Ebeling, An Introduction to Reliability and Maintainability Engineering, 2nd ed.

Waveland Press, Inc., Copyright © 2009

CHAPTER 6

6.1 Load Sharing System:

R (t ) = e − 2λt +
2
2
+
[e − λ+ t
]
− e − 2 λt = e −.2t +
.2
.2 − .3
]
e −.3t − e −.2t = e −.2t − 2 e −.3t − e −.2t [ ]
t R(t)
1 .9745
2 .9133
3 .8333
4 .7456
5 .6574
1 .2 1 1 LM OP
MTTF = + −
.2 −.1 .3 .2 N
= 8.33 yrs
Q
6.2 Standby System: λ1=1/MTTF1=1/1000=.001, λ2 =1/333=.003, λ−2 =1/2000=.0005
− − . 003 t
a) R( t ) =.90 = e − λ1t + 1
−
e − λ 2t − e − ( λ1 + λ 2 )t = e −.001t −.667 e − e −.0015t
λ1 + λ − λ 22
t R(t)
275 0.9087
280 0.9060
290 0.9005
291 0.8999
design life=291 hours
1 1 .001
b) MTTF = + =
d
+
i
= 1222 hrs
b g
1
λ 1 λ 2 λ 1 + λ−2 .001 .003 .001+.0005
6.3 Standby System:
− .001
a) R( t ) = e− λ1t + 1
e− λ 2t − e− ( λ1 +λ 2 ) t = e − .001t + e −.0005t − e − (.001+0 )t
λ1 + λ−2 − λ 2 .001−.005
R(72) = e-.072 −.25 e − .36 − e− .072 =.9887
1 1 λ1 1 1
b) MTTFsystem = + 1
= + = + = 2000
λ1 λ2 (λ1 + λ ) −
2 λ1 .005(λ1 + 0) λ1 .005
1 1
M
1 OP −1
1
λ1
= 2000 −
.005
→ λ 1 = 2000 −
.005 Q =
1800

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 Ebeling, An Introduction to Reliability and Maintainability Engineering, 2nd ed.
Waveland Press, Inc., Copyright © 2009

6.4 Standby System with Switching Failures:

(1 − p ) − (.995).001 − .0005t
a) R( t ) = e− λ1t + 1
e − λ 2t − e− ( λ1 + λ 2 ) t = e − .001t + e − e − (.001+ 0 ) t
λ 1 + λ−2 − λ 2 .001−.005
R(72) = e-.072 − (.995).25 e − .36 − e− .072 =.9884

b) MTTFsystem =
1
+
(1 − p )λ 1 1
− M1
=
1 (1 − p )λ 1 1
+
OP
−
1
M OP
λ1 λ 1 + λ−2 − λ 2 λ 2 λ 1 + λ−2 Q
λ1 λ1 − λ 2 λ 2 λ1 Q
=
1
+
LM
(1 − p )λ 1 λ 1 − λ 2
= +
OP
1 (1 − p ) 1 .995 1
= + = + 199 = 2000
λ1 λ1 − λ 2 N
λ 2λ 1 λ1 λ2 Q λ 1 .005 λ 1
λ 1 = ( 2000 − 199)−1 =.000555 → MTTF = 1 / λ 1 = 1801

6.5 Three-state Device (eqn 6-41):

ln(.99)
R (t R ) = e − ( λ1 + λ 2 ) t R = e − (.00034 + .000021) t R = e − .000361t R =.99 → tR = = 27.84 hrs
−.000361
.000021
P( t ) = 2
1 − e − ( λ1 + λ 2 ) t = 1 − e −.000361(1000 ) =.01763
λ1 + λ 2 .000361

6.6
state unit1 unit2 unit3
1 on-line on-line standby
2 failed on-line standby
3 on-line failed standby
4 failed failed on-line
5 failed failed failed

dP1 ( t )
= −2λP1( t ) → P1( t ) = e −2 λt
dt
dP2 ( t )
= λP1( t ) − λP2 ( t ) = λe −2 λt − λP2 ( t )
dt
dP2 ( t )
+ λP2 ( t ) = λe −2 λt
dt

z z
P2 ( t )eλt = e −2 λt eλt dt + C = e − λt dt + C =
e − λt
−λ
+C

e − 2 λt e −2λt 1 − λt 1 − λt
P2 ( t ) = + Ce − λt = + e = e 1 − e − λt
−λ −λ λ λ
1 1
since P2 ( 0) = 0 = + C, C =
−λ λ
dP3 ( t ) 1 − λt
= λP1 ( t ) − λP3 ( t ) = e 1 − e − λt since state 3 is equivalent to state 2
dt λ

