Intervention and

UNIT 5 INTERVENTION AND Evaluation

EVALUATION*
Structure

5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Intervention
5.2.1 Types of Intervention
5.2.2 Intervention Mapping
5.3 Design and Implementation of Intervention
5.4 Impact analysis
5.5 Evaluation
5.5.1 Types of Evaluation
5. 6 Let us Sum up
5. 7 References
4. 8 Key Words
4. 9 Answers to Check Your Progress
4. 10 Unit End Questions

5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to,
- discuss what is intervention;
- explain the designs and implementation of intervention;
- explain impact analysis; and
- describe evaluation.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Sanika was working as a project manager with a Non- Governmental
Organisation (NGO) that worked in the field of health in a village. Sanika
collected data on knowledge related to reproductive health of the women in
that village. When the data was collected and analysed, Sanika found that the
the women had very low knowledge about reproductive health. Therefore, she
decided to develop and intervention strategy to promote awareness about
reproductive health amongst the women.

*
Prof. Suhas Shetgovekar, Faculty, Discipline of Psychology, IGNOU, Delhi
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Intervention and Chinmaya worked as an industrial psychologist in an organisation. She
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would make it a point to interact with employees, especially workers in the
manufacturing unit everyday to understand the issue and problems faced by
them. While interacting with the workers she realised that the workers were
not using safety devises adequately. She therefore developed a workshop for
the workers on importance of safety devises and how to use them correctly.
She also evaluated the workshop for its effectiveness and found that the
workshop led to positive outcome. The workshop created by her was then
implemented in other manufacturing units of the organisation as well.

Two cases have been discussed above that mainly focus on how intervention
strategy was used in order to change or modify behaviour in order to promote
positive outcome. In psychology, we use intervention in various ways.
Intervention can be terms of counselling or psychotherapy at an individual
level or it can be done at a group level as well. For example, it can be for
students of a certain class or could be for employees in an organisation.
Though, intervention can also be at State or National level and in such a case
the nature and scope of intervention is vast. Further, intervention may focus
on various issues ranging from health to awareness regarding environmental
issues and so on.

In the previous units, we discussed about applied psychology and also about
various social issues and problems. We understood that the main essence of
applied psychology is understanding a social issue or problem and
developing suitable intervention to deal with the issue or problem. It is thus,
important for us to understand what is an intervention and also discuss about
how the interventions can be evaluated.

5.2 INTERVENTIONS
Intervention has a significant role in the subject area of psychology. We often
refer to intervention in the context of clinical and counselling psychology
where the clients having psychological issues, problems or disorders are
provided with suitable intervention These interventions are based on
counselling and psychotherapy and could be carried out at individual or
group level as well in certain cases. We also discuss about interventions in
the context of industrial and organisational psychology, where interventions
can be in terms of training programme and workshops.

The goal or objective of intervention in applied social psychology is same as

that in clinical psychology or industrial and organisational psychology, that
is, bringing about change in human behaviour. Though, many interventions
in applied social psychology could be at much greater scale and are targeted
towards larger groups and communities.

When we study social psychology we discuss about various concepts like

social influence, conformity, obedience. conflict, social cognition and
perception and so on. And when we talk about any social issue, most of the
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social issues they tend to have their roots in cognition and behaviour. For Evaluation
instance, certain health related issues can be attributed to the lifestyle of the
individuals. Thus, often various social problems can be dealt with by
focusing the cognition and behaviour of the individuals. And this can be done
by developing various interventions, be it awareness programmes or
counselling and so on.

As we have discussed in the definition and previous units, the main focus of
applied social psychology is on developing interventions. In this regard, we
need to understand what an intervention is.

Interventions can be described as actions that are carried out in order to

facilitate change amongst individuals. They, thus focus on modification of
behaviour, cognition, emotions and so on.

