DECLARATION

I declare that this research work titled: Factors influencing the poor performance of
students in Shorthand in three colleges of Zambia. The sources from which the literature
was extracted have been duly acknowledged in the text and list of references provided.
There is no part of this thesis that has been presented for the award of another diploma at
any college.

_____________________ _____________

Jeany Kazembe Date

i
 CERTIFICATION

This thesis entitled “factors influencing the poor performance of students in shorthand in
three colleges in Zambia’’ written by Jeany Kazembe meets the regulations governing the
award of the diploma of secretarial and office management and it is approved for its
contribution to knowledge and literary presentation.

_______________ __________
Supervisor (Signature) (Date)

ii
 DEDICATION

This research work is dedicated to Almighty Father in heaven and the family of Jeany
Kazembe.

iii
iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In any academic work, various people, too numerous to mention, must have contributed
in one way or the other towards its realization. However, I am indebted to my school,
Kabwe Institute of Technology. Much gratitude is owed to them for their advice,
encouragement and patience that have facilitated the completion of this work, to them I
say a very big thank you.
My special thanks go to
To my beloved parents, late Mr P.N. Kazembe and Mrs Jean Kazembe, I say a big thank
you for their patience, encouragement, moral and financial support all of which led to the
successful completion of this work.
Worthy of special appreciation is Mr. Loloji Andrew who helped in the typing of this
work, I sincerely appreciate your contribution. I will never forget the effort and
contributions of my course mates and well-wishers, I appreciate you all.
Finally, my boundless gratitude goes to Almighty God for providing the needed resources
from the beginning to the completion of this work.

v
 ABSTRACT

This study was carried out to assess the factors affecting the poor performance of
students in shorthand in Zambia in three selected colleges in Zambia. In order to
achieve this, three specific objectives were raised among which is identify and
analyze the factors responsible for the poor performance of students in shorthand.
As a guide for the researcher, three research questions were formulated. Survey
design was used for the study. The population of the study consisted of 400 students
out of which 9 students were sampled using proportional random sampling
technique. Questionnaire was used to collect data from the respondents. The data
collected were analyzed using frequency distribution, percentages and means. One
Sample t-test was used to test all the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.
The study found among others, that poor punctuations, misinterpretation of words
and inability to distinguish between heavy and light strokes constitute the major
problems of studying shorthand to students. It was also found that shorthand is
indispensable in the modern office management. Based on these findings, it was
concluded that poor enrolment of students in the subject may eventually lead to
disengagement of shorthand lecturers. If there are no students that enroll for
shorthand there might be no lecturers of shorthand and that could lead to the
stoppage of the course. In view of these findings and conclusion, it was
recommended among others that; there is the need for students of shorthand to have
constant practice of consonants in order to master the heavy and light strokes in
shorthand so as to reduce the academic problems of studying shorthand. It was also
recommended that there is the need for government at all levels and stakeholders to
show commitment to secretarial education by provision of facilities (e.g. shorthand
textbooks, dictation machine, and tape recorders) to secretarial education
departments in the Colleges.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover Page-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- I

Title Page-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ii

Declaration-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- iii
Certification-
- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - iv

Dedication-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- V

Acknowledgements---- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- vi
Vi
Abstract-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --- -- ii

Table of Contents-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ix

List of Tables-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - xii

Xi
List of Appendix -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ii
Definition of Xi
Terms-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - v

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study - - - - - - - 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem- - - - - - - 3

1.3 Objectives of the Study- - - - - - - 5

1.4 Research Questions- - - - - - - - 5

1.5 Research Hypotheses- - - - - - - - 6

1.6 Significance of the Study- - - - - - - 7

1.7 Delimitation of the Study- - - - - - - 8

vii
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Theoretical Framework - - - - - - 9

2.2 Concept and History of Shorthand - - - - - 14

2.3 Fundamentals of Shorthand Skills - - - - - - 19

2.4 Students’ Academic Performance - - - - - - 24

2.5 Problem of Studying Shorthand - - - - - 24

2.6 Internal problems of shorthand mastery - - - - 26

2.7 Causes of the Problems of Studying Shorthand- - - - 28

2.8 Prospects of Studying Shorthand- - - - - - 31

2.9 Shorthand Curriculum and Modern Office- - - - 32

2.10 Review of Empirical Studies - - - - - - 34

2.11 Summary of the Chapter - - - - - - - 39

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design - - - - - - - - 41

3.2 Population for the Study - - - - - - - 42

3.3 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure - - - - 42

3.4 Instruments for Data Collection - - - - - - 43

3.4.1 Validity of the Instruments - - - - - - - 44

3.4.2 Pilot Study- - - - - - - - 44

3.4.3 Reliability of the Instrument- - - - - - - 45

3.5 Procedure for Data Collection- - - - - - 45

3.6 Procedure for Data Analysis - - - - - - - 45

viii
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 Analysis of Demographic Variables of Respondents- ---------------------- 47
4.2 Analysis of Data to Answer the Research Questions- ----------------------- 48
4.2.1 Research Question One- - - -- ------------------------- 49
4.2.2 Research Question Two- - - - - - - 53

4.2.3 Research Question Three - - - - - - 56

4.3 Discussion of Major Findings-- - - - - - 66

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary- - - - - - - - - 68

5.2 Conclusion- - - - - - - - - 69

5.3 Recommendations- - - - - - - - 70

5.4 Limitations of the Study - - - - - - - 70

5.5 Suggestions for Further Study- - - - - - 71

References- - - - - - - - 72

Appendices - - - - - - - - - 80

ix
 Operational Definition of Terms

Awkward Outlines: These are outlines which are not in agreement with the way
shorthand strokes are written.
Dilemma: A fixed situation that one needs to overcome or get rid of.
Diphthongs: This is another stage in vowel sound that directs a shorthand writer on how
the outlines should be written.
Drillings: The methods adopted to practice Shorthand outlines thoroughly.
Electronic Mail: System of sending text, pictures, etc. By means of computers linked to
a network.
Facsimile or Fax: a device for scanning a document and encoding its image for
transmission over telephone lines.
Grammalogues: This is known as short forms that aid stenographer in fast writing of
shorthand during dictation.
Heavy and light strokes: They are strokes derived from shorthand consonants to give
interpretation about the nature of sounds heard.
Misinterpretation of Words: This is the transcription of shorthand to longhand with
different meaning.
Office Automation: This is the process of replacing manual operation by machine or a
system design to perform specific combination of actions repeatedly.
Rudiments: What it takes to get familiar with sets of instructions.
Stenographic Skills: The artistic ability possessed to be able to write shorthand and
transcribed it.
Symbols: A stroke(s) used by the Shorthand writer to provide a sense of writing the signs
well.
Terrain: The natural area concerning knowledge that should be acquired.
Transcription: The conversion of shorthand manuscript to readable forms
120/100 Word Per Minutes: This is stenographer’s speed attainment when dictation has
started in shorthand.

x
 CHAPTER ONE

1. O INTRODUCTION
Shorthand is a business education subject in the area of office education. It is defined by
Pitman (1974) as the art of representing spoken sounds with written signs. Shorthand has
plenty utility in the business world, Secretaries in both public and private organizations
use it to record minutes of meetings, telephone messages and spell checking which leads
to the increase of their vocabularies.

1.1 Background to the Study

Shorthand is a system of rapid handwriting employing symbols to represent words,
phrases, and letters. It is a, form, or instance of abbreviated or formulaic reference. It has
been described as any system of rapid writing using symbols or shortcuts that can be
made quickly to represent letters of the alphabets, words or phrases. Various terms are
used for shorthand. One of the terms used is Brachygraphy meaning short writing, from
the Greek word. Stenography meaning narrow or small writing from the Greek word
meaning narrow is another term used for Shorthand. Tachygraphy meaning swift writing
from the Greek word meaning swift is also used for Shorthand.

According to Okoro (2018). Okoro state that, business education curriculum comprises
the following: Typewriting, Shorthand, book-keeping, commerce and office practice. The
author also stated that it is interesting to note that shorthand is a course, which forms part
of the core courses of Business Education program, it has the potentials of improving the
vocational skills and academic performance of an average higher education Student.
Shorthand is a symbolic method of writing rapidly with quick method of using symbols,
by implications, shorthand is a mode of writing quickly with already learnt symbols
(Adebusi, 2001). The author also asserted that the students, businessmen, journalists,
verbatim reporters, doctors, nurses and other professionals have found shorthand relevant
to the world of work. The relevance of shorthand in business education has been the
concern of many people, especially secretaries, employers, professionals and non-
professionals (Rhoda 2015).

1
Shorthand is a veritable tool, because it works through the medium of languages, its
educative value can be seen in the area of temperament standard of work and attitude of
the mind (Okoro, 2018). A sound knowledge of shorthand is essential to note taking,
shorthand has the ability of molding life, it instills discipline by being careful when
writing, it builds confidence into writers, and also, the knowledge of shorthand, no doubt,
benefits vocabulary, reading, phonetics, spelling and other language skills, (Okoro,
2018).

Anderson (2011) believed that shorthand skills will continue to be needed in business
education and it is noteworthy that the purpose of training/development in business
education is to enable students acquire the skills that will be relevant for their job
performance and that every curriculum is expected to make beneficiaries apply the skills
acquired in solving problems in the work place.

