NWPS

P.O. Box 9866, Eros

Windhoek
Tel: +264 812706777
Morne Mouton
Tel: +264 814846334
Email: moutonmorne@[Link]

BACTERIAL METABOLISM

All organisms require sources of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorous, water and trace elements.
Many organisms require compounds produced by other organisms as their source of the above elements.

These organic compounds must be broken down to their simplest units by the organisms. There are two
digestion processes: outside the cell and inside. Enzymes are biological catalysts which lower the
energy required to break down organic molecules and hence cause (expedite) biodegradation to occur
spontaneously.

Cells and microorganisms (such as bacteria) secrete enzymes which hydrolyse larger molecules to
smaller units which are readily absorbed into the cell. These smaller units are finally broken to CO 2,
water and other elements by enzymes produced within the cell.
There are two steps involved in the process of biodegradation by bacteria: transfer and conversion.

 Transfer occurs when the organic food comes in contact with the bacteria. In this step food is
transferred from the water to the bacteria through two simultaneous actions: adsorption and
absorption. The diagram below shows soluble organic matter is absorbed by passing directly through
the cell wall (membrane) into the bacteria. Particulate and colloidal solids suspended in the liquid are
adsorbed onto the cell membrane. Adsorbed food matter must be broken into a simple soluble form
before it can be absorbed into the cell.

 Conversion of food matter occurs after the food enters the cell. The food matter is used either for
growth or energy. During synthesis, the food is converted into new growth or bacteria. During
oxidation, the food is broken down to end products such as carbon dioxide, ammonia and water in
order to provide the bacteria with energy. Both actions are termed metabolism and metabolic activity
is the rate at which they convert food matter to growth or energy.

THE MECHANISM OF BIODEGRADING SEWAGE

Biodegradation is performed by bacteria that use domestic waste as a source of food. These bacteria can
only digest soluble organic foods and hence must break down any suitable solids to a soluble form.
They do this by secreting enzymes into their environment, which break down solids to suspended solids
and then to soluble components. They then ingest these soluble organics and break them down to their
simplest forms.

Enzymes are catalysts made of protein. A catalyst is a substance, which causes a chemical reaction to
take place. Micro-organisms manufacture thousands of different enzymes. A substrate is the matter acted
upon by the enzyme (such as an insoluble organic molecule). There are many stages in completely
biodegrading a substrate to, say carbon dioxide and water. Each stage of this biodegradation process is
catalysed by a different enzyme. An enzyme acts on the shape of the substrate breaking it down to
products that have a different shape to the parent substrate. In order to completely biodegrade a waste, all
the enzymes required for each reaction must be present. As each compound is broken down by an
enzyme, the micro-organism must produce the different enzyme necessary for the subsequent reaction.
This group of enzymes working together is known as an enzyme process. If one of these enzymes is
missing in the sequence the biodegradation process stops.

While enzymes are responsible for the biodegradation process, it is micro-organisms that produce them.
Different species of micro-organism digest different classes of food and thus manufacture and secrete
different enzyme systems. The efficiency of the biodegradation process is dependent on the right
enzymes being present in adequate concentrations.

The composition of the biomass is dictated by the composition of the waste and if this waste changes its
composition the biomass adapts accordingly. This is of course restricted to within the class of waste
being treated. Each species of microorganism digests a specific range of food and thus secretes the
various complete enzymes systems required to do so.

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Microorganisms like bacteria have nutritional preferences. For example, some bacteria metabolise
protein only, and hence produce only enzymes for this purpose. Some microorganisms have a tendency
to over produce their substrate - specific enzymes. It is these microorganisms which are most useful in
wastewater treatment.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF BIOAUGMENTATION

What is bioaugmentation?

Nature employs bacteria as its cleaning staff to rid the environment of wastes. The bacteria consume
these wastes as a food source and so purify the environment. Unfortunately, the modern world places a
larger load of pollution and waste on the environment than it can cope with. Bioaugmentation is the
addition of bacteria that have been specially chosen for their ability to biodegrade these wastes (e.g.
Sewage, fats, and mineral oils).

WHAT ARE S.S. / C.O.D. / B.O.D.

SUSPENDED SOLIDS - S.S.

Minute solids / particles suspended in water. An indication that the solids have not completely
biodegraded within the effluent.