Lodzinsky, Motomura and Schneider (2012, page 62) defined intervention as

“a strategy (or procedure) that is intended to influence the behaviour of
people for the purpose of improving their functioning with respect to some
social or practical problem”. Intervention can range from a psychotherapeutic
treatment provided to an individual to deal with his/ her psychological issues
and problems to programmes developed in order to deal with a social
problem like violence against women. Intervention can also be described as
measures that are carried out in order to bring about a change in behaviours,
emotions or feelings of the individual. The focus of all the descriptions of
intervention is on modification or bringing about a change. And this change
is in direction of alleviating a social issue or problem so as to promote
welfare in the society.

While developing interventions, it is important to identify those aspects of the

social issue or problem, for which if intervention is developed, it will lead to
alleviation of that issue or problem. Further, the factors that influence the
behaviour in this regard also need to be focused on so that the same can be
incorporated in the intervention. It is then important to identify an
intervention strategy that would be effective in dealing with the social issue
or problem.

There are various other programmes that have been initiated in order to
improve social services or to enhance services related to education, health
and income opportunities. One of the strategies is Mahatma Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). Initially it was named as
Mahatma Gandhi Employment Guarantee Act 2005. The main focus of this
act is provide livelihood and security in rural areas by providing the
individuals in rural areas with employment of at least hundred days. More
information on MGNREGA can be found on
[Link] Even with regard to COVID19
situation, various awareness related activities etc. have been taken up by the
Government of India. Some of the relevant campaigns and programmes in
India are highlighted in box 5.1. Though, in this we have mainly highlighted
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Intervention and the interventions carried out at large levels, there could be interventions that
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are carried out at organisational, community or state level as well. For
example, certain interventions to promote creative writing or enhance
communication skills can be carried out in a school. Or interventions to
enhance soft skills or behavioural skills can be carried out in an organisation.

Box 5.1 Campaigns and Programmes in India

There are various campaigns and awareness programmes in India. These

awareness programmes can be termed as intervention strategies that mainly
focus on the knowledge, attitude and practices amongst the general public.

National Mental Health Programme (NMHP)

National Mental Health programme was launched in 1982 by Government of

India to ensure that basic mental health care is available and accessible
especially to the vulnerable and underprivileged section of the country and
also to encourage the participation of the community in development of
mental health services. The District Mental Health program (DMHP) were
launched as well under NMHP. For more information the following website
can be referred [Link]
=1043&lid=359.

Awareness related to HIV/ AIDS

National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO) is a division of Ministry of

Health and Family Welfare, Government of India that was formed in 1992
([Link] The organisation is involved in policy making and
implementation of programme that aim at prevention and control of
HIV/AIDS in India. Besides various other activities, NACO is mainly
involved in interventions focusing on creating awareness about HIV/ AIDS.
The organisation also works towards ensuring quality care and dignified
treatment to individuals who are HIV positive.

National Tobacco Control Programme (NTCP)

The National Tobacco Control Programme was launched in 2007-2008 by

Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. The main aim
of the programmes is “ creating awareness about the harmful effects of
consuming tobacco, reducing the production and supply of tobacco products,
ensuring effective implementation of the provisions under The Cigarettes and
Other Tobacco Products (Prohibition of Advertisement and Regulation of
Trade and Commerce, Production, Supply and Distribution) Act, 2003”
(COTPA), helpingindividuals quit tobacco use, and facilitating the
implementation of strategies for prevention and control of tobacco advocated
by WHO Framework Convention of Tobacco Control
([Link] The main activities involve training social and
health workers, school teachers and so on, Information, education and

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Communication activities that again focus on creating awareness and setting Evaluation
up cessation facilities for individuals willing to quit tobacco.

Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Abhiyan

Once such campaign is „Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Abhiyan‟ that was
launched in 2015 by Ministry or Women and child development,
Government of India. The campaign mainly focuses on saving the girl child
and educating her. It also focuses on creating an awareness and to improve
the effectiveness for welfare services schemes available for girls in India. The
main objectives of this initiative are “preventing gender biased sex selection
elimination, ensuring the survival and protection of the girl child and
ensuring education and participation of the girl child”
([Link]

Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA)