Education can be seen as the totality of the experience that man acquired by his
interaction, mentally and physically, with the environment to enable him cope with and
get satisfaction from the environment, the world he lives in. Farrant (1990) declared that
education describes the total process of human learning by which knowledge is imparted,
faculties trained and skills developed.
The acquisition of shorthand skills by a trained secretary makes him/her relevant in the
Business world. There is no doubt that he is an indispensable figure in every aspect of an
organization which perform secretarial duties most effectively (Arukwe, 1999). A
successful shorthand student has brighter future ahead because shorthand is useful in
almost all profession. For example, shorthand notes are legal documents that can be used
in a court case. Shorthand is a vital skill for court reporters because in most jurisdiction
cameras and recorders are not allowed in court during proceedings. Further transcripts are
hard to get from court officials and they take time to be released to the media.

In developed world, like U.S, Britain etc. reporters are paid a bonus if they keep their
shorthand up above a minimum speed requirement. Secretaries are needed in every
organization; a competent secretary cannot do without shorthand, he/she masters

2
shorthand and embrace it very well because it serves as a relief in facilitating most of the
office activities. For example, a confidential secretary takes down dictation of most of
proceedings of a meeting in shorthand and transcribes it on the typewriter or computer
into longhand for easier understanding.

However, as valuable as the usage of shorthand and the need for a trained secretary is,
shorthand at BUSINESS level is faced with problems. These problems have also made a
lot of students to run away from the course. These problems may include: awkward
outlines, misinterpretation of words, lack of punctuation, low societal value for
shorthand, lack of qualified shorthand lecturers, and invention of new technologies.
Problems of shorthand, according to Adeboye (2002), include lecturers’ qualification,
English language disability and the students’ interest in the subject.

Modern office management is an activity of controlling and organizing the work in an

office with modern equipment. The effects of shorthand in modern office management
cannot be over emphasized because; shorthand provides necessary skills for effective and
timely co-ordination of clerical activities in the modern office. Though office automation
such as computer, internet resources and audio recorder are important in modern office
management, they cannot substitute shorthand.

It is against this background that this study tries to investigate the factors affecting the
poor performance of students in shorthand in the colleges aforementioned above.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Shorthand students have been performing very poorly in TEVETA Examinations. Such
performance indicates that this much needed skill for our secretaries is not being acquired
as required. This poor performance has been noted for several years and the institutions
offering the examinations seem not to be putting any effort towards improving the
performance.

The aim of the Shorthand Lecturer is to train students to be able to record the spoken
words and usually to produce a perfect transcription in a readable manner. This is
3
because final stage of shorthand writing is an error-free transcription even at the required
speed into amiable copy (Foster, 1990). Shorthand is a skill that must be acquired by
constant practice and several hours’ drillings every day. In this computer age, students
pay more attention to modern office automation. At the Junior Secondary Level of
Education, many students dislike shorthand.

This, according to Eddy (2002), is because many students who enrolled in secretarial
option at this level do not get certificates at the end of their training because of failing in
shorthand which is considered a key subject in the training of secretaries (Eddy, 2002).
In line with this, Oyebode (2002) asserts that the factors that contribute jointly to
determine students’ achievement among experts on scholastic achievements continues to
be a controversial issue. In line with this, the researcher’s observation revealed that only
few of colleges students enrolled for secretarial option because of fear of shorthand.
Equally, based on the researcher’s interaction with some lecturers and students of
colleges in the North-west zone of Nigeria, it was discovered that they seem not to be
comfortable with mass failure in shorthand. They seem to be of the opinion that problems
such as; inadequate facilities, poor lecturers’ qualifications, teaching experience, students
interest, learners’ motivation, among others, may be responsible for this deplorable state
of shorthand. This, therefore, is the main problem faced by students of shorthand which
the study wants to tackle with empirical evidence.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The research focused on identifying the factors affecting the poor performance of
students in shorthand writing. It also found out the factors responsible for student’s belief
that shorthand is a very difficult course, highlighted some of these factors and also
suggested some possible solutions.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The aim of this thesis is to ascertain the factors affecting the poor performance of
students in short hand writing in three selected colleges in Zambia. The specific
objectives are to:

1. To determine the challenges encountered by students when learning shorthand in

4
 three selected colleges in Zambia
2. To examine the causes of the student’s failing shorthand in three selected colleges
in Zambia.
3. To assess the prospects of students of Shorthand in three selected Colleges in
Zambia.
1.5 Research Questions

This research will provide the answers to the following research questions:

1. What are the challenges that are encountered by students when learning
shorthand in three selected colleges of in Zambia?
2. What are the causes of students failing shorthand in three selected Colleges in
Zambia?
3. What are the prospects of students of shorthand in three selected Colleges in
Zambia?
1.6 Significance of study
The result of the study will be of significant to the following people/organizations:
Business Education Lecturers: The result of the work will be of immense benefits to the
Colleges lecturers. This will go a long way to improve their shortcoming in shorthand
and encourage students to be hard working in Shorthand practice.
Business Education Students: The outcome of this study will greatly help students of
secretarial studies to be focused and determined in their pursuit of education that all hope
is not lost as far as secretarial profession is concern.
Parents: Some parents never wanted their wards/children to register for secretarial
studies, therefore, the result of this study will encourage parents to allow the choice of
their children in terms of future careers to stand for the end justify the means.
Students that offer Secretarial option: The result of this work will be an eye opener to
Colleges students to sit up and work harder instead of complaining that they cannot know
shorthand for practice makes perfect.
Curriculum Planners: The Agencies of Government have the veto power to formulate
what should be entrenched in the curriculum. They should look into the less attention
given to the practice of shorthand and the knowledge inculcation to the students and
encourage the use of it in both offices and schools.
5
1.7 Delimitation of the study
The study was delimited to three selected colleges in Zambia. And it was further
delimited to specific targets where the data was being collected from. The study was
delimited to these students because the students have finally made up their minds to take
secretarial as their career and they will be able to provide relevant information for the
study.

6
 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter highlights related literature on the problems, prospects and studying
shorthand. The chapter is organized under the following sub-headings: Theoretical
Framework, Concept and History of Shorthand, Fundamentals of Shorthand Skills,
Students’ Academic Performance in Shorthand, Problems of Studying Shorthand, Causes
of Problems of Shorthand, Prospects of Studying Shorthand, Shorthand Curriculum and
Modern Office, Review of Empirical Studies, Summary of the Chapter.
2.1 Theoretical Framework
Three psychological and educational theorists whose works provide the foundation for
any discussion on the strategies of learning skills acquisition which are considered
necessary to this work are; Gagne’s conditions of learning theory, Vygotsky’s Theory of
social cognitive Development and Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. These theories are
discussed one after another as follows:
Gagne’s Condition of Learning Theory:
This theory of learning is propounded by Gagne, which is called Gagne’s theoretical
framework. “The focus of the theory is on intellectual skills” (Kearsley,1994). In this
theory, five (5) major types of learning levels are identified:
Verbal or Oral Communication: This is the spoken form of communication, words and
utterances that are produced by using our vocal words. This can be in the form of
commands, requests, questions, exclamation, assertion, meeting etc.
Cognitive Strategies: According to Bloom (1990), the cognitive domain includes
objectives relating to recall or recognition of knowledge and the development of
intellectual abilities and skills. The cognitive domain is comprised of six major categories
of objectives such as: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and
evaluation.
Affective Strategies: The affective domain deals with values and beliefs, attitudes and
appreciation, interest, social relation, emotional adjustments, habits, life style. According
to Kralhwohl (1994), affective domain involves the learning outcomes that emphasize the
processes and products relating to the learners; feelings, emotions degrees of acceptance
or rejection. The domain is considered as containing behavior’s and objectives that have
7
emotional overtone as it encompasses likes and dislikes attitudes, values, and beliefs.
This has been classified into five (5) levels or categories; receiving, responding, valuing,
organization and characterization.
Psychomotor Skills: The objectives in the psychomotor domain are concerned with
manipulation skills which the students have naturally or have developed or acquired. The
domain also deals with body movements. According to Orlosky and Smith (2000),
psychomotor objectives, include: muscular and motor skills or manipulation of materials
or objects or some activity that requires neuro-muscular co-ordination. Performance skills
are usually the focus of this domain and objectives in this domain are common to science
subjects, commercial subjects, physical education, art and music, etc. Harrow (2001)
gave six categories of objectives under the psychomotor domain such as: reflect
movements, basic fundamental movements, perceptual abilities, physical abilities, skilled
movements and non-discursive communication.
Attitudes: Stern (1983) “observes that lecturer’s attitudes are significant for students’
learning. This means that when lecturers demonstrate positive attitude towards a subject,
students will perform well but when the attitudes of lecturers are negative toward
particular subjects, there is every likelihood that students will not do well in the course.
Aliyu (2006) “said that lecturing is an act, a good lecturer should be able to create his act
in the classroom, and should be a keen observer to his students. The five learning levels
of the theory above are very significant to this current study because the spoken form of
communication using vocal words, skills development, the interest of the learners, which
is being encouraged through the attitudes of a lecturer in his demonstration towards a
subject will help in good performance of students. This is so important in the study of
shorthand because it is a skill that has to do with the vocal words spoken and the
manipulation through the use of pen/paper in the hand of the learner with the right
attitudes for better performance.