Suspended solids in sewage is a guide to the amount of sludge which will be produced by treatment, and
is one of the important tests by which the efficiencies of settlement tanks and other treatment units are
judged.

General acceptable standards for suspended solids in effluent are 25mg/l.

CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND - C.O.D.

A measure of the concentration of organic pollutants in effluent. The COD test involves measuring the
oxygen used by organic compounds present in a effluent. A high COD or BOD effluent can cause
substantial deoxygenating of the receiving water body.

General acceptable standard for COD in effluent is 75mg/l.

BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND - B.O.D.

The oxygen utilised by a sample of water (effluent) at 20C for 5 days.

A high BOD reading in the final effluent indicates the presence of a large number of oxygen consuming
micro-organisms in the effluent entering the environment causing an acute shortage of oxygen for
aquatic life which may die from asphyxiation.

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 THE SEPTIC TANK

The Septic Tank is a concrete tank that receives waste from toilets, bathrooms and kitchens. The tank has
two chambers, the primary or solids chamber and the secondary or liquid chamber. There is a French
drain or soakaway into which the liquid from the secondary chamber flows. The soakaway is the final
treatment of the effluent and will vary in size depending on the size of the tank and amount of people the
system is designed for.

The Primary Chamber

In the primary chamber, the solids in the raw sewage are settled out while the liquids flow to the
secondary chamber. The solids are then broken down by the biomass of bacteria in the primary chamber
to a liquid form. The conditions are mostly anaerobic and thus anaerobic bacteria thrive in this system.

The Secondary Chamber

Liquid that flow from the primary chamber to the secondary chamber still contains some solid material
that settles out of suspension. The liquid is further treated by bacteria in the secondary chamber to
"clean" water. This flows out of the septic tank via an outlet pipe.

The Soakaway or French Drain

The clean water from the septic tank then flows to what is known as a soakaway or French drain. The
soakaway is a trench which is filled with rocks and usually covered with a corrugated iron cover. The
effluent from the septic tank filters through this bed of rocks where the bacteria have establish
themselves. If there are any solid particles in this effluent this will settle on the rocks where it will be
broken down further by the bacteria before percolating into the soil to the ground water table. Therefore
providing a final biodegradation process and polishing of the effluent.

The reasons for a Septic Tank being congested are:-

 the use of harsh cleaning chemicals and disinfectants kill off the natural biomass
 fats and gels biodegrade slowly and as they float and flow through the system to the soakaway where
they settle on the rocks, clogging the soil. This prevents percolation and as the effluent can no longer
seep away the soakaway begins to fill up and effluent will begin to pool on the surface of the soakaway.
 the tank may be overloaded, it is receiving more effluent than it was designed for and therefore the
retention time in the tank is to short for complete biodegradation as the bacteria do not have enough time
to assimilate the food. As the solids are not completely broken down they build up in the secondary
chamber and the soakaway.
 the inflow of effluent is erratic i.e. holiday homes, in and out seasons etc. The biomass is relative to
the incoming food and this controls how well the biodegradation process works and how large the
natural biomass is. Without steady conditions or if there are sudden changes in the environment or
loading the biomass is not developed or maintained correctly. When bacteria are starved or are old their
metabolic rate is lowered, because of the lowered demand for food, the organisms are not capable of
maximum food utilisation and struggle when the system is again loaded. Therefore their efficiency per
unit volume in biodegrading the new excess load is lowered.
 in many instances vacuum tankers are employed to suck out the effluent from a tank when it is
overloaded. In sucking out the liquids, the existing biomass is removed and the tank is left with a sludge
of old and inadequate bacteria which will not be able to breakdown the fresh incoming effluent fast
enough. Once bacteria are full they need time to convert this food in the cell, they synthesise and oxidise
the soluble food. Due to the metabolism of old bacteria being low, this results in a slow population

4
growth rate. It can take up to 3 months to re-establish a viable and strong biomass. In the interim solids
build up in the system.