One of the important programmes launched in 2000 by the Government of

India is SarvaSiksha Abhiyan that focuses in achieving Universalisation of
Elementary Education with a time frame in accordance with the 86th
amendment to the Constitution of India, that is, making free and compulsory
education to the Children of 6-14 years age group a fundamental right. The
aim of SSA id also to provide quality elementary education. It also focuses
on the education of girl child and children having special needs
([Link]
More information on SSA can be assessed from [Link]

5.2.1 Types of Intervention

Lets us now look at the types of intervention (Lodzinsky et al., 2012), these
are discussed as follows:

1) Personal intervention: These are that interventions that are utilised by

individuals on day to day basis. A teacher may use certain interventions
while teaching certain topic in her class room in order to enhance
learning in his/ her students. A supervisor could use praise as an
intervention to encourage an employee in carrying out his/ her work
effectively. These interventions are relevant in day to day life and are
carried out by each one of us. Such interventions can be used to motivate
and encourage other individuals.

2) Programmatic intervention: Royse et al. (2006) defined programme as

a collection of activities that are carried out in an organised manner in
order to attain certain objectives. This is the intervention that we mainly
discuss about in applied social psychology. Such interventions are
organised in order to prevent, alleviate or eliminate the negative
outcomes of social issues and problems. Intervention for example can be
carried to create awareness regarding reproductive health amongst
adolescent students in a school so as to promote healthy behaviour
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Intervention and amongst the students. Interventions can also play a role in encouraging
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and strengthen the positive aspects. For example, certain career
development workshops can be organised for efficient employees.

3) Trial intervention:Yet another type of intervention is trial intervention.

In this the intervention is carried out on trial basis. Trial interventions are
also termed as programme efficacy studies as they mainly focus on
effective of the intervention. For example, if an intervention in
developed for school students to promote positive environmental attitude
amongst them, then the intervention is initially carried out on trial basis
and based on the results obtained the intervention is modified. There are
two types of trial intervention. In the first type a research is carried in
order to study the effectiveness of the intervention and the second type is
one in which intervention is carried out on pilot basis and if found to be
adequate, it is implemented on permanent basis. An example of the first
type could be an intervention to create awareness regarding healthy
lifestyle amongst general public. An example of the second type could be
a workshop of mathematical skills for students of 9th standard in a
school, that is carried out on pilot basis and if found effective it is
implemented on permanent basis to all such students in the school.

5.2.2 Intervention Mapping

In the context of intervention, we also need to discuss about intervention
mapping. According to Shetgovekar (2018, page 264), “intervention mapping
can be described as a process that involves planning that is bases on
systematic utilisation of evidence for the purpose of scientific research and
theories”. Intervention mapping includes various steps ranging from problem
identification to actual implementation and evaluation of the intervention. In
order to carry out an intervention, it is important that a through planning is
carried out. And this planning is not linear or one time process but it will take
place repeatedly through the implementation and evaluation of the
intervention. And this kind of planning is important to link each step of the
intervention implementation and to avoid any error. As if there is error at any
stage, the whole intervention process could be affected. Thus, an intervention
is evaluated for its efficacy and necessary modifications are carried out as
required and in this as well adequate planning is required. Intervention
mapping also plays a role in dealing with type III error that can be explained
as ineffective intervention as a result of poor design and implementation
(Bartholomew et al, 2011).

In the context of intervention planning, there are four main perspectives, they
are discussed as follows:

1) Participation perspective: This denotes the perspective of the

participants on whom the intervention will be implemented. It is
important to encourage active involvement of participants in the
intervention design and implementation process and that will facilitate
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the implementation. It will also lead to positive attitude towards the Evaluation
intervention and less resistance to change. Besides, it will also lead to
empowerment of the participants.

2) Eclectic utilisation of the theories: This denotes that multiple theories

can be used in order to understand any social issue or problem.

3) System perspective: This perspective highlights that an intervention is a

part of a system and various influence can have an influence on the
intervention.

4) Ecological perspective: This perspective highlights the relevance of

social and physical environment in the context of human behaviour.
These need to be kept in mind during design and implementation of an
intervention.