Vygotsky’s Theory of Social Cognitive Development: Vygotsky’s theory of social

cognitive development is complementary to Bandura’s social learning theory. Its major
thematic thrust is that “social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of
cognition” (Kearsley, 1994). Most of the original work of this theory was done in the
context of language learning in children. An important concept in Vygotsky’s theory is
8
that “the potential for cognitive development is limited to a certain time span which he
calls the “zone of proximal development” (Kearsley, 1994). He defines the “zone of
proximal development” as having four (4) learning stages. These stages ‘range between
the lower limit of that the student knows and the upper limits of what the student has the
potential of accomplishing” (Gillani and Relan 1997: 231).
Another notable aspect of Vygotsky’s theory is that it claims “that instruction is most
efficient when students engage in activities within a supportive learning environment and
when they receive appropriate guidance that is mediated by tool” (Vygotsky 1978, as
cited in Gillani and Relan 1997:231). These instructional tools can be defined as
“cognitive strategies, a mentor, peers, computers, printed materials, or any instrument
that organizes and provides information for the learner”. Their role is “to organize
dynamic support to help learners complete a task near the upper end of their zone of
proximal development and then to systematically withdraw this supports as the (learner)
move to higher levels of confidence”. This theory of social cognitive development has to
do with language learning in the learner and this brings about social interaction which
plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. A learner is given a certain
task like writing, solving a problem and reading within a given period, after the period is
over his responses would show whether he understand the task being assigned to him or
not. In the same vein shorthand also deals with stipulated time, with certain speed by
dictation either 80 wpm, 100wpm and 120 wpm. A student of shorthand would be known
by the level of shorthand speed mentioned whether he will continue to learn and major in
shorthand or not. This speed attainment has discourage the interest of learning shorthand
in many students.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Bandura’s social learning theory ‘emphasizes the importance of observing and modelling
the behaviors, attitudes and emotional reactions of others”. (Kearsley 1994). In apply
Bandura’s social learning theory, Kearsley (1994) suggests keeping the following
principles in mind:
The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing
the modelled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly.

9
Individuals are more likely to adopt a modelled behavior if the model is similar to
observe and has admired status and the behavior has functional value. Lecturers can
easily apply these theories to help students of secretarial studies realize their potential in
the art of shorthand skills acquisitions if the instructions mentions in learning principle is
followed because learning means modification of behavior as a function of practice.
Thus, it takes place when the performance of the organism is changed through
stimulating contacts with the environment. All the basic elements of curriculum are
designed around the learner. Learning is the relationship between stimulus (S)
(independent variable) and response(R) (dependent variable) and thus determine how
new S-R connections are formed. Learning is an on-going process that is complimentary
to other processes like motivation and perception. In line with the above, learning is a
relatively permanent desirable change in behavior or conduct as a result of past, prior or
previous experience or training. It could be a change in performance which is an index of
learning through general activity, practice and experience of the organism. This change is
more or less permanent in nature.

Bloom approach of mastery learning is an instructional strategy designed to bring almost

every learner to a specified level of mastery. To accomplish this, adjustment must always
be made for individual differences by way of including special feed-back corrective
techniques during regular classroom instruction. This current study is related to
“Bandura’s Social Learning Theory”. The reason is that, observing and modelling the
behaviors, attitude and emotional reactions of the learner in the area of his intellectual
ability is important. Learning primarily involve two principle factors, that is, “teaching
and learning”. The lecturer observes his students in their behaviors to his teaching and
attitude through their responses. The same principle is applied in the study of shorthand.
The lecturer who is an observer can easily know from the attitude and behaviors of
students in their learning of shorthand whether they could cope with what it takes to
study the subject. This theory has eventually provided a way forward to the smooth study
of shorthand in this write up.

2.2 Concept and History of Shorthand

2.2.1 Concept of Shorthand
10
Stenography in shorthand
Shorthand is any system of rapid writing using symbols or shortcuts that can be made
quickly to represent letters of the alphabet, words or phrases. It has been variously known
as stenography (close, little or narrow writing).
The Oxford Advanced learners Dictionary (1994) defines Shorthand as a method of
writing what is being said as quickly as possible, using special symbols and
abbreviations. Shorthand is now employed extensively in reporting the proceeding of
legislative bodies, the trial of cases in courts of law and for taking dictated business
correspondence (1990 Encyclopedia).
Isaac Pitman (1995) came up with his own publication of stenographic sound Hand
marked a new era in the development of phonetic systems. Not only did he classify the
sounds of the language scientifically and arrange his material for writing accordingly, but
he also introduced simple expedients of abbreviations that made for rapidity. Since the
system is phonetic, all words are written according to their sounds. The words: lain, deal,
may, knife, would therefore be written as if they were spelt lan, del, ma, nif
(Encyclopedia Britannica (1996).
There are mainly two systems of shorthand which are widely used all over the world,
namely; Pitman systems of shorthand and the Gregg system of shorthand.
Pitman System of Shorthand
The Pitman system of shorthand became popular in the year 1837. This system was based
on phonetics (the sound of words) rather than alphabets Pitman (1987). It is often termed
a geometric system. It consists of 24 consonants and 12 vowels sounds. Straight lines and
circular curves are used to form the outlines of the symbol for words. The outlines may
be placed in one of three positions, above the normal line of writing, on the line and
through the line. The position is determined by the first vowel sound of the word. By
using various positions, the writer may use a single outline to represent different words.
Shading of the character is used to indicate heavy consonants and vowel sounds. Vowels
are disjoined from the outline and are indicated by dots and dashes. Abbreviations for
common words and phrases are used in order to facilitate the fastness of writing
shorthand. This system is used in several countries in the world, including Nigeria. The
second system of shorthand is the Gregg system of shorthand.

11
Gregg System of Shorthand
The Gregg system of shorthand is not as popular as the Pitman System. The Gregg
system is mostly used in the United States of America and Canada. Glattes (2001) stated
that it is rather cursive than geometric in nature, in an attempt to approximate the method
more strictly. It uses straight lines, circles, hooks and curves to form the outline of the
symbol for the word(s). The vowels in Gregg are joined to the straight lines and line
position is of little importance. Unlike Pitman Shorthand, shading is eliminated; all
symbols are of the same thickness. Abbreviation for common words and phrases are
used, all characters are written with the same thickness on the single line of writing and
few abbreviated principles applied.

According to Holland (1979) a great number of people all over the world, including our
dear country, Nigeria have used and still using shorthand system at various levels of
higher institutions and some individuals use it for livelihood. Shorthand therefore,
becomes an indispensable tool in the life of a Secretary, as he uses it to write minutes in
shorthand and dictation from his boss. In this research work, the focus is on the Pitman
system of shorthand.

2.2.2 History of Shorthand

Pitman shorthand is a system of shorthand for the English language developed by
Englishman Sir Isaac Pitman (1813–1897), who first presented it in 1837. Like most
systems of shorthand, it is a phonetic system; the symbols do not represent letters, but
rather sounds, and words are, for the most part, written as they are spoken. As of 1996,
Pitman shorthand was the most popular shorthand system used in the United Kingdom
and the second most popular in the United States.
One characteristic feature of Pitman shorthand is that unvoiced and voiced pairs of
sounds are represented by strokes which differ only in thickness; the thin stroke
representing 'light' sounds such as /p/ and /t/; the thick stroke representing 'heavy' sounds
doing this requires a writing instrument which is responsive to the user's drawing
pressure: specialist fountain pens (with fine, flexible nibs) were originally used, but
pencils are now more commonly used, Isaac (1997).
Pitman shorthand uses straight strokes and quarter-circle strokes, in various orientations,
12
to represent consonant sounds. The predominant way of indicating vowels is to use light
or heavy dots, dashes, or other special marks drawn close to the consonant. Vowels are
drawn before the stroke (or over a horizontal stroke) if the vowel is pronounced ahead of
the consonant, or drawn after the stroke (or under a horizontal stroke) if pronounced after.
Each vowel, whether indicated by a dot for a short vowel, or by a dash or a longer, more
drawn-out vowel, has its own position relative to its adjacent stroke (beginning, middle,
or end) to indicate different vowel-sounds in an unambiguous system. However, to
increase writing-speed, rules of "vowel indication" exist whereby the consonant stroke is
raised, kept on the line, or lowered to match whether the first vowel of the word is written
at the beginning, middle, or end of a consonant stroke— without actually writing the
vowel. This is often enough to distinguish words with similar consonant-patterns.
Another method of vowel-indication is to choose between a choice of different strokes
for the same consonant. The sound "R" has two kinds of strokes: round, or straight-line,
depending on whether there is a vowel-sound before or after the ‘R’.
There have been several versions of Pitman's shorthand since 1837. The original Pitman's
shorthand had an "alphabet" of consonants which was later modified. Additional
modifications and rules were added to successive versions. Pitman New Era (1975) had
the most developed set of rules and abbreviation lists. Pitman 2000 (1975–present)
introduced some simplifications and drastically reduced the list of abbreviations to reduce
the memory-load, officially reduced to a list of 144 short forms. The later versions
dropped certain symbols and introduced other simplifications to earlier versions. For
example, strokes "rer" (heavy curved downstroke) and "kway", (hooked horizontal
straight stroke) are present in Pitman's New Era, but not in Pitman's 2000.
Pitman was asked to create a shorthand system of his own in 1837. He had used Samuel
Taylor's system for seven years, but his symbols bear greater similarity to the older
Byrom system. The first phonetician to invent a system of shorthand, Pitman used
similar-looking symbols for phonetically related sounds. He was the first to use thickness
of a stroke to indicate voicing (voiced consonants are written with heavier lines than
unvoiced ones and consonants with similar place of articulation were orientated in similar
directions, with straight lines for plosives and arcs for fricatives. For example, the dental
and alveolar consonants are upright.
Pitman's brother Benjamin Pitman settled in Cincinnati, Ohio in the United States, and
13
introduced Pitman's system there. He used it in the 1865–67 trial of the conspirators
behind the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. In Australia the system was introduced by
another Pitman brother, Jacob. Jacob Pitman is buried in Sydney's Rookwood Necropolis,
in Australia. The epitaph is written phonetically
At one time, Pitman was the most commonly used shorthand system in the entire
English-speaking world. Part of its popularity was due to the fact that it was the first
subject taught by correspondence course. Today in many regions (especially the U.S.), it
has been superseded by Gregg shorthand, developed by John Robert Gregg. Teeline has
become more common in recent years, as it is based on spelling, rather than
pronunciation.