6-2
 Ebeling, An Introduction to Reliability and Maintainability Engineering, 2nd ed.
Waveland Press, Inc., Copyright © 2009

dP4 ( t )
= λP2 ( t ) + λP3 ( t ) − λP4 ( t ) = 2e − λt 1 − e − λt − λP4 ( t )
dt

z
P4 ( t )eλt = 2e − λt 1 − e − λt eλt dt + C = 2 t +
LM e OP + C
N λQ
− λt

P4 ( t ) = 2e − λt t +
LM e − λt OP + Ce − λt
= 2 e − λt
LMt + e − 1 OP
− λt

N λ Q N λ λQ
2 2
since P4 ( 0) = 0 = +C→C = −

R( t ) = P1 ( t ) + P2 ( t ) + P3 ( t ) + P4 ( t ) = e −2 λt + 2te − λt
∞ 1 ∞ 1 2
MTTF = ∫ R(t ) dt = + 2∫ te − λt dt = +
0 2 0 2λ λ 2

6.7 Load Sharing System with λ1=λ2=λ=.05 and λ+1 = λ+2 =.2.
2 +
R( t ) = e −2λt + e − λ t − e −2 λt
2λ − λ+
2(.05)
R(5) = e −2(.05)( 5 ) + e −.2( 5) − e2(.05)5 =.6065+.2387 =.8452
2(.05)−.2
1 2λ 1 1 1 LM2(.05) 1 1 OP M OP
MTTF = + −
2λ 2λ − λ+ λ+ 2λ
= +
N Q
− = 10 + ( −1) 5 − 10 = 15 hrs
2(.05) 2(.05)−.2 .2 .1 Q
6.8 Single 1000 gpm pump:
TTF = 700 hrs and t d = − MTTF ln R 700 ln(.80) 156.2 hrs
Load Sharing System: TTF = 600 hrs MTTF=700 is preferred MTTF.
− 2 λt 2 − λ+ t −2 λ t −2 t / 800 2 / 800
R( t ) = e + +
e −e =e + e − t / 200 − e −2t / 800
2λ − λ 2 / 800 − 1 / 200
= e− t / 400 − (1) e− t / 200 − e − t / 400 =.80
By trial and error: t R(t)
200 .8452
225 .8149
235 .8026
236 .8014
237 .8001 tR = 237 hrs is preferred design life.

6.9 Standby System with 1 = 1 / 700 .00142857, 2 .005, and -2 .001:

− .001428
R(t ) = e − λ 1t + 1
e − λ 2t − e −( λ1 +λ 2 )t = e − .001428t + e −.005t − e − (.001428 + .001) t
λ 1 + λ−2 − λ 2 .001428+.001−.005
= e −.001428t −.5552 e −.005t − e − .002428t =.80
By trial and error: td=295.5 hrs
1 1 .001428
MTTF = + 1
= + = 817.6 hrs
λ1 λ 2 (λ 1 − λ−2 ) .001428 .005(.001428+.001)
This system is preferred based on both design time and MTTF.

6.10

6-3
 Ebeling, An Introduction to Reliability and Maintainability Engineering, 2nd ed.
Waveland Press, Inc., Copyright © 2009

a) R (100) = 1 − (1 − e −.0034(100) )(1 − e −.0105(100) ) = .8126

b) Standby System with Switching Failure ( λ 1 =.0034, λ 2 =.0105, and λ−2 =.0005 ):
(1 − p)λ 1 −
R (t ) = e − λ 1t + −
e − λ 2 t − e − ( λ 1 + λ 2 ) t = e −.0034 t + ( −.4378) e − .0105t − e − (.0034 +.0005) t
λ1 + λ 2 − λ 2
R (100) =.855
c) Load Sharing System (eqns 6-16,17 & 18):
λ1 =.0034, λ 2 =.0105, λ+1 =.0051, λ+2 =.01575
+ +
R (t ) = e − ( λ 1 + λ 2 ) t + 1
+
e − λ 2 − e − ( λ1 + λ 2 )t + 2
+
e − λ1 − e − ( λ1 + λ 2 )t
λ1 + λ 2 − λ 2 λ1 + λ 2 − λ 1
− (.0139) t − .01575t − .0139 t
=e + ( −1838
. )e −e + 1193
. e − .0051t − e −.0139 t
(100) =.2491+.077 +.4192 .745