There are various issues and constraints that may arise while an intervention
is designed, developed and implemented. And this can pose a challenge to the
designers of intervention as they have to manage the constraints as well as
ensure that the intervention is effective and implemented adequately. Let us
look at some of the constraints.
- Budgetary constraints: One of the significant constraint has to do with
finances. Any intervention will involve financial implications and thus an
intervention not only needs to be validated using scientific methodology
but i also required to be vetted in terms of its financial requirements. For
example, in an industrial set up if a human resource manager wants to
provide the employees with an intervention programme to enhance their
mental health, then besides using scientific method to design and develop
the intervention, he/ she will also be required to note the financial
resources required. The management will thus decide about whether such
an intervention could be given to the employees or not on the basis of
financial aspect besides the the scientific validation of the intervention.
- Participation of the stakeholders: Intervention is a collaborative activity
and will require participation of numerous individuals, departments etc.
Participation of individuals on whom the intervention will be implemented
is also required. Thus, the designers of intervention need to ensure active
participation of all the stakeholders and ensure effective communication
between them. While designing an intervention care needs to be taken that
the ideas and point of view of varied stakeholders are integrated in the
intervention.
- Organisations constraints: There could be other constraints like
availability of human resources with necessary educational qualification
and experience, availability of certain facilities, operational issues and so
on that also need to be taken care of by the designers of intervention.

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Intervention and - Ethical constraints: Interventions are implemented on individuals and
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thus ethical issues also need to be focused on These are necessary to
ensure the protection of the rights of the participants and also to ensure
their wellbeing and not subject them to any harm. We discussed about
ethical issues in Unit 2 of this course and those ethical issues also need to
be kept in mind while the interventions are designed, developed and
implemented.

Check Your Progress I

1) List the types of intervention.

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5.3 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF

INTERVENTION
According to Oskamp and Schultz (1998), the steps involved in the design
and implementation of intervention are as follows:

Step 1 Identification of a problem: The very first step in design and

implementation of intervention is identification of the problem. To take an
example, for a doctor to suggest suitable medication, he/she needs to have
clear idea about what the patient is suffering from. In a similar manner before
an intervention is suggested, it is important to identify and understand the
problem. Further, while carrying out the process of identification of the
problem, it also important to focus on the severity of the problem. The main
role in the process of identification of the problem is played by the
stakeholders. Stakeholders denote individuals who have some interest in the
intervention programme and they could also be affected by the programme.
Stakeholders could be people who are affected by the problem, persons
involved in financial aspect of the programme, individuals who will be
involved in implementation of the intervention, individuals who would work
in the frontline, people who would be involved in management of the
intervention and so on. Thus, for example if an intervention strategy is to be
developed to promote consumption of healthy and nutritious diet amongst
adolescents, the stakeholders would be the adolescents, the teachers and
parents who would probably play a role in implementation of the programme,
the funding agency that could be the school or any other agency and so on.

Need assessment needs to be carried out in order to understand the problem

in a better manner. Need assessment can be denotes as measurement of the
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need of the intervention programme. Thus, before an intervention is Evaluation
developed on the promotion of health and nutritious food amongst the
adolescents, a need assessment will be carried out with regard to whether
such a programme is required or not.

This need assessment can be carried in an informal or formal manner. An

example of informal need assessment could be an assessment based on
observation and experience that is carried out by human resource manager
with regard to communication skills of the employees in certain department.
In this context a systematic study or need assessment is not carried out. In a
formal need assessment a systematic method is followed and data is collected
using suitable tool. For example, data can be collected from migrants
regarding their health relatedbehaviours and practices in order to develop
suitable health related intervention programme for them.

Step 2 Finding a solution: Once the problem is identified, the process of

finding the solutions can start. In the process of finding a solution, it is
important to take in to consideration various precipitating (factors that lead to
the development problem) and perpetuating (factors that contribute to
sustenance of the problem) factors can be identified. These two factors are
extremely important and if one of them is not focused on, the intervention
developed will not be effective and will not lead to behavioural change. For
example, in a school, the low pass percentage amongst 10th standard students
could be as a result of ineffective learning strategy (precipitating factor), but
there could also be other factors as lack of motivation and interest in studies
(perpetuating factors). In order to improve the pass percentage amongst 10th
std students in this school, both the factors need to be focused on.