A PROBLEM SEPTIC TANK

Pooling
Manholes

Inlet Outlet

Anaerobic
Aerobic Sludge Buildup Sludge
Buildup
Primary Chamber Secondary Chamber

Buildup of
Fats and Gels French Drain

 Insufficient biological activity to break down the incoming effluent

 An anaerobic and aerobic sludge build up begins to develop
 The solid effluent builds up in the Primary and Secondary Chamber reducing the capacity of the
tank this reduces the retention time in the tank (time required to break down the suspended solids)
 Fats and Gels begin to accumulate in the French Drain reducing the capability of the liquid to
percolate into the ground
 The liquid effluent builds up and pooling appears on the surface of the ground
 There will be a malodorous odour present

How Pitking and Fatking work in the Septic Tank:-

 the products are a combination of specially selected bacteria designed to breakdown sewage. The
product has a high concentration of bacteria i.e. one billion bacteria per gram. So by applying these
bacteria to a tank that is overloaded or congested they will rapidly convert the solids to water and carbon
dioxide due to the large amounts of nutrients available to them.
 due to the bacteria in the product being aerobic, anaerobic and facultative anaerobic they adapt
quickly to their environment and thrive in the tank and soakaway.
 through applying a shock dose of bacteria, the schedule allows for maximum conversion of food to
energy and reproduction, the population of bacteria in optimum conditions will reproduce as frequently
as every twenty minutes.
 the solids and fats in the primary and secondary chambers will be broken down and the soakaway will
be decongested allowing percolation to continue. The final quality of the effluent is improved as the
[Link] die off in a healthy environment when they can no longer compete for food, the levels of
suspended solids, B.O.D. and C.O.D. are lowered, therefore Pitking and Fatking will prevent
contamination of the ground water.
 once the anaerobic sludge begins to biodegrade, the malodorous odour will disappear. This can be
expected within the first 72 hours.

5
A maintenance programme should be implemented once the system is brought under control and the
solids are broken down. This will ensure a continual introduction of new, strong and hungry bacteria that
will maintain a well-balanced biological activity and prevent any further build up.

A WORKING SEPTIC TANK

Manholes

Aerobic Sludge

Inlet Outlet

Anaerobic
Sludge

Primary Chamber Secondary Chamber

No Build-up of
Fats and Gels, French Drain
Percolation of liquids
 Sufficient biological activity breaks down the incoming effluent
 The anaerobic and aerobic sludge build up is broken down and a normal anaerobic sludge and
aerobic scum will be present
 The suspended solids and fat particles are reduced therefore they do not build up in the soakaway
 The congestion in the soakaway is broken down, allowing for normal percolation
 Varying levels of loading can be controlled by maintaining a viable biomass

MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL SEWAGE TREATMENT

WORKS

THE OXIDATION DAM

Sewage from small towns or groups of buildings in remote areas is often treated in oxidation dams. An
oxidation dam system has one or many dams in series. The raw sewage usually passes through some
screens to remove large solid material before entering the first dam. The dams are shallow and the
conditions are usually aerobic so the bacteria are mostly aerobic.

What causes problems in an oxidation dam:

 The dam may be old and over time stabilised sludge naturally collects and build’s up on the bottom
of the dam
 the system is overloaded, it is receiving more raw sewage/influent than it was designed for.
 the system may be receiving high loads of hydrocarbons which lie in suspension on the surface of the
water, this kills off the aerobic bacteria required to biodegrade the effluent. Wastes from industry are
also harmful to the population of bacteria.

6
 large amounts of fats entering the system will build up on the dam forming a scum, this reduces the
ability of the sun’s UV rays to penetrate through the water preventing it from naturally lowering the
[Link] present in the dam. These fats take longer to biodegrade than sewage and will build up
reducing the surface area required to biodegrade the aerobic effluent that results in the dam becoming
anaerobic. Reducing surface area results in less evaporation of the treated waste.
 Algae, Duckweed, reeds and shrubs thrive in sewage dam environments because of high
concentration of nutrients i.e. phosphates and nitrates, in the incoming sewage. These plants have a
“choking” effect on the ponds by reducing the ponds’ volume and capacity to treat the incoming
effluent.
 High levels of suspended solids settle out of suspension and create a build up of anaerobic sludge.
 within the dam toxic by products such as methane gas and hydrogen sulphide are produced in
anaerobic conditions and kill off the healthy aerobic bacteria, fish and other pond life.
 a surface sludge develops which eventually forms a crust.
 in these situations the biomass is not large enough or strong enough to biodegrade the sludge build
up, the biomass is ineffective in its ability to completely biodegrade the effluent.
 the pond eventually becomes totally congested with solids and the final effluent does not meet
effluent discharge standards.