MTTF(a) = 1/.0034 + 1/.0105 - 1/[.0034+.0105] = 317.4

1 (1 − p)λ1 ⎡1 1 ⎤
MTTF( b ) = + ⎢ − = 364.7
λ1 λ1 + λ2− − λ2 λ
⎣ 2 λ1 + λ2− ⎥⎦

MTTF(c) =
1
+
λ1 1
−
1
+
λ2 LM1
−
1 OP M OP
N Q Q
=235.57
λ1 + λ 2 λ1 + λ 2 − λ 2 λ 2 λ1 + λ 2
+ +
λ1 + λ 2 − λ1 λ1 λ1 + λ 2
+ +

6.11 Three Component Standby System:

LM
R( t ) = e − λt 1 + λt +
λ2t 2 OP → R(10) = e −.02(10) 1+.2 + M .22 OP
=.9988
N 2 Q 2 Q
6.12 Let: a =active unit’s failure rate, s =standby units failure rate while in use ( λ−s =0)
State Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3
1 active standby standby
2 failed active standby
3 failed failed active
4 failed failed failed
Solving these 3 differential equations with initial conditions: P1 ( 0 ) 1, P2 ( 0 ) = P3 ( 0 ) = 0
dP1 ( t ) dP2 ( t ) dP3 ( t )
= − λ a P1 ( t ) , = λ a P1 ( t ) − λ s P2 ( t ) , = λ s P2 ( t ) − λ s P3 ( t )
dt dt dt
results in:
P1 ( t ) = e − λ a t
FG λ J e
Hλ −λ K
− λ st
P2 ( t ) = a
− e−λat
a s

F λ λ IJ te
P (t ) = G
FG λ λ IJ e
Hλ −λ K H (λ − λ ) K
− λ st −λat
3
a s
+ a s
2
− e− λ st
a s a s

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 Ebeling, An Introduction to Reliability and Maintainability Engineering, 2nd ed.
Waveland Press, Inc., Copyright © 2009

R( t ) = P1 ( t ) + P2 ( t ) + P3 ( t )
FG λ IJ e FG λ λ IJ te FG λ λ IJ e
= e− λ at +
Hλ −λ K Hλ −λ K H (λ − λ ) K
− λ st
a
− e− λ at + a s − λ st
+ a s
2
− λat
− e − λ st

z z
a s a s a s
∞ 1
2 s 2 a 2 1
MTTF = R( t )dt = + + a
note: te − λ st dt =
0 λ a λ s ( λ a − λ s ) ( λ a − λ s )2 λ2s

6.13
MTTF = z∞
0 z
R( t )dt = 0 e− b λ1 + λ 2 g t +
θ

λ 1 + λ 2 − λ+2
1
z ∞
0
e − λ 2t − e − b λ1 + λ 2 g t
+

+
λ2
z e −e b
∞ − λ+1 t − λ1 +λ 2 t g = 1
+
λ1 1
−
1
+
LM OP
λ 1 + λ 2 − λ+1 0
λ1 + λ 2 λ1 + λ 2 − λ 2 λ 2 λ1 + λ 2
+ +
N Q
+
λ2 LM 1 − 1 OP
λ 1 + λ 2 − λ+1 Nλ λ + λ Q
+
1 1 2

6.14 λ1 = 3 / 8, λ 2 = 2 / 8, λ+1 = 6 / 8, λ+2 = 3 / 8, λ 1 + λ 2 = 5 / 8

1 3/ 8 1 1 LM2/8 1 1 OP M OP
MTTF = + −
5/ 8 2 / 8 3/ 8 5/ 8
+
N −
−1 / 8 6 / 8 5 / 8 Q
= 3.733 hrs
Q
R( t ) = P1 ( t ) + P2 ( t ) + P3 ( t ) = e− ( 5/ 8 ) t + 3 / 2 e− ( 3/ 8 ) t − e− ( 5/ 8 ) t + 2 e− ( 6/ 8 ) t − e− ( 5/ 8 ) t
R(1) =.8891 and R(8) .07983