It is not so that we need to develop a solution to the problem, but it is also

possible that the solution is already available. Thus, before an intervention
strategy is developed, we also need to explore the existing intervention
strategies and their suitability in the context of the presenting problem faced
by us. For example, there could be an effective intervention strategy that
could have been used in another school to deal with low pass percentage. If
found suitable, this intervention strategy can be effectively implemented in
the school A new intervention strategy can be developed if no suitable
existing intervention is available.

Once the solution is generated, the same can be presented in form of an

intervention hypothesis. This would be a tentative statement about the
effectiveness of the intervention. For example, the intervention hypothesis
could be that workshop on effective learning strategies and skills will lead to
improvement in learning capacity of the students.

Step 3 Setting of the goal and intervention designing: This is the third step
in the process of designing and implementation of an intervention. This step
denotes identification of the goals of the intervention and the actual
implementation of the intervention.
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Intervention and Goals in this context could be long term (broad goals) or short term
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(objectives) and based on these various activities that would be incorporated
in the intervention need to be developed. Objectives are often based on the
broad goals. For instance, if the intervention goal is enhancing the learning
strategies and skills of the students, one of the objectives could be enhancing
note taking in classroom. And based on the objectives, activities can be
developed. For example, a workshop can be developed for the students to
learn how to take notes.

Thus, in the context of this step in designing of intervention, three main

aspects are activities, objectives and goals, that are related to each other. One
empirical way in which these can be rationalised is with the help of
Programme logic model. Programme logic model can be described as a
blueprint of or a rationale for how the activities related to the programme can
lead to achievement of the programme objectives and then how the
achievement of programme objectives lead to the achievement of the
programme goals. Thus, there needs to be an adequate explanation or
theoretical reasoning for the programme activities, objectives and goals.
Example of programme activities leading to attainment of programme
objectives and eventually the programme goals is given in table 5.1.

Table no. 5.1 : Examples of programme activities and related objectives

and goals.

Programme Activities Objectives Goals

Workshop on note Improvement in learning Increase in pass

taking style percentage of students
in 10th class

Training in Enhanced interpersonal Increase in employee

communication for communication amongst productivity
employees the employees

Step 4 Implementation: Once the previous steps are complete, the

intervention strategy is now ready for implementation. Though during this
step as well there are numerous aspects that need to be considered including,
the nature, structure, size and other details of the intervention that will
determine the kind of resources that would be required, especially, the human
resource. That is, the number of people required to implement the
intervention, their educational qualification and experience, if they need to be
trained and so on. Besides, the budget required for intention also needs be
specified along with the space, furniture and other requirements like
computer, phones etc.

A larger intervention would require a large amount of resources and

involvement of a number of persons as opposed to a smaller intervention.
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Whatever be the size and nature of intervention, it is important that the Evaluation
effectiveness of its implementation is amenable to measurement and
evaluation.

In the process of design and implementation of intervention, the ethical

issues, mainly beneficence and nonmaleficence need to be keep in mind,
besides the other ethical issues as we discussed in unit 2 of this course.

Further, the intervention needs to be implemented in such a way that its

efficacy can be measures and evaluated.

Check Your Progress II

1) List the steps in design and implementation of intervention.

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5.4 IMPACT ANALYSIS

Once the intervention is implemented, its impact needs to be analysed.
Impact analysis as the name suggests is an analysis of the impact that the
intervention has on the target behaviour. Impact can be termed as a function
of how effective, sustainable and relevant an intervention programme is.