THE PROBLEM OXIDATION DAM

Aerobic and Anaerobic Sludge Hydrocarbon contamination

Reeds and Shrubs meet forming islands
Fat build up Aerobic Sludge

…. Methane Gas
..
Anaerobic Sludge

How Pitking and Fatking work in an Oxidation Dam:-

 by applying our bioaugmentation products the dam is inoculated with a range of aerobic, anaerobic
and facultative anaerobic bacteria and enzymes which are selected for their ability to biodegrade the
old stabilised anaerobic sludge, organic anaerobic sludge, aerobic sludge and solids as well as reduce
the suspended solids present in the liquid effluent.

7
 if there is a low biological activity in the dam due to toxins killing off the bacteria, Pitking and
Fatking will restore the biomass and maintain high biological activity through further applications.
This will enable the natural population of bacteria to function efficiently.
 Pitking will breakdown the sludge from sewage while Fatking will breakdown the fats floating in the
dam as well as any fats trapped in the sludge blanket. This will assist the dam in its ability to
biodegrade effluent aerobically and will allow UV rays to penetrate through the effluent to naturally
sterilise the effluent.
 once a dam is returned to its normal capacity and the anaerobic environment is removed, aerobic
biodegradation will once again be restored.
 a hydraulically overloaded dam can be controlled by applying a preventative bioaugmentation
maintenance programme, in this way large amounts of bacteria and enzymes can improve the
biodegradation efficiency per unit volume of effluent therefore a shorter retention time would be
required to treat the waste water.
 in the initial stages of treatment the inorganic and organic sludge will begin to break down,
transforming much of this to suspended solids, this process releases large amounts of nutrients into
the surrounding environment. The result will be higher levels of Phosphates and Nitrates being
noticed in the final effluent, but as the dam is being rehabilitated these levels will slowly begin to
decrease. By installing aerators ammonia can be reduced. Phosphate removal can be accomplished
through precipitation. Chemicals used in practice for phosphate precipitation from waste waters
include aluminium and iron salts as well as lime. Nitrates can be used as a source of oxygen by the
Facultative Anaerobic bacteria. By lowering the nutrient levels in the dam, the Algae, Duckweed etc.
can be more easily controlled, therefore preventing “choking” of the dam.
 as the anaerobic sludge is being broken down in the initial stages of the shock dose, gasses will be
released which will belch up to the surface of the dam, as this happens the anaerobic sludge will
brake free of the sludge blanket and will rise to the surface and this will result in a more concentrated
aerobic sludge layer. Once the sludge has been transformed from anaerobic to aerobic the aerobic
bacteria begin biodegrading the sludge.
 in the initial stages high levels of suspended solids will also be noticed as the solid sludge begins to biodegrade. The
bacteria and enzymes break solids into suspended solids and then into soluble organics in order for the bacteria to absorb
this and convert it into final products such as carbon dioxide and water.

THE WORKING OXIDATION DAM

UV ray’s
penetrate
Aquatic life thrives through the
effluent
Algae convert CO2 into oxygen

Natural vegetation provides

Oxygen

Inorganic sludge layer

8
 THE SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

COMPONENTS OF A SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

Screens
Primary Settling Tanks
Anaerobic Digestors
Biofilters
Aeration Basin
Secondary Settling Tanks (Clarifiers)
Digested Sludge Ponds
Chlorinators
Maturation Ponds
Drying Beds

Satisfactory disposal of sewage, whether by irrigation, subsurface methods or dilution, is dependent on

its treatment prior to disposal. For disposal by dilution, adequate treatment is necessary to prevent
contamination of receiving waters to a degree which might interfere with their best use, whether it be for
water supply, recreation, fishing or any other required purpose. Even when a body of water has no other
use than for the disposal of sewage or liquid industrial wastes, some treatment is necessary to avoid
creating offensive conditions.

The purpose of sewage treatment prior to disposal by dilution is to remove from the sewage enough
solids to permit the remainder to be discharged to receiving waters without interfering with its best or
proper use, taking into consideration the capacity of the receiving waters to assimilate the added load.
The solids that are removed are primarily organic but include also inorganic solids. Treatment must be
provided for the solids and liquids that are removed as sludge, and treatment to control odours, to retard
biological activity or destroy pathogenic organisms is also needed.

While the devices used in sewage treatment are numerous they may all be included under five methods.