2.3 Fundamentals of Shorthand Skills

The problem of Shorthand is the problem of developing the skills which is basically
based on the principles. The great majority of the important points in the more efficient
teaching of shorthand arise from a proper appreciation of the fundamental problem, that
the teaching of shorthand is the problem of training a skill connected with the ear to co-
ordinate itself with a second skill, also to be trained, which is connected with muscles of
the fingers; and then as a separate function to train a third skills, connected with the eye
to read back the results of the other two skills. According to Holland (1979) declared that
shorthand skills acquisition involved the following words of phrases listed below:

2.3.1 Training the Ear

The problem of getting the ear to develop the skills of associating an air-borne sound
with a particular Shorthand skill comes first. How is this skills to be developed? First we
must admit that dictation is the essential basis of this part of our function. Clearly,
dictation must begin at the very beginning and the words dictated must be those which
the student has been taught and therefore the teaching of outlines must immediately
precede dictation. This is the justification of preparation before dictation. The longhand
exercises in a textbook should be worked by the student not from the exercise book, but
from the spoken words of the lecturer and it must be borne in mind that if you allow your
students to work from the printed word, you are developing a skill of the eye in
associating the particular either–borne image of a black mark on paper with the shorthand
14
outline, and you are wasting the time of the student in a most reprehensible way. It is
surely a golden rule in a modern method of lecturing: Never let your students do
longhand into shorthand, but make them do plenty of spoken words into shorthand.

2.3.2 Training the Fingers

The next skill to consider is the skills of the fingers. Here the value of copying correct
shorthand falls naturally into place. It is again unnecessary to say that this copying should
begin with the first lesson and be carried through right to the end. In the early stages it is
plain, straightforward copying. You will see that your students have pens with suitable
nibs, that the position of the fingers, hand, arm and body are correct, that the outlines are
written in a good style of shorthand writing, and that they are written as outlines and not
as a series of joined strokes. Students must be encouraged to make their pens travel as
quickly as the standard of neatness allows and care should be taken to prevent them from
drawing their strokes, (Russon, 1995).

2.3.3 Training the Eye

The third skill is the training of the eye in reading back. Here insistence that students
should read correctly written shorthand and their own shorthand notes, falls naturally into
place, as does insistence that if at all possible every bit of shorthand written by the
student should be read back.
There are four ways through which the reading or transcription may take place. The
shorthand may be turned sometimes into thought words, sometimes into spoken words,
sometimes into per-and-ink symbols and sometimes into type written symbols. Ideally in
a commercial college it should be all spoken words at one end and typewritten symbols at
the other.
When we come to consider all these skills together, it is very fortunate that the
development of any one of these three skills of widely separated human mechanism helps
the development of the others. That each skill helps the other is due to the fact that they
all work in term of the same shorthand outline, which is taken out of a common
storehouse in the brain.
Some other skills that enhance the development of shorthand are also indicated below:
“Ability to hear the phonetic sounds”. Monkori (2002) declared: the rate of success in
15
shorthand depend largely on the ability to hear phonetic sounds correctly, records sounds
correctly, records sounds heard accurately, read shorthand notes for moral sense, use
correct punctuation in transcription, proofread and correct all errors and be motivated to
think critically. Phonetic sounds are actually the core thing in shorthand writing and
transcription. When students do not give particular attention to phonetic sounds there is
likelihood that they will not perform well in shorthand.

2.3.4 Hold the Pen Lightly

The pen should be held lightly and in such a manner as to permit shorthand characters or
outlines being easily written. The wrist must not be allowed to rest upon the notebook or
desk. In order to secure the greatest freedom of movement, the middle of the forearm
should rest on the edge of the paper. Paper with a fairly smooth surface is absolutely
essential.
2.3.5 Repeat the Exercise Several Times
The student should thoroughly master the explanation and rules which precedes the
respective exercises and write out several times the illustrative words appearing in the
text, afterwards, working the exercises. As the secret of success in shorthand is practice it
is advisable that the various exercise should be written and re-written until they can be
done with perfect freedom and accuracy, (Holland, 1979).

2.3.6 Allocation of Time

It should be pointed out that satisfactory progress in acquiring the art of shorthand should
only be made if a certain portion of time is regularly devoted to the study every day. This
will give the student the knowledge of shorthand and bring speed and dexterity.
2.3.7 Drilling/Dictation
Drilling is when some particular strokes or characters prove strange and the shorthand
writer would takes his time to write the strokes again and again until perfection is
reached. Vary speed building drills, by using a variety of dictation plans to avoid
becoming bored. Also use taped dictation in combination with considerable lecturer
dictation. It can be used in class as warm up activity and additional speed building
practice while others are transcribing.

16
2.3.8 Memorization of the Consonants/Vowels
To be able to write more signs for words according to sounds, students must put to
memory the twelve (12) vowels represented by light and heavy dots and dashes. Also the
twenty-four (24) consonants represented by light and heavy straight or curved down, up
or horizontal strokes as sign must be committed to memory. Shorthand outlines or any
consonants sign or combination of consonant signs with or without vowel signs. Pitman
Shorthand has three (3) positional outlines namely: First position, second position and
third position and must be written on a ruled sheet of paper in note book for easy
recognition of the strokes (Popharm, 1996).

2.3.9 Motivational Factor

Another fact that leads to skills acquisition is motivation. This is a force that maintained
the quality, intensity and direction of behavior. A force that makes one do what he is
arouse to do and constantly influencing the direction of his actions which yield feedback,
is generally and obviously accepted as motivation. In order to achieve high academic
excellence from students of shorthand, they need to be motivated by their lecturers.

Maslow (1999) stated that motivation improves teaching and learning, it helps slow
learners to be encouraged and be committed to learning and as well makes the classroom
situation interesting. Learning from Maslow’s theory of motivation, one could say
motivation is the bedrock of teaching and learning. This has great impact in the study of
shorthand that, if the students are motivated during the course of teaching the subject in
the classroom, dropout and lack of interest would be minimized.
2.3.10 Shorthand Transcription
The final stage of shorthand writing is an error-free transcription. Students may be able to
read and write fluently and also very fast from the printed shorthand outlines, but this will
still be of less value, unless they are able to transcribe from their own hand written
shorthand outlines without mistakes.

Russon (1995) observes that the primary aim of any transcription is to prepare students to
be able to take dictation at the required speed and then transcribe it into mailable copy”.
In the light of the above, Popharm, et al (1996) argued that, because of need for learner to
17
be able to read, spell, punctuate, we correct words and its sounds correctly, “early
identification of each student’s difficulties is paramount, in order to allow lecturers to
pin-point deficiencies, diagnose the problem and provide solutions”. For the higher
achievement in shorthand in general and dictation in particular, all skills and knowledge
which can go a long way in influencing students’ performance should be incorporated as
part of the program.

2.4 Students’ Academic Performance

Students’ performance is the process whereby students’ educational activities are
measured by examination within the context of a given curriculum. Any evaluation used
to represent students scholastic standing is normally referred to as academic performance.
A handful of authors have attempted to come out with factors that determine student’s
academic performance. Some of the determining factors are intelligence, entry
qualification, personality trait, socio-economic background, school environment, Lecturer
study habit and the attitude of the student. The aforementioned factors are not mutually
exclusive or independent, but combine to explain the pattern of human existence which
result in differential academic excellence, (Stern, 1983).

2.5 Problems of Studying Shorthand

Shorthand is a method of writing words in a way that is quicker than full English
notation--making it an ideal means of transcribing the spoken word. However, shorthand
does have several inherent problems which prevent it from being the effective method of
recording speech that it purports to be. In English, shorthand is broken into two distinct
major forms--Pitman's (with its U.S. cousin, Gregg) and Teeline--both with their own
inadequacies. Some of the problems faced by students studying shorthand, according to
Amoor (2009), are discussed as follows:

2.5.1 Awkward Outlines

For some words, the curves and angles of shorthand notation are perfectly adept at
representing the composite letters without breaking the flow of your writing. Even
relatively long words -- like transcription -- can be represented without your pen leaving
the paper and end in a convenient position to begin your next outline. However, other
18
words -- such as exemplifier -- have such complex and awkward outlines that they
become very difficult to represent without pausing for a moment and losing your place.

2.5.2 Misinterpretation of Words

While Pitman's shorthand does include vowel signifiers in its outlines, many users of
shorthand have found them cumbersome and inconvenient. Adding vowel signifiers
means that a writer will have to remove their pen from the paper to add up to three
individual symbols to a word, increasing the likelihood of the writer copying a word
inaccurately or losing speed. Teeline shorthand eschews vowel signifiers and places its
faith in the human mind's ability to deduce the word from its context. Consequently, the
outlines of some words look identical to one another and, while the human brain can
usually identify the word from context or memory, this does often cause problems.