6.15 MTTF = z ∞
0
( λt )i
i=0 i !
z
k −1 λi
∞ ∞
k −1 λi i !
e− λt ∑
dt = ∑ 0 e− λt t i dt = ∑
Rk ( t ) = 0
i= 0 i !
k −1

i=0 i ! λ
i +1
k −1 1
=∑ =
i=0 λ
k
λ
z
z
∞ n − ax
where 0 x e dx =
Γ( n + 1)
a n+1
n!
= n+1 for n positive integer
a

6.16
λ1 λ2
1 2 3

dP1 ( t )
= − λ 1 P1 ( t ) → P1 ( t ) = e − λ1t
dt

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 Ebeling, An Introduction to Reliability and Maintainability Engineering, 2nd ed.
Waveland Press, Inc., Copyright © 2009

dP2 ( t )
= λ 1 P1 ( t ) − λ 2 P2 ( t )
dt
dP2 ( t )
+ λ 2 P2 ( t ) = λ 1 P1 ( t ) = λ 1e − λ1t
dt

z
P2eλ 2t = λ 1e− ( λ1 − λ 2 )t dt =
λ1
−( λ 1 − λ 2 )
e−( λ − λ )t + C 1 2

λ1 λ1 λ1
P2 ( t ) = e− λ t + Ce − λ t =
1
e− λ t − e− λ t , P2 ( 0) = 0 → C =
2 2 1

−( λ 1 − λ 2 ) ( λ1 − λ 2 ) ( λ1 − λ 2 )

MTTF = z∞
R( t )dt = z∞
P ( t )dt + z
∞
P2 ( t )dt =
1
+
λ1
M 1
−
1 OP
0 0 1 0
λ1 λ 1 − λ 2 λ 2 λ1 Q
=
1
+
λ1 LM
λ1 − λ 2
=
1 λ OP
+ 1 =
1
+
1
λ1 N
λ 1 − λ 2 λ 1λ 2 Q
λ 1 λ 1λ 2 λ1 λ 2
6.17
State State Description
1 2 units operating, one in standby
2 1 unit failed, 2 units operating
3 2 units failed, 1 operating (system has failed)

2λ 2λ
1 2 3

dP1 (t ) dP2 (t )
= −2λ P1 (t ) = 2λ P1 (t ) − 2λ P2 ( t ) and R = P1 ( t ) + P2 ( t )
dt dt

6.18 (a) (b)

R(1000) .966 .946

MTTF 7037 6703

(a) λ = .07 + .08 = .15 and λ+ = .27: R = .9664 using eq. 6.19 and MTTF = 7037 using eq. 6.20.
(b) λ = λ1 = λ2 = .27 and λ- = λ-2 = .01 + .02 = .03, and p = .10: R = .9446 using eq. 6.33 and
MTTF = 6703 from 1/λ + (1-p) / (λ + λ-) (eq. 6.30 adjusted for p)

6.19 (a) λ = .08 + .12 = .2, λ- = .01 + .04 = .05; use Eq. 6.29 for R(1) and Eq. 6.30 for MTTF
R(1) = .9761, MTTF = 8.57
(b) λ+ = .08 + .12 = .2, λ = .05 + .09 = .14; use Eq. 6.19 for R(1) and Eq. 6.20 for MTTF
R(1) = .9133, MTTF = 4.167

6.20 λ1 = .01; λ1+ = .02 load-sharing: λ2 = .02, λ2+ = .04 ; standby λ1 = .01, λ2- = .005, λ2 = .04
Load-sharing: R(8) = .978, MTTF = 75hr
Standby: R(8) =.976, MTTF = 70 hr
P{ Layze dig} = P2 (8) = .123

6-6
 Ebeling, An Introduction to Reliability and Maintainability Engineering, 2nd ed.
Waveland Press, Inc., Copyright © 2009

R (t) is the equivalent to finding the probability of no more than N-k failures (the number of
sys
standby or replacement units) during time t. To find the MTTF,

∞ ∞ N −k
k λt ) N −k
k λ ) ∞ − k λt
∫ Rsys (t ) dt = ∫ e ∑ dt = ∑
i ! ∫0
− k λt
te dt
0 0 i=0 i! i=0

=∑
N −k
( kλ ) 1 1 N −k
1 MTTF N −k
1
i =0 i! k λ 2 2
=
kλ
∑ i! =
i =0 k
∑ i!
i =0

where MTTF = 1/ λ

6-8