1. Preliminary treatment
2. Primary treatment
3. Secondary treatment
4. Chlorination
5. Sludge treatment

1. Preliminary Treatment

At most plants preliminary treatment is used to protect pumping equipment and facilitate subsequent
treatment processes. Preliminary devices are designed to remove or cut up the larger suspended and
floating solids: to remove the heavy inorganic solids: and to remove excessive amounts of oils or
greases.

To effect the objective of preliminary treatment, the following devices are commonly used:

1. Screens – rack, bar or fine

9
2. Shredding devices – grinders, cutters, shredders
3. Grit chambers
4. Pre-aeration tanks (is accomplished by forcing compressed air into the sewage for a period of
20 to 30 minutes at the design flow).

These devices are designed to:

1. remove or to reduce in size the large suspended or floating organic solids. These solids consist of
pieces of wood, cloth, paper, and garbage, together with some faecal matter.
2. Remove heavy inorganic solids such as sand, gravel and possible metallic objects, all of which
are called, grit.
3. Remove excessive amounts of oils or greases.

2. Primary Treatment

By this treatment most of the settable solids or about 40 to 60 percent of the suspended solids are
separated or removed from the sewage by the physical process of sedimentation in settling tanks.
Approximately 25 to 35 per cent of the BOD is also removed. The purpose of primary devices is to
reduce the velocity of the sewage sufficiently to permit solids to settle. In primary treatment the velocity
of flow is reduced to a fraction of an inch per second in a settling or sedimentation tank for sufficient
time to allow the major portion of the settable solids, which are largely organic, to settle out of the
sewage flow. Principle primary treatment devices are sedimentation tanks, some of which have the
further function of providing for the decomposition of the settled organic solids, known as sludge
digestion. Because of variations in design and operation, settling tanks can be divided into four general
groups.

1. Septic Tanks (as discussed earlier)

2. Two story tanks – Imhoff and several patented units (similar in principal to septic tanks but
prevent solids mixing with the liquids). If overloaded or if there is an inadequate biomass solids
will build up in these tank.
3. Plain sedimentation tank with mechanical sludge removal through sludge settlement into a
sludge hopper and drawn off.
4. Upward flow clarifiers with mechanical sludge removal by scrapper arms attached to a central
motor- driven shaft. (There is a sludge blanket at the bottom of these tanks, and if the system
becomes overloaded or if the suspended solids are not broken down sufficiently, the blanket will
thicken and solids will flow over the weir into other sections of the plant.

In many cases, primary treatment is adequate to permit the discharge of the effluent to the receiving
waters.

3. Secondary Treatment

This must be used where sewage after primary treatment still contains more organic solids in suspension
or solution than the receiving waters can assimilate without infringing upon their normal proper use.

10
Secondary treatment depends primarily upon biological aerobic organisms for the biochemical
decomposition of organic solids to inorganic or stable organic solids. If the primary treatment is not
sufficient there are two basic methods of secondary treatment available, trickling filters (biofilters) and
activated sludge. Sand filters can be used when a high degree of treatment or a polishing effect is
required. There are several other methods that are used to a limited extent. Theses types of treatment
employ biological growths to effect aerobic decomposition or oxidation of organic material into more
stable compounds and provide for a higher degree of treatment than that accomplished by primary
sedimentation alone.

While trickling filters and activated sludge both depend on aerobic biological organisms to effect
decomposition, there is an operational difference. In filters the organisms are attached to the filter
medium (rocks) and the organic material on which they do their work is brought to them. With activated
sludge, however, the organisms are migrant and are carried to the organic matter in the sewage. In either
case, successful operation involves the maintenance of aerobic environmental conditions favourable for
the life cycle of the organisms, and control over the amount of organic matter which they decompose.
The organic matter is the food upon which these organisms live. If they are either over-fed or under–fed
their efficiency is reduced.

The devices used in secondary treatment may be divided into four groups.

1. Tricking filters/Biofilters (consists of three parts, (a) the bed of filter medium, (b) an
underdrainage system, and (c) mechanism for distributing the sewage evenly over the surface of
the filter) – with secondary settling tanks. They occupy large areas and are expensive to
construct. Ponding is always an indication that something is wrong, and if there is no flow
through the underdrainage system in certain areas this is an indication of congestion in the bed of
filter medium. Since these filters do not remove all the suspended solids a secondary settling tank
is required to settle out these suspended solids.
2. Aeration tanks – (a) activated sludge with final settling tanks, and, (b) contact aeration.