2.5.3 Lack of Punctuation

The lack of punctuation in shorthand sentences causes a problem that leads to
misunderstandings. The only form of punctuation in shorthand is the full stop, which is
represented as the '\' symbol. Symbols which inform the reader of the enunciation of
words -- such as exclamation points or question marks -- are omitted, leaving the person
transcribing the piece to add these from context and memory. Commas, which help order
sentences, are also omitted and added later only where they make sense. This
occasionally causes problems when the sentence is ordered wrongly during the
transcription. Speech marks are less important as shorthand is almost always used during
quoted text (Amoor, 2009).
2.5.4 Inadequacy of Shorthand
In the age of digital recording devices and audio reproduction, shorthand is becoming
increasingly obsolete. Use of these devices to record speech is not only much more
accurate than jotting it down in shorthand, it also allows the listener more time to take
note of other important factors, such as the speaker's mannerisms and body language.
Journalists in Britain now use shorthand only in courtroom scenarios, where recording
19
devices are not permitted.

2.6 Internal Problems of Shorthand Mastery

2.6.1 Attitudes of Business Education Lecturers towards Shorthand: One of the
problems of studying shorthand could be traced to the lecturers’ attitude. This is in line
with Stern (1983)’s observation that Lecturers attitudes are significant for students’
learning. This means that when lecturers demonstrate positive attitude towards a subject,
students will perform well but when the attitudes of lecturers are lukewarm toward a
particular subject, there is every likelihood that students will not do well in the course.

In the same vein, when lecturers of shorthand never have interest in what they are
lecturing with particular reference to shorthand, there is no how such students could
understand the dos and don’ts of shorthand. Lecturer should make their students proud by
telling the students some of the benefits they will derive at the end of the training.

Most studies carried out about factors affecting success in training centre indicated that
the lecturer is the key to the huge success school achieved. Farrent (1984) wrote that a
lecturer cannot lift his students higher than himself. A lesson is not taught until it has
been learnt and it cannot be learnt until it is understood. Therefore, it is the solely
responsibility of the lecturer to feed his students with knowledge which they can
Consume. McDonald (1985) affirms that attitude is a pre-disposition to act in a position
or negative way towards persons, objective, ideas and events.”
In furtherance of this point, when lecturers develop positive attitudes towards shorthand,
there is every assurance that students of shorthand will be positively affected or changed.
The attitudes of any lecturer towards any subject could go a long way to either affect
students positively or negatively. Aliyu (1995) observes that “Lecturing is an act, a good
Lecturer should be able to create his art in the classroom”. A good lecturer should be a
keen observer of his students. Lecturing involves the impartation of knowledge which
takes place in the classroom. Lecturing can be effective only when the individual
involved is interested in the things he is to lecture. Aliyu (1995) declares that interest in
the subject generated through a motivational pressure which leads to active preparation
for the lesson and meaningful lecturing of the subject. Students’ attitude could also
20
constitute a problem.

2.6.2 Attitudes of Business Education Students towards Shorthand

Skills Acquisition
The attitude of a student toward the lecturing of shorthand matters a lot. If the subject
shorthand cannot be learnt, with this attitude formed in him, truly he cannot know
shorthand. According to Isaac (1997) “Speed in shorthand writing depends upon a
thorough knowledge of principles and ability to form outlines rapidly”. In addition Igbe
(2000), maintained that “when you have practiced to the point of being able to recall
outlines at once and perfectly, continuous practice can still be benefited.

Ikeyefor (2001) asserts that lack of adequate preparation and dependence on cheating by
buying examination question papers and by not having a commitment to personal study
are some of the causes of poor performance in TEVETA Examination. He further
stressed that, the cause of poor performance lies mostly with the students. In other words
they are responsible for their failure.
Students in most cases are given take-home assignment in order to co-opt the students
into the terrain of knowledge and equip such students with the fundamental rudiment of
the subject. In adequate practice of shorthand and English language principles will limit
the overall performance of the students. The importance of practicing shorthand
principles and theories cannot be stressed, but should be at the fingertips of every
shorthand learner at all times.
Blair, et al (2004) declare that the kinds of attitude which students have affects school
work and learning. If the attitude toward his lecturer is positive and cordial, he will
certainly take instruction with regards to the practice of shorthand, hence, overcome the
initial problem of shorthand skills acquisition. With this reinforcement, he will be more
articulate and affective to achieve great success in the learning of shorthand. Conversely,
negative attitude towards school activities and lecturers’ instruction will negatively affect
the performance of students in his pursuit of shorthand’s skills acquisition.
According to Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, (2006) attitude is
defined as “the way that you think and feel about somebody or something”. In this
regards business education students’ attitude towards the learning of shorthand skills
21
either affect them positively or negatively.

2.7 Causes of the Problems of Studying Shorthand

A lot of reasons are responsible for the problems faced by students studying shorthand,
some of these problems, according to Amoor (2009), include:

2.7.1 Lack of Government Commitment to Secretarial Education in Colleges

The Federal Government is not exonerated from the accusing fingers that it is partly
responsible for the collapsing foundation of secretarial education in colleges today. This
is because its attention and priority is holistically focused on science education thereby
neglecting this aspect of education according to Usman (2008) that is a vital tool to
combat unemployment crisis, and also poverty alleviation (Ilo 2002). Clark (2002)
asserted that the Government is very conscious of the general public attitudes towards
secretarial education program as somewhat inferior to other types of education, and yet
nothing seems to be done to improve the awareness or the status of this vocational
education program by the Federal Government. Essong (2002) contributed that as a
developing country, Nigeria stands to benefit more from this arm of education if adequate
attention is given to the formulation and implementation of policies that will bring out the
best of business education at the secondary school level, since the Federal Government
agenda is emphasizing on self-reliance and poverty alleviation.

2.7.2 Low Societal Value for Secretarial Education

It is observed that all parents do not encourage or guide their wards to offer secretarial
education at all levels. This is because the society does not place any significant value or
dignity on the secretarial profession and the factors that are accountable for this are as
follows (Amoor, 2009):
The society still believes that the products of secretarial education are dropouts,
unintelligent and under-achievers.

The position secretaries occupy in office occupation does not give them opportunity for
administrative creative thinking and this does not allow their potentials to be made
22
manifest or exhibited for societal recognition.
Secretaries do not have their own schedule of duties in office occupation. They are
permanently attached to their bosses’ schedule of work, and this reduces their respect in
the society.
They do not have good educational attainment which of course, it is not their fault but
because of the nature of their work in the office that does not permit them to pursue
degrees, especially those that work in private companies and the financial institutions. In
Nigerian society today, respect is accorded to those that work with sound degree
certificates.
The remuneration is not attractive. In fact it does not commensurate with the services the
secretaries offer that could attract society attention. If a secretary could earn as much as
his/her manager since they put in the same hours in office occupation, the profession will
definitely attract societal attention and recognition by the society.

In support of the above, Clark (2002) said that Business Education products have over the
years with other technical and vocational education programs been deprived of
accountability by the society because of their reluctance to expunge themselves of the
colonial grammar education and white-collar jobs which often business education
products are referred to as ‘typist’ because the program is derogatorily and myopically
associated with typing and shorthand. Also, Ezugwu (2002) contributed that the society,
which includes the students, looks at manipulative skills with contempt so the students
cannot be interested in a contemptuous subject.

2.7.3 Lack of Qualified Secretarial Lecturers to Lecture Secretarial Subjects

This is almost becoming a permanent challenge for secretarial education both in
secondary schools and tertiary institutions. There are no competent secretarial lecturers in
secondary schools to stimulate and motivate the students’ interest in secretarial education,
especially in shorthand, lecturers do not employ proper method of lecturing shorthand
because most of them are not also vast in the course. In support of this, Oyebode (2002)
said that the nature of the core courses in secretarial education demands motivating
students at all times to keep their interest in the course burning and on the increase.
Therefore, lack of competent secretarial lecturers waters down the interest of the
23
secondary school students to opt for secretarial education.

2.8 Prospects of Studying Shorthand

Shorthand has a lot of prospects, every graduates of shorthand has the potential to work
in any organization: according to Fakuade (1983), shorthand notes are a legal document
that can be used as evidence in a court case shorthand is a vital skill for court reporters
because in most jurisdictions cameras and recorders are not allowed in court during
proceedings; further transcripts are hard to get from court officials and they take time to
be released to the media in some European countries (For example Spain) reporters are
paid a bonus if they keep their shorthand up above a minimum speed requirement.
Reporters are called upon to give evidence from their shorthand notes in many court
cases; so this is a “just in case” type of argument in effect. The bonus is a matter of a
handful of dollars a week.

2.9 Shorthand Curriculum and Modern Office

Shorthand is one of the acquisitions of practical and applied skill as well as basic
scientific knowledge. Essentially, it aims at enacting manual and mental skill on its
recipient. It is one of the coordinated subjects of business studies in Junior secondary
School level. This subject was formally introduced into the Secondary school System
when the National Policy on Education was formulated in 1977. This policy had a sole
aim of vocationalizing Nigeria’s education system from secondary School level means
right from JSS and SSS both pre-vocational and vocational level and up to tertiary level.

At tertiary level, shorthand is taught in Colleges of Education, Polytechnic and

Universities. A close look at the course at all levels indicates that Shorthand takes most of
the lecture hours in a week. At KIT Shorthand takes 6 contacts hours a week for all the
semesters as appropriate in Business Education. At the Polytechnics levels, it is observed
that Shorthand takes longer contact hours a week and well processing leaser contact
hours. The Universities operates credit units, in order words, it is called in most cases 3
credit units at each semester and within the duration of the semester.