Impact analysis is also termed as impact assessment and can be described as

a procedure that involved qualitative analysis with regard to whether an
intervention programme was successful or not and this is done using
controlled experimentation. Fortuny (2021) defined impact assessment as “a
structured a process for considering the implications, for people and their
environment, of proposed actions while there is still an opportunity to modify
(or even, if appropriate, abandon) the proposals. It is applied at all levels of
decision-making, from policies to specific projects”

In order to effectively carry out impact analysis, it is relevant that the

programme had objectives that were specific and amenable to measurement.
The intervention programme also needs to be adequately implemented on the
target population and its outcome measures need to valid and reliable. Thus,
impact analysis mainly focuses on the impact that is as a result of an
intervention programme and this result or outcome can be positive or
negative. It can also be direct impact or an indirect impact. And the impact
can also be intended or unintended. Thus, the focus of impact analysis is also
on what lead to the change in behaviour or the causes of the impact that was
studied. Impact analysis can be explained as an evaluative process. And this
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Intervention and process is carried out in an empirical manner so that authentic information
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about the effectiveness of an intervention programme can be obtained. The
focus of impact analysis is on whether the intervention programmelead to any
difference or not.

Impact analysis can be Ex ante impact analysis ( forecasting or prediction

related to the impact) or ex post impact analysis. (involves evaluation of the
impact) Ex ante impact analysis is necessarily a part of need assessment and
planning process of an intervention strategy and it is an analysis that is
carried out before the implementation of the intervention to understand
possible impact of the intervention. Ex post impact analysis can be termed as
a part of the evaluation and management process after the intervention is
implemented. In the next sub section we will discuss about evaluation and
before we do so, we need to differentiate between impact analysis and
evaluation. The focus of impact analysis is mainly on the effect of the
intervention. Whereas, the focus of evaluation is broader and covers efficacy
of the intervention, the effectiveness of the intervention design, cost and
benefit and so on. Though, it could be difficult to throughly differentiate ex
post impact analysis and evaluation, as impact analysis is often incorporated
in evaluation process of an intervention. Thus, impact analysis provides a
narrow point of view of the effect of intervention and is also focuses on
impacts that are well defined. Evaluation as we will discuss later, is broader
and will answer many more questions related to the overall effectiveness and
efficacy of the intervention.

Impact analysis is mainly based on a theory and involves establishment of

theory of change. Thus, there is a description about the cause and
relationship, that is, how intervention leads to the desired outcomes or
effects. It also needs to be noted here that when we discuss about cause and
effect relationship here, the effect can also be as a result of interaction
between the intervention and the context or situation. This is especially true
because, when we implement an intervention programme, we do so in a
social system that is open and thus the context or the situation can also have
an influence.

Impact analysis can be helpful to the proponents of intervention programme,

stakeholders, communities and also decision makers (Fortuny, 2021).

The main aims of impact analysis are

- Assessment of intended and unintended change as a result on intervention.
- Assessment of the magnitude of change.
- Determining the causal factors that lead to the impact.
- Enhancing the effectiveness of the intervention programme.
- Promote effective decision making based on results obtained.

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The process of impact analysis starts with planning regarding how the impact Evaluation
analysis is to be carried out. This is followed by carrying out impact analysis,
which is done in a scientific manner using quantitative and qualitative
approach. In the process of impact analysis, it is important to first of all
define the change that the intervention programme is expected to bring about.
Further, it is also relevant to identify the main difference in terms of the
change in target behaviour from certain reference point or a baseline. The
possible impact of the main difference also need to be highlighted and these
possible impacts can then be prioritised on the basis of risk and prospects.
The process of impact analysis also includes interaction with the stakeholders
and the members of community where the intervention is to be or is
implemented. Impact analysis also involves interaction, consultation and
coordination with the proponents of the intervention, different organisations
or units, policy makers involved and so on. Once the process of impact
analysis is over, a report is prepared and based on this suitable decisions can
be taken.

To summarise, it is important that the impact analysis is carried out in a well

planned manner keeping in mind various aspects in order to get a correct
picture of the effect of the intervention programme so that suitable decisions
can then be taken.

Check Your Progress III

1) What is ex ante impact analysis?

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5. 5 EVALUATION
As the concept of intervention and its design and implementation is clear, let
us now focus on on the term evaluation.