Activated Sludge
The development of the activated sludge process marked an important advance in the secondary
treatment of sewage. Like the trickling filter, it is a biological contact process where living
aerobic organisms and the organic solids in the sewage are brought together in an environment
favourable for the aerobic decomposition of the solids. Since the environment is the sewage
itself, efficient operation of the process is dependent on the continual maintenance of dissolved
oxygen at all times throughout the sewage being treated. The environment itself, however,
accomplishes little unless enough living workers inhabit it.

Normal sewage contains some of these biological workers but the number is far too small to do
the work at hand. It is necessary, therefore to add many more organisms and to distribute them
throughout the sewage before the activated sludge process can begin to function with any
efficiency.

The activated sludge process is usually employed following plain sedimentation. The sewage
contains some suspended and colloidal solids and when agitated in the presence of air, the
suspended solids form nuclei on which biological life develop and gradually build up to larger
solids which are known as activated sludge. Activated sludge is a brownish floc-like substance

11
consisting largely of organic matter obtained from the sewage, and inhabited by myriads of
bacteria and other forms of biological life. Activated sludge with its living organisms has the
property of absorbing or adsorbing colloidal and dissolved organic matter including ammonia
from sewage so that the suspended solids are reduced. The biologic organisms utilise the
absorbed material as food and convert it into insoluble non-putrescible (not liable to rot) solids.
Much of this conversion is a step-by-step process. Some bacteria attack the original complex
substances to produce simpler compounds as their waste products. Other bacteria use these waste
products to produce still simpler compounds and the process continues until the final waste
products can no longer be used as food for bacteria.

The generation of activated sludge or floc in sewage is a slow process, and the amount formed
from any volume of sewage during its period of treatment is small and inadequate for the rapid
and effective treatment of the sewage, which requires large concentrations of activated sludge.
Such concentrations are built up by collecting the sludge produced from each volume of sewage
treated and re-using it in the treatment of subsequent sewage flows. The sludge so re-used is
known as returned sludge. This is a cumulative process so that eventually more sludge has been
produced than is needed for re-use. The surplus, or excess activated sludge, is then permanently
removed from the treatment process. The activated sludge must be kept in suspension during its
period of contact with the sewage being treated by some method of agitation. The activated
sludge process, therefore, consists of the following steps.

1. Mixing the activated sludge with the sewage to be treated.

2. Aeration and agitation of this mixed liquor for the required length of time.
3. Separation of the activated sludge from the mixed liquor.
4. Return of the proper amount of activated sludge for mixture with the sewage
5. Disposal of the excess activated sludge.

The most common problem encountered in the operation of activated sludge plants is sludge
bulking. A desirable activated sludge is one, which settles rapidly leaving a clear, odourless and
stable supernatant. The floc is granular in appearance, with sharp defined edges, is golden drown
in colour and has a musty odour. When the character of the activated sludge changes so that its
settleability decreases, as measured by a significant rise in the sludge volume index, a condition
known as sludge bulking develops in the final settling tank. As a portion of the sludge does not
settle in the tank, it is carried away in the effluent. This results in a serious impairment in the
quality of the plant effluent and places an added organic load on the receiving waters.

There are a number of causes for sludge bulking, some of which are given below.

1. Excessive or storm flow resulting in shortened aeration periods.

2. Short circuiting of aeration tanks.
3. Industrial wastes with high organic content or containing chemicals having toxic effects
on bacterial development.
4. Solid content in aeration tanks either too high or too low.
5. Septic sewage in the primary sedimentation.
6. Interruption in the continuity of returning of sludge.
7. A preponderance of fungi forming thread-like filaments in the sludge.

12
 All of these can be pretty well summed up by saying that sludge bulking results from overloading
or the improper balance between the tree variable – BOD loading, suspended solids concentration
of the mixed liquor, and the amount of air used in aeration.

Contact aeration
A typical contact aeration plant consists of five tanks in series to provide for primary settling,
first stage aeration, intermediate settling, second stage aeration and final settling. In addition,
facilities for sludge treatment and disposal must be provided.