Despite the skill acquired through the learning of shorthand, a lot of researchers have
24
attached several reasons for the student’s poor performance and had resulted in various
attempts to find ways out of the dilemma at hand. Amongst reasons put forward are:
Lecturer’s qualification, nature of the subject, lack of basic language which is English,
student’s interest, class size, student background (Olaitan, 1985; Fakuade, 1983). A lot of
research carried out, showed that a lot of colleges dislike Shorthand. The hatred of the
course must have been as a result of frequent failures in tests and examinations. These
also may have come from lack of understanding of the technical subject, and this by
implication can be seen that the lecturing approach used by the lecturer coupled with
impatience and lack of understanding consequently affect students.

Since Shorthand skill acquisition by nature is hierarchical, it follows that necessary basic
concept and rules be understood and learnt before new ones are introduced. Shorthand is
a course that is dreaded by many students, very few students register for it at SSCE
examination. It records high failure rate at the SSCE and even at tertiary level. Take for
example, Colleges of Education, those who offered Business Education, majority take
their option in Accounting option, but those in office (Secretarial) option are very few in
numbers. Akpan (1999) lamented that it is unfair for students to study a course for ten
hours a week and yet fail it. Its usefulness in the office has been debated in educational
circles.
The average failure rates in these subjects over some years ago were mostly typewriting
which stood 60%, shorthand 85%, Account 35% and Commerce 25% respectively. The
high failure rate is also applicable in higher institutions. It becomes obvious that
something urgently should be done by the curriculum planners to come out with the hours
allotted for shorthand practice at all levels of education who offer Shorthand to take note
of the changes. This will as well aid the Secretaries if the use of Shorthand is very much
relevant in the face of office automated.

2.10 Review of Empirical Studies

A number of empirical studies related to this research work were reviewed, with a view
to making it clear as to the “gap” existing in the literature for this study to fill. Barnes
(1982) carried out a study to determine whether secretaries required shorthand skill for
employability, and advancement on the job. The study showed that 65% of secretaries
25
used manual shorthand and 355 used dictating machine and transcribing equipment. On
shorthand as a requirement for the secretarial profession, 43.6% responded positively.
30.4% responded negatively while 26% said it was not necessary but useful. On the
usefulness of shorthand to secretaries in their present position in the face of office
computerization, 46.6% responded that shorthand is very useful, 38.6% indicated that it
was useful, while 14.8% declared it is of little or no use. Asked whether there would be a
decline in the use of shorthand as a result of office automation, 60.1% responded
negatively, while 39.9% said “Yes”. Although from the result in percentage above, the
study gathered the responses of the respondents that 60.1% responded negatively.

This means that shorthand is less useful in this new era unlike what it used to be in years
past. Even though evidence from the study that improvement in office technology may
make shorthand less useful in modern offices, there is no empirical prove to suggest that
shorthand skills is outdated. Rather a number of things such as student interest, lecturer’s
qualification among others seems to be problems student and lecturers faced in studying
shorthand. There was no statement of the problem, no research hypothesis for proper
statistical analysis and the questionnaire was not all collected. However, the research
work will be of help to this current research in so many ways. This is because the
researcher identified some of the problem being faced by students in studying shorthand
and the lecturers as well. This has also helped the current researcher that shorthand
students and lecturers have the responsibility of improving their lots in terms of
encouragement to study shorthand. Also, to enable them become an authority in the
secretarial profession, as well as improving themselves in the learning of office
automated equipment.

Adeboye (2000) carried out a research on the topic “Effect of mastery learning and
lecturing Shorthand in Junior Secondary School”. The researcher noticed that Shorthand
is one of the coordinated subjects of Business Studies in Junior Secondary School level,
Adeboye (2000) observes that amongst 204 Junior Secondary Schools used as sample,
over 67% of them dislike the subject. This was as a result of mass failure on the part of
students on the outcome of their examination results and the lecturing approach adopted
by the lecturers.
26
The purpose of the study was to examine the mastery learning strategy if it was effective
in lecturing of Shorthand in the Junior Secondary School and its impact on the students.
Four (4) null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Pre-test and post-test
designs were used from a selected population from four (4) Schools: Two from Private
and Two from Public Schools. The researcher used experimental group for students from
public school, while control group was used for students from private school. Two major
instruments were used; pre-test was used to ascertained equality of the groups and
divided the students into ability groups. Those who scored 75% were classified as
achievers, those between 50% and 69% were classified as average achievers and those
below 50% were the low achievers.

The second major instrument, the post-test was twenty (20) questions based upon the 4
aspects of shorthand taught which were considered difficult to teach by teachers that is,
joining of consonants, indication of vowels, dictation, transcribing into long hand. The
mean standard deviation and t-test for the pre-test for the two groups are shown below:
Ho1 - there was no significance difference in the performance of students exposed to the
mastering learning strategy and those using the conventional method. The pre-test results
of the two groups: experiment and control groups revealed that there was no significance
difference that existed between the groups before the commencement of the treatment.
This means equality, and to test the first null hypothesis, a two-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was used and the mean and standard deviation computed. The researcher
concluded that the performance of the students can be improved upon if teaching is made
more effectively.
Based on the result and discussion, the researcher recommended that there was the need
for effective teaching and learning of Shorthand at the College with utmost interest and
dedication, that individual differences among the students should be tackled. Seminars,
workshops, paper presentation at conferences should be encouraged for the purposes of
updating their knowledge.
Even though there is evidence from the study that improvement in office technology has
come to stay and may make shorthand less useful in modern office management, there
was no empirical prove that suggest that Shorthand skill should be removed. Rather,
suggestions were made for improvement, in all ramifications both on the students and the
27
lecturers. There was no indication of population for the study, sampling size, statement of
the problem was not stated and only one research question was mentioned. However, the
current research got relevant literature from the work of Adeboye (2000).
Agomou (2002) carried out a study on the topic: “Secretarial Job Tasks in Modern Office
and Its Implications for Improved Secretarial Education”. The purpose of the study was
to identify the job tasks that are required by Secretaries in modern business offices. The
study used only one research question which read, “What are the secretarial jobs tasks
required by secretaries in the modern business office?” The researcher used simple
survey research design in his methodology, the population was one hundred (100)
executives and one hundred (100) secretaries, the questionnaire was the instrument used
for data gathering. Agomou (2002), recommended among others that the secretarial
education curriculum should be reviewed to incorporate the identified tasks, which truly
represented the needs of employers; the secretarial education curriculum should
incorporate the modern technologies, incorporate concepts that lecture students how to
function effectively in a high-tech environment.

There was no statement of the problem, no null hypothesis for proper statistical analysis
and the questionnaire was not all retrieved. However, the research work has helped this
study because it drew the attention of the researcher to some problems being faced by
students, lecturers and secretaries in the profession. It has also helped this research work
in the sense that students of secretarial studies and secretaries have seen the need of
improving themselves in the operation of the modern office automated equipment if they
want to be retained in the office.

2.11 Summary of the Chapter

Shorthand is a system that depends solely on rapid writing using symbols or shortcuts
that can be made quickly to represent letters of the alphabets, words or phrases. This
system became popular in the year 1837, it consists of 24 consonants, 12 vowels sounds
and straight lines and curves are used to form the outlines of the symbol for words.
Shorthand skills are developed basically on the principles which are connected with
muscles of the fingers. The study of shorthand has been hindered by a lot of problems
which include; awkward outlines, misinterpretation of words, lack of punctuation, lack of
28
interest from students and others. These problems are caused by factors like, improper
method of teaching by the lecturer, lack of government commitment, low societal value
and others. The prospects of shorthand were discussed in the work and the effects of
shorthand on modern office management. Theories related to this work were also
discussed and the empirical studies were also reviewed which include; Barnes (1982),
Adeboye, (2000), Agomou (2002), and Aminu, (2006). The studies reviewed in this work
identified the problems students faced in studying shorthand, they did not find out causes
of the problems in order to offer solution to the problem. This is the gap noticed by this
study and that is why this study is designed to identify the problems faced by students
studying shorthand.

29
 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
The chapter presents the design and methodology that will be adopted for this
study under the following sub-headings: Research Design, Population of the Study,
Sample Size and Sampling Procedure, Instrument for Data Collection, Validity of
the Instrument, Pilot Study, and Reliability of the Instrument, Procedure of Data
Collection, and Procedure of Data Analysis.

3.1 Research Design

Survey research design was used for this study. Survey research design according to
Nworgu (2006) is a way in which a group of people or items is studied by collecting and
analyzing data from only a few people or items considered to be representative of the
entire group. Also, Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh (2002) opined that survey design permits
the gathering of information from a large sample of people relatively quickly and
inexpensively. Corroborating this view, Olayiwola (2007) noted that survey design is an
effective way of gathering data from different sources within short time at a relatively
cheaper cost.

3.2 Population for the Study

For this study the sample will consist of 21 respondents and these will be 9 lecturers and
3 HOD from all the institutions and 3 students from Kabwe Institute of Technology, 3
students from Lusaka Business Training College and 3 students from Evelyn Horne.

3.3 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure

Uzoagulu (1998) stated further that sample size should always be determined statistically
except in a causal study where accuracy and appropriate procedure are not too important.
The breakdown of the sample size for the study is as 21 respondents and these will be 9
lecturers and 3 HOD from all the institutions and 3 students from Kabwe Institute of
Technology, 3 students from Lusaka Business Training College and 3 students from
Evelyn Horne.

In selecting the sample, proportional random sampling technique was used to select the
twenty one (21) students. This was done using ‘hat drawn’ technique. Pieces of paper
30
containing ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ were wrapped and put in a container. Papers containing ‘Yes’
twenty one (21) and ‘No’ were thirty (30). Students who picked ‘Yes’ formed the sample
size for the study. This procedure was used to select students from each school.

