the file structure
– another defines the I/O for his portion first.
Why Model Life Cycle ? (Cont.)

▪ A life cycle model:

– defines entry and exit criteria for every phase.
– A phase is considered to be complete:
▪only when all its exit criteria are satisfied.
Why Model Life Cycle ? (Cont.)

▪ The phase exit criteria for the software requirements

specification phase:
– Software Requirements Specification (SRS) document is
complete, reviewed, and approved by the customer.
▪ A phase can start:
– only if its phase-entry criteria have been satisfied.
Why Model Life Cycle ? (Cont.)

▪ It becomes easier for software project managers:

– to monitor the progress of the project.
Why Model Life Cycle ? (Cont.)

▪ When a life cycle model is adhered to,

– the project manager can at any time fairly accurately tell,
▪ at which stage (e.g., design, code, test, etc. ) of the project is.
– Otherwise, it becomes very difficult to track the progress
of the project
▪ the project manager would have to depend on the guesses of the
team members.
Why Model Life Cycle ? (Cont.)

▪ This usually leads to a problem:

– known as the 99% complete syndrome.
 Various Life Cycle Models
▪ Many life cycle models have been proposed.
▪ We will confine our attention to a few important and commonly used
models.
– Classical waterfall model
– Iterative waterfall,
– V- Model,
– Prototyping Model
– Incremental Model
– Evolutionary Model,
– Spiral model,
– RAD
Classical Waterfall Model

▪ Classical waterfall model divides life cycle into phases:

– feasibility study,
– requirements analysis and specification,
– design,
– coding and unit testing,
– integration and system testing,
– maintenance.
Classical Waterfall Model

Feasibility Study

Req. Analysis

Design

Coding and Unit Testing

Integration & System Testing

Maintenance
Iterative Waterfall Model

▪ Classical waterfall model is idealistic:

– assumes that no defect is introduced during any
development activity.
– in practice:
▪ defects do get introduced in almost every phase of the life cycle.
Iterative Waterfall Model (CONT.)

▪ Defects usually get detected much later in the life

cycle:
– For example, a design defect might go unnoticed till
the coding or testing phase.
Iterative Waterfall Model (CONT.)

▪ Once a defect is detected:

– we need to go back to the phase where it was introduced
– redo some of the work done during that and all subsequent phases.
▪ Therefore we need feedback paths in the classical waterfall model.
Iterative Waterfall Model (CONT.)

Feasibility Study

Req. Analysis

Design

Coding & Unit Testing

Integration & System Testing

Maintenance
Iterative Waterfall Model (CONT.)

▪ Errors should be detected

∙ in the same phase in which they are introduced.

▪ For example:
∙ if a design problem is detected in the design phase itself,
∙ the problem can be taken care of much more easily
∙ than say if it is identified at the end of the integration and
system testing phase.
Phase containment of errors

▪ Reason: rework must be carried out not only to the design

but also to code and test phases.
▪ The principle of detecting errors as close to its point of
introduction as possible:
– is known as phase containment of errors.
▪ Iterative waterfall model is by far the most widely used
model.
– Almost every other model is derived from the waterfall model.
Prototyping Model

▪ Before starting actual development,

– a working prototype of the system should first be built.
▪ A prototype is a toy implementation of a system:
– limited functional capabilities,
– low reliability,
– inefficient performance.
Prototyping Model (CONT.)

▪ Start with approximate requirements.

▪ Carry out a quick design.
▪ Prototype model is built using several short-cuts:
– Short-cuts might involve using inefficient, inaccurate, or dummy functions.
▪ A function may use a table look-up rather than performing the actual computations.
Prototyping Model (CONT.)

▪ The developed prototype is submitted to the customer for his evaluation:

– Based on the user feedback, requirements are refined.
– This cycle continues until the user approves the prototype.
▪ The actual system is developed using the classical waterfall approach.
Prototyping Model (CONT.)

Build Prototype

Requirements Customer Customer satisfied

Gathering Quick Design Evaluation of Design
Prototype

Refine Requirements Implement

Test

Maintain
 Prototyping Model (CONT.)

▪ Requirements analysis and specification phase becomes redundant:

– final working prototype (with all user feedbacks incorporated) serves as an
animated requirements specification.
▪ Design and code for the prototype is usually thrown away:
– However, the experience gathered from developing the prototype helps a great
deal while developing the actual product.
Prototyping Model (CONT.)

▪ Even though construction of a working prototype model

involves additional cost --- overall development cost might
be lower for:
– systems with unclear user requirements,
– systems with unresolved technical issues.
▪ Many user requirements get properly defined and technical
issues get resolved:
– these would have appeared later as change requests and resulted in
incurring massive redesign costs.
Spiral Model

▪ Proposed by Boehm in 1988.

▪ Each loop of the spiral represents a phase of the software process:
– the innermost loop might be concerned with system feasibility,
– the next loop with system requirements definition,
– the next one with system design, and so on.
▪ There are no fixed phases in this model, the phases shown in the
figure are just examples.
Spiral Model (CONT.)

▪ The team must decide:

– how to structure the project into phases.

▪ Start work using some generic model:

– add extra phases
▪ for specific projects or when problems are identified during a project.

▪ Each loop in the spiral is split into four sectors (quadrants).

Spiral Model (CONT.)
Objective Setting (First Quadrant)

▪ Identify objectives of the phase,

▪ Examine the risks associated with these objectives.
– Risk:
▪ any adverse circumstance that might hamper successful completion of a software
project .
▪ Find alternate solutions possible.
Risk Assessment and Reduction (Second
Quadrant)

▪ For each identified project risk,

– a detailed analysis is carried out.
▪ Steps are taken to reduce the risk.
▪ For example, if there is a risk that the requirements are inappropriate:
– a prototype system may be developed.
Spiral Model (CONT.)

▪ Development and Validation (Third quadrant):

– develop and validate the next level of the product.
▪ Review and Planning (Fourth quadrant):
– review the results achieved so far with the customer and plan the
next iteration around the spiral.
▪ With each iteration around the spiral:
– progressively more complete version of the software gets built.
Spiral Model as a meta model

▪ Subsumes all discussed models:

– a single loop spiral represents waterfall model.
– uses an evolutionary approach --
▪ iterations through the spiral are evolutionary levels.
– enables understanding and reacting to risks during each iteration along the spiral.
– uses:
▪ prototyping as a risk reduction mechanism
▪ retains the step-wise approach of the waterfall model.
Summary

▪ A fundamental necessity while developing any

large software product:
– Adoption of a life cycle model.
Summary

▪ Adherence to a software life cycle model:

– Helps to do various development activities in a systematic
and disciplined manner.
– Also makes it easier to manage a software development
effort.
Reference

▪ Rajib Mall, Fundamentals of Software Engineering, 4th ed., PHI

Learning Private Limited, 2014.
▪ Sommerville I., Software Engineering,4th ed., Addision – Wesley
Publishing, Reading Mass.,1992.