Any intervention that is implemented needs to be evaluated from time to time

so that suitable modifications can be made in it as per the requirement. Such
an evaluation is also relevant as when an intervention is put to test, an
empirical evidence of effectiveness of the intervention can be obtained. And
based on such evaluations theories can be developed or modified. Further,
any intervention programme is designed in order to benefit the individuals at
large and to promote social welfare. But in case if the intervention is not able
to achieve this objective then it needs to be modified so as to benefit the
individuals. Implementation of a redundant intervention strategy should not
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Intervention and be continued as it will not benefit the individuals in any way. It is also
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possible that an intervention programme has been found to be effective, but a
regular intervention will help maintain the efficacy of the programme with
changing times and situations.

Evaluation as we have discussed above is thus relevant from the perspective

of beneficiaries of the intervention. Though we also need to remember yet
another important aspect of intervention and that is finance. Intervention
involves financial investment and accountability. Thus, any intervention
needs to be evaluated in order to ensure that the financial resource is put to
good use and this will also be reflected in the positive outcome of an
intervention. If there is no positive outcome of the intervention, then again it
will be required to be modified or changed or even discontinued.

The evaluation of an intervention can be based on cost and benefit ratio and
this ratio needs to be considered during the design and implementation of the
intervention as well. If the cost is high and benefit is low, then the
intervention need not be carried out, where as when cost is low and benefit is
high, such an intervention can be termed as effective. When both cost and
benefits are low, again there would be no point in designing or implementing
the intervention. If the cost of intervention is high but so are the benefits,
keeping in mind various factors and keeping in mind nature and urgency of
the problem, the intervention could be implemented. Post the
implementation, during the evaluation as well, the intervention can be
assessed based on the cost and benefit ratio.

An intervention could be ineffective (Shetgovekar, 2018) due to following

reasons:

1) Inadequate theory and rationale of the intervention programme:

Often an intervention programme is based on a theory and if the theory is
inadequate to start with then the intervention programme will also not be
effective. Thus, before we design an intervention based on a theory or
rationale, we need to thoroughly study the theory and its empirical
aspects before the intervention is designed based on the theory.

2) Implementation is not carried out adequately: It is not enough to

design the intervention but it needs to be suitably implemented. Effective
designing of intervention is not enough, the intervention needs to be
suitably implemented as well. If the intervention is not implemented
adequately, then it will not lead to positive results. Any resistance to
intervention from the individuals for whom the intervention is designed
also need to be apprehended and measures need to be taken to deal with
the same. Before implementation, relevant information regarding the
group on whom the intervention is to be implemented needs to be
collected. Various aspects related to implementation of an intervention
needs to be focused on and only then the actual implementation needs to
be carried out.
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3) Reaction and response of individuals for whom the intervention was Evaluation
designed: The reaction and response of the individuals for whom the
intervention was designed also is relevant. Despite of all the measures
taken as discussed in earlier points, the individual may not positively
react to the intervention which in turn can affect the outcome of the
intervention. The individuals could feel threatened or may have negative
attitude towards the intervention. Involvement and active participation of
the individuals for whom the intervention is designed in the process of
development and implementation of intervention can help deal with the
reaction issue. Also measures can be taken to deal with any
misinformation or negative attitude of the individuals towards the
information. Awareness needs to be carried out about the benefits of the
intervention amongst the individuals.

4) Cultural incompatibility: Culture is an important aspect that plays a

relevant role in determining human behaviour. Any human behaviour
can be viewed in the context of cultural background. While
implementing intervention, issues could also arise as a result of cultural
incompatibility. This can be explained as an intervention which is not
compatible with the cultural beliefs, values and practices of the group for
whom it is intended. For instance, with regard to an intervention to
promote nutrition and diet, the nature and type of food and even
ingredients used need to be considered. Language can also play a role.
For instance, an awareness programme in certain area would be more
effective if it is carried out in local language spoken in that area.

5.5.1 Types of Evaluation

The three main types of evaluation are:
- Process or formative evaluation: This evaluation focuses on the
implementation of the intervention programme on the target group as was
planned. Thus, an awareness programme with regard to HIV/ AIDS for
adolescents in a college will be evaluated based on whether the
programme was implemented on the adolescents in the college as was
planned.
- Outcome or summative evaluation: The outcome evaluation denotes the
evaluation of the results of the intervention programme. This evaluation
fuses on whether the goals and objectives of the intervention were
achieved or not. Most often, the outcome evaluations follow process
evaluations.
- Developmental evaluation: Developmental evaluation denotes the
significant role of evaluation in facilitation of the process of innovation
and learning in an organisation. Such an evaluation mainly focuses on the
experimentation of new and innovative approaches to social problem.