3.4 Instrument for Data Collection

A questionnaire tagged Shorthand Questionnaire (SQ) was designed by the researcher
which was used for data collection
.
3.4.1 Validity of the Instrument
The validity of the instrument was determined by expert opinions comprising of two
senior lecturers in the Department of Vocational and Technical Education and the
researcher’s supervisors. These experts critically examined the instrument with respect
to its fitness for the purpose of this study. Their corrections and comments improved
the items structure and format of the twenty one (21) questionnaire items that were
used for the study.

3.4.2Pilot Study
After necessary correction and validation of the instrument, a pilot study of the
instrument was conducted at all the colleges in study, using nine (9) students and three
(3) lecturers. And its choice was influenced by the location and because of the similar
characteristics the college shares with the study area. The data collected were subjected
to statistical analysis using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and
inferential statistics (t-test). All the ambiguous items in the questionnaire were detected
and corrected through the pilot test.

3.4.3 Reliability of the Instrument

The reliability of the instrument was determined by the statistical analysis of the data
collected from the pilot study. The split-half method was used to determine the reliability
of the instrument. The instrument was divided into two halves of odd and even numbers.
The Spearman Rank order correlation coefficient was used to calculate the reliability
estimate of one half (odd numbers) and Spearman Brown Prophecy formula was used to
calculate the reliability estimate of 0.78 for the instrument. This reliability coefficient was

31
positive and high, hence the instrument was adjudged reliable and stable based on
Nworgu (2006) recommendation, who stated that a reliability estimate of 0.60 to 0.80 is
high and the instrument for which it is calculated is reliable and stable.

3.5 Procedure for Data Collection

The researcher obtained permission letter from college authorities to conduct the study.
The researcher engaged a research assistant who was trained on how the instrument was
administered. The researcher and the research assistant administered nine (9) copies of
the questionnaire to students respectively in the colleges where the study was conducted.
The respondents were requested to fill the questionnaire on the same day they were
given. This was to avoid the loss of questionnaire and external influence while filling the
questionnaire. The researcher and the assistant spent two days in each college and the
whole exercise of data collection lasted for ten days.

3.6 Procedure for Data Analysis

The data collected were analyzed using frequency and percentage for the personal data of
the respondents. Frequency, percentage and mean were used to analyse the data to answer
the research questions. The mean for each item was calculated based on the 4-point rating
interval used in the study. The null hypotheses were tested using One Sample t-test to
bring out the significant difference in the mean responses of the students and this is
because the One Sample test is testing between the hypothesized value and the target
value.
The null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. In the analysis Strongly
Agreed and Agreed were taken as ‘Agreed’ while Disagreed and Strongly Disagreed as
‘Disagreed’. As an average score of the rating of 4+3+2+1 =10/4 = 2.5.
Decision Rule: A weighted mean score of 2.50 and above was considered as agreed,
while a weighted mean score of less than 2.50 was considered as disagreed. If the
calculated t-test is less than the table value the null hypothesis was retained, while if the
calculated value is greater than the table value, the null hypothesis was rejected.

32
33
 CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
The research work was on the factors affecting the poor performance of students in shorthand in the three colleges in Zambia. This chapter gives the
report of the research findings based on data collection from Business Education Students.

The first sets of data were presented in table of frequencies and percentages as they concern demographic characteristics of the respondents. The
second set of data were meant to answer the research questions, each of the research questions was presented in tables of frequencies and percentages
with relevant items and the last set of data were to test research hypotheses in order to further probe into research questions.

In analyzing the data, the respondents were treated separately, but the results obtained were discussed in answering the research questions and the test
of research hypotheses. The data collected were summarized into agreed and disagreed. This was done in order to allow for good analysis of items,
better judgments and conclusion. All the computations aspects of the analysis of Bio data were based on the four point rating scale format as shown in
subsequent paragraphs. The mean score for the minimum level of agreement is 2.5, based on the four point scale used in the study. A mean at this level
or higher would therefore constitute agreement on the scale. This fixed mean was used as the constants for the test of the hypotheses. The details of
responses to research questions are shown in appendices II to III but the summary of responses is shown in the analysis of each research question.

4.1 Analysis of Demographic Variables of Respondents

Analysis of demographic variables of respondents was conducted under the following
Subheadings in the Tables 4.1.1. To 4.1.2.

34
Table 4.1.1. Percentage Distribution of Secretarial Students by Gender
____________________________________________________________________________

Gender Frequency Percentage

_____________________________________________________________________________
Male 4 44.47
Female 5 55.53
_____________________________________________________________________________

Total 9 100

Table 4.1.1 indicates the distribution of respondents according to their gender, it showed that 4 (44.4%) were male and 5 (55.5%) were females. This
indicates that there are more male students of secretarial option than females in College of Education, Zambia. There were more male students than
females because in the data gathered through the questionnaire, it was pointed out based on the choice of the respondents. Also, female students seem
to be more interested in secretarial studies than males and this is confirmed in the empirical studies reviewed.
Table 4.1.2: Percentage Distribution of Secretarial Students by Age
____________________________________________________________________________
Years Frequency Percentage
____________________________________________________________________________
0-18 0 0
19-25 3 33.3
26-30 5 55.5
31 and above 1 11.1

35
Total 9 100

Table 4.1.2. Showed the distribution of secretarial students’ age. 0-18 respondents were 0(0%); 19-25 respondents were 3(33.3%); 26-30 respondents
were 5(55.5%) while 31 and above respondents were 1(11.1%). By implication the distribution of secretarial students by age can be concluded that 26-
30 have highest percentage while 31 and above years of age had the least percentage. This showed that there are more young students in secretarial
studies than older students and this may lead to a rate of declining in terms furthering education.

4.2 Analysis of Data to answer the Research Questions

The analysis of data to answer the research questions are presented in Tables 4.2.1 to 4.2.4.
1. Research Question One: What were the challenges that are encountered by students when learning shorthand in three selected colleges of
in Zambia?
Items 1-10 were used to answer this research question. The details of the responses are in
Appendix VI and the summary of responses is as shown in Table 4.2.1.

Table 4.2.1: Percentage and Mean Rating of the Problems in the learning process Faced by Students of Shorthand

X
Items SA A D SD %A %D mean Rating

th
1. Awkward outline is one of the Problems to students of shorthand 4 2 2 1 85.40 14.60 2.60 9
2. Misinterpretation of words is a problem students faced in studying

shorthand. 3 3 3 0 86.33 13.67 2.84 4 th

3. Lack of punctuation creates Problem for students of Shorthand. 4 0 2 3 85.37 14.63 2.92 2 nd
English language disability is one of the problems confronting
4. Students Of
shorthand. 2 3 4 0 50.37 49.63 2.40 10th

36
 Lack of interest by the students creates problem for students of
5. shorthand. 3 4 2 0 79.27 20.73 2.61 8 th
6. Lack of facilities is a problem For students of shorthand 6 2 1 0 79.68 20.32 2.79 5 th
7. Lack of adequate time in the timetable is a problem to students of 5 4 0 0 87.01 12.99 2.74
th
shorthand. 7
8. Students are always scared of memorization of principles of shorthand

which causes problems in its Study 4 3 2 0 74.55 25.45 2.77 6 th

9.
Dictation in shorthand poses Problem to students of shorthand 2 5 0 2 88.41 11.59 2.87 3 rd
10 Inability to differentiate between Heavy and light stroke by students
Create problem to students of Shorthand. 4 3 0 2 92.18 7.82 3.11 1 st

37
Aggregate Mean Score

38
 2. Research Question Two: What were the causes of students failing shorthand in three
selected Colleges in Zambia?
Item 11-16 were used to answer this research question. The details of the responses are in
appendix VI and summary of responses is as shown in Table 4.2.2.

Table 4.2.2.: Percentage and Mean Rating of the Causes of the learning/practical
Problems Faced by students of Shorthand

Items
SA A D SD %A
Inappropriate method of teaching shorthand causes
11. students 3 3 3 0
to loose interest in the course 84.3
Invention of new technologies makes students not to
12. take
shorthand serious shorthand.
Lack of government commitment to secretarial 4 0 2 3 82.8
13. education
causes students to loose interest in shorthand 5 4 0 0 83.0
14. The view that shorthand is outdated causes lack of seriousness
among students who have optioned in secretarial
education. 6 2 1 0 60.3
15. Low societal value attached to the study of shorthand
3 4 2 0 86.4
16. Lack of constant practice is one of the causes of problems
students faced in studying shorthand 6 2 1 0
Aggregate Mean Score

2. Research Question Three: What were the prospects of students of shorthand in three
selected Colleges in Zambia?
Item 17-21 were used to answer this research question. The details of the responses are in
appendix VI and summary of responses is as shown in Table 4.2.3.

Table 4.2.3: Percentage and Mean Rating on the Prospects of Students of Shorthand

Items SA A D SD %

39
 17. Shorthand graduates can be employed in any
organization, 5 3 1 0
secretaries are needed.
18. Shorthand skill is vital for court reporters, since it can be used to
take minutes of the proceedings in the court. 4 3 2 0
Shorthand is essential for journalist because it will assist
19. them in
writing reports quickly. 5 4 0 0
Shorthand is an effective method of capturing of quotes
20. and notes 4 4 1 0
The study of shorthand enables secretarial students to
21. have good
command of English language. 4 3 1 1
Aggregate Mean Score

4.3 Discussion of Major Findings

This research work was to determine the factors affecting the poor performance of students in
shorthand in the colleges in Zambia. In order to achieve this purpose, three specific objectives
were set. Three research questions and hypotheses were raised. Frequencies, percentages and
mean were used to answer the research questions. One Sample t-test was used to test the
hypotheses. The study revealed that inability to differentiate between heavy and light strokes,
lack of punctuation, dictation in shorthand and misinterpretation of words are the major problems
faced by students of shorthand. These items were rated 1 st, 2nd and 3rd respectively in Table 4.2.1.
This is seen in the Table where both students agreed that awkward outline, misinterpretation of
words, lack of punctuation, English language disability, lack of facilities, lack of adequate time
in the time-table, fear of memorization and others were the problems faced by students of
shorthand. This finding was buttressed by Stern (1983) who found that problems of shorthand
include; inadequacy of shorthand, lack of punctuation, misinterpretation of word, awkward
outline and others.

The study revealed that lack of constant practice, lack of government commitment to secretarial
education, inappropriate method of teaching shorthand and invention of new technologies are the
major causes of the problems faced by students of shorthand. These items were rated 1 st and 2nd
in Table 4.2.2. This means that students agreed that invention of new technologies, inappropriate
40
method of teaching, low societal value, lack of constant practice and others are causes of the
problems faced by students of shorthand. This finding also agreed with Clark (2002) who found
that the society (U.S) still believes that the products of secretarial education or shorthand
students are dropouts, unintelligent and under-achievers.

The study also found that shorthand has great prospect to provide skills in a way of capturing
quotes and notes, vital for court reporters, essential for journalists and enables secretarial
students to have good command of English. This means that students agreed on the prospects of
shorthand. They agreed that shorthand is essential for journalism, shorthand enabled students to
have good command of English but they disagreed with each other that shorthand graduates can
be employed in any organization. The finding contradicts Oyebode (2002) who stated that
shorthand is needed at every level of organization, lower level and higher (management) level.
The study revealed that students of shorthand have possibilities of employment/job prospect after
graduation as it was shown in Table 4.2.4 and the mean score of students responses agreed to the
possibility of their employment/job opportunity; this because of the skills they acquired.

Finally, the study also found that shorthand skills are relevant in the recording minutes of
meetings, helps secretaries to communication. This means that students agreed that shorthand is
relevant to office management. For example, they agreed that shorthand helps in the recording of
the minutes of meetings in modern office management, shorthand helps in spell check and
others. This finding agreed with Valentine (1983) who declares that shorthand and word
processors are partners in productivity. The secretary with both shorthand and word processing
skills can fill the gap between word processor capabilities and the requirements of the modern
office management.

41
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary
This chapter presents the summary, conclusion and recommendations of the study based on the
result of the investigation. The study was carried out to investigate the factors affecting the poor
performance of students in shorthand in the three colleges in Zambia. In order to achieve this
purpose, three specific objectives were set for the study among which include to identify the
problems faced by students and lecturers of shorthand. Three research questions were raised in
line with the specific objectives which include; what are the problems faced by students of
shorthand. Null hypotheses were also raised which include; there is no significant difference in
the mean score of students on the problems faced by students of shorthand. The study of
shorthand has been hindered by a lot of problems which include: awkward outlines,
misinterpretation of words, lack of punctuation, lack of interest from students and others. These
problems are caused by factors like, improper method of lecturing by the lecturer, lack of
government commitment, low societal value. The prospects of shorthand were discussed in this
study and the effects of shorthand on office management. Theories related to this work were also
discussed as well as empirical studies which include: Barnes (1982), Adeboye (2000), Agomou
(2002) and Aminu, (2006). The gap noticed from the studies identified the problems students
faced in studying shorthand. This study is designed to tackle the problems faced by students
studying shorthand. Survey design was used for the study. The population of the study was 9
students. Questionnaire was used to collect data from the respondents. The data collected were
analyzed using frequencies, percentages and mean.
5.2 Conclusion
Based on the major finding of the study, it could be concluded that the problems of shorthand
writing as identified in this study have led to poor students enrolment in the subject which may
in future affect the employment of shorthand lecturers. The implication of such that is, poor
students enrolment in shorthand can only be imagined economically. This is because if there are
42
no students to be taught, certainly there will be no lecturer to lecture and that might lead to the
closure of that subject It could also be concluded especially based on the last finding, that the
role of shorthand in modern office management is indispensable irrespective of the level reached
by the 21st century technology.
5.3 Recommendations
Based on the findings and conclusion of the study, the following recommendations are made by
the researcher:

1. There is the need for students of shorthand to constantly practice through drilling in order
to overcome the problems of shorthand identified in this study.
2. There is the need for government at all levels and stakeholders to show commitment to
secretarial education by funding and provision of facilities (e.g. shorthand textbooks,
dictation machine dictation tape recorders) to secretarial education Department in the
Colleges. This will go a long way in reducing the causes of the problems faced by
shorthand students as identified in this study.
3. Students of shorthand should embrace shorthand by devoting their time to its study
because of its prospects which are vital for court reporters, minutes of the proceedings in
the court, essential for journalist, and enables secretarial students to have good command
of English language.
4. There is the need for public and private organizations to place emphasis on shorthand
skills before employing secretaries because of its relevance in modern office
management.

5.4 Limitations of the Study

The limitation of the study was the difficulty of getting the students to fill the questionnaire in
some schools, especially in Evelyn Horne. Another limitation was that some students refused to
collect the questionnaire because of the fear of crisis in Lusaka. However, with the help of some
lecturers, the problem was minimized as against total failure.

5.5 Suggestions for Further Study

It is suggested that further study can be carried out in the same topic in other parts of the country
and also in the following areas:
43
1. Influence of shorthand in modern office management in Zambia.
2. The challenges faced by students on the differentiation of heavy and light strokes in the
study of shorthand in Zambia Colleges.

44
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 APPENDIX I

Dear Respondent,

REQUEST TO FILL QUESTIONNARE

I am a postgraduate student of Business Education, Department of

Vocational and Technical Education, Kabwe Institute of Technology,
Kabwe, conducting a research work on the “Factors affecting the poor
performance of students in shorthand in the three colleges in
Zambia.’’ This questionnaire is to solicit for your assistance and
cooperation in providing the required information by ticking the items.
It is purely an academic exercise for the award of Diploma in
Secretarial and Office Management. The information provided shall
be strictly treated in a confidential manner for that purpose.
Thanks for your cooperation.

Yours
faithfully,

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APPENDIX II
STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRE (SQ)
RESPONDENT’S PERSONAL INFORMATION

The aim is to investigate the “Factors affecting the poor performance of students in shorthand
in the three colleges in Zambia”.
Instruction: Please tick the appropriate box as it applies to you.
PART A: BIO-DATA
Name of School: ________________________________________________________
Gender:
Male [ ]
Female [ ]
Age (in
Years)
0 – 18 [ ]
19 – 25 [ ]
26 –30 [ ]
31 and above [ ]
Level:
NCE I [ ]
NCE II [ ]
NCE III [ ]

PART B: QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS

Please note the key:
Strongly
SA - Agreed
A - Agreed
D - Disagreed
Strongly
SD - Disagreed

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SECTION B
Challenges of studying Shorthand
ITEM STATEMENTS SA A D SD
1. Awkward outlines is one of the major problems of studying shorthand
2. Misinterpretation of words is a problem students faced in studying
shorthand.
3. Lack of punctuation poses problem for students in studying shorthand.
4. English language disability is one of the problems confronting students in
studying shorthand.
5. Lack of interest by the students creates problem to them in studying
shorthand.
6. Lack of facilities is a problem in studying shorthand.
7. Lack of adequate time in the time-table constitutes problem in the study of
shorthand.
8. Students are always scared of memorization of principles of shorthand
which is a problem in its study.
9. Dictation in shorthand poses problem to students in the study of shorthand.
10 Inability to differentiate between heavy and light strokes by students
creates problems to students in the study of shorthand.
SECTION C
Causes of the Problems of the students learning Shorthand in the Colleges
ITEM STATEMENTS SA A D SD
11. Inappropriate method of teaching shorthand causes students to
loose interest in the course.
12. Invention of new technologies makes students not to take shorthand
serious any longer.
13. Lack of government commitment to secretarial education causes
students to loose interest in shorthand.
14. The view that shorthand is outdated causes lack of seriousness
among students who have optioned in secretarial education.
15. Low societal value attached to the study of shorthand.
16. Lack of constant practice is one of the causes of problems students

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 SECTION D
Prospects of Shorthand in the Colleges
ITEM STATEMENTS SA A D SD
17. Shorthand graduates can be employed in any organization that needed
their services.
18. Shorthand skill is vital for court reporters, since it can be used to take
minutes of the proceedings in the court.
19. Shorthand is essential for journalist because it will assist them in writing
reports quickly.
20. Shorthand is an effective method of capturing quotes and notes
21. The study of Shorthand enables secretarial students to have good
command of English Language.
SECTION E
The Employment/Job Prospects of students of shorthand from
colleges
ITEM STATEMENTS SA A D SD

22. Students of shorthand are sure of employment/job opportunity after

graduation.

23. The use of shorthand by students of Federal Colleges of Education helps a

great deal for employability

24. Secretarial students are needed in the labor market, this is because of the

knowledge of shorthand

25. Without the skills of shorthand, students from Federal College Educations

would not be called for interview.

26. Shorthand skills acquisition is the bedrock of secretarial professionalism.

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 Appendix 3

Formula for sample selection:

N
n=
1 N(e)2

Where n = the sample size

N = Total population

e = Level of significance (or limit of tolerable error) l = Unity (a constant)

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