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Intervention and Check Your Progress IV
Evaluation

1) List the types of evaluation

………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………….

5.6 LET US SUM UP

To summarise, in the present unit we discussed about intervention, impact
analysis and evaluation. Interventions can be described as actions that are
carried out in order to facilitate change amongst individuals. Types of
intervention namely, personal intervention, programmatic intervention and
trial intervention were also discussed besides the term intervention mapping.
Various issues and constraints that may arise while an intervention is
designed, developed and implemented were also discussed. The term impact
analysis was also described with a focus on its aims and process. Lastly the
term evaluation was explained. The reasons for ineffective interventions and
types of evaluation were also discussed.

5.7 REFERENCES
Cartwright, D. (1949). Basic and Applied Social Psychology. Philosophy of
Science,16(3), 198-208. Retrieved June 1, 2021, from
[Link]
Fortuny, L. (2021). Impact Assessment. Retrived from
[Link]
Freudenburg, W. (1986). Social Impact Assessment. Annual Review of
Sociology,12, 451-478. Retrieved July 6, 2021, from
[Link]
Government Policies and Interventions for Development. (2021).
Retrivedfrom [Link]
Studies/notes/[Link].
Lodzinski, A; Motomura, M and Schneider, F. W. (2012). Intervention and
Evaluation. In F. W.
Schneider, J. Gruman, & L. M. Coutts (Eds.), Applied social psychology:
Understanding and addressing social and practical [Link]: Sage.
Osakamp, and Schultz, P.W. (1998). Applied Social psychology (2nd ed).
California: SAGE.

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Royse, D; Thyer, B.A; Padgett, D.K; and Logan, T.K. (2006). Program Evaluation
Evaluation : An Introduction. Wadsworth Publishing.
Sears, D. O. Peplau, A. L., and Taylor, S. E., (2006) Social Psychology.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Shaw, M. E. and Costanzo, P. R.(1982). Theories of Social Psychology. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Shetgovekar, S. (2018). An Introduction to Social Psychology. Delhi: Sage

5.8 KEY WORDS

Impact analysis:Impact analysis is also termed as impact assessment and can
be described as a procedure that involved qualitative analysis with regard to
whether an intervention programme was successful or not and this is done
using controlled experimentation.

Intervention:Lodzinsky, Motomura and Schneider (2012, pg 62) defined

intervention as “a strategy (or procedure) that is intended to influence the
behaviour of people for the purpose of improving their functioning with
respect to some social or practical problem”.

Intervention mapping: According to Shetgovekar (2018, page 264),

“intervention mapping can be described as a process that involves planning
that is bases on systematic utilisation of evidence for the purpose of scientific
research and theories”.

5.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I
1) List the types of intervention.
The types of intervention are:
- Personal intervention
- Programmatic intervention
- Trial intervention
Check Your Progress II
1) List the steps in design and implementation of intervention.
The steps in design and implementation of intervention are:
Step 1 Identification of a problem
Step 2 Finding a solution
Step 3 Setting of the goal and intervention designing
Step 4 Implementation

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Intervention and Check Your Progress III
Evaluation
1) What is ex ante impact analysis?
Ex ante impact analysis is necessarily a part of need assessment and
planning process of an intervention strategy and it is an analysis that is
carried out before the implementation of the intervention to understand
possible impact of the intervention.
Check Your Progress IV
1) List the types of evaluation
The types of evaluation are:
- Process or formative evaluation
- Outcome or summative evaluation
- Developmental evaluation.

5. 10 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Elucidate intervention with a focus on its types.

2) Discuss the steps involved in the designing and implementation of

intervention.

3) Explain the concept of impact analysis.

4) Explain the concept of evaluation and describe the reasons for ineffective
interventions.

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