3. Intermittent sand filters – bed of sand on which effluent from primary treatment or from
trickling filter or secondary settling tanks may be applied intermittently by using troughs or
perforated pipe distributors. The effluent from the filter is removed by an underdrainage system.
4. Stabilisation ponds – the process involves two steps in the decomposition of organic matter in
sewage. The carbonaceous matter in sewage is first broken down by the aerobic organisms with
the formation of carbon dioxide. Algae during photosynthesis use the carbon dioxide that is
formed. Photosynthesis is a natural process carried on in green plant tissue under the influence of
light and in the presence of chlorophyll, which is the green colouring substance of plant life. In
this process, the oxygen in the carbon dioxide is liberated and dissolved by the liquid in which
the algae grow. As a result the organic matter in sewage is converted into algae and the sewage is
supplied with oxygen to support further aerobic decomposition. The sewage solids enter the pond
in a highly putrescible state and leave in the form of highly stable algae cells which, within
certain limitations, can be discharged to receiving waters without deleterious effect.

Oxidation ponds can be used as a complete treatment receiving raw sewage, or as a secondary
treatment for settled sewage, or as a further treatment for effluents from secondary processes.
They have been used most commonly as a secondary treatment for primary effluents.

4. Chlorination

This is a method of treatment, which may be employed for many purposes in all stages in sewage
treatment, and even prior to preliminary treatment. It involves the application of chlorine to the
sewage for the following purposes.

1. Disinfection or destruction of pathogenic organisms

2. Prevention of sewage decomposition – (a) odour control, (b) protection of plant structures.
3. Aid in plant operation – (a) sedimentation, (b) trickling filters, (c) activated sludge bulking
4. Reducation or delay of biochemical oxygen demand

5. Sludge Treatment and disposal

Sewage sludge is the mixture of sewage and settled solids. Descriptive of its source, it may be termed
primary, secondary, excess activated, or chemical sludge. From its state, or treatment received, it may be
called raw or fresh, digested, dewatered or dried. These are the most common descriptive terms and may
be used in combination. Other descriptive terms are Imhoff and septic tank sludge.

The sludge removed from sewage in both primary and secondary treatment units, together with the water
removed with them, constitute sewage sludge. While in some few instances satisfactory disposal without

13
treatment is practical, it is generally necessary to subject sludge to some treatment to prepare or
condition it for disposal without creating unsatisfactory conditions. Such treatment has two objectives –
the removal of part or all of the water in the sludge to greatly reduce its volume and the decomposition
of the putrescible organic solids to mineral solids or to relatively stable organic solids. This is
accomplished by a combination of two or more of the following methods.

1. Thickening – This process involves the concentration of thin sludges to more dense sludge in
special tanks designed for this purpose. The thickening tank is equipped with slowly moving
vertical paddles built like a picket fence.
2. Digestion with or without heat – the purpose of digestion is to attain both of the objectives of
sludge treatment. Sludge digestion is carried out in the absence of free oxygen by anaerobic
organisms. It is, therefore, anaerobic decomposition. The solid matter in raw sludge is about 70
per cent organic and 30 per cent inorganic or mineral. Much of the water in sewage sludge is
“bound” water which will not separate from the sludge solids. The living organisms breakdown
the complex molecular structure of these solids setting free the “bound” water and obtaining
oxygen and food for their growth. The digestion process is seldom carried to full completion but
only to a degree where the resulting solids, although still organic in composition, have been
sufficiently decomposed to become relatively stable or inert, in the nature of humus material.
Since digestion is accomplished by living organisms, it is desirable to provide an environment in
which they are most active and carry on their work in the shortest time. The environmental
factors involved are moisture, temperature, availability of proper food supply, and alkalinity. To
these might be added the absence of chemicals toxic to the organisms.
3. Drying on sand bed – open or covered – it is a device to remove enough water so that the
remainder can be handled as solid material with moisture content below 70 per cent.
4. Conditioning with chemicals
5. Elutriation (to purify by washing)
6. Vacuum filtration
7. Heat drying
8. Incineration
9. Wet oxidation
10. Floatation with chemicals and air
11. Centrifuging

Sludge disposal

All the sludge produced at a treatment plant must be disposed of ultimately. Treatment processes such as
have been described may reduce its volume or so change its character as to facilitate its disposal, but still
leave a residue which in most cases must be removed from the plant site. Like the liquid effluent from
the treatment plant, there are two broad methods for the disposal of sludge – (1) disposal in water, and
(2) disposal on land. This applies regardless of whether or not the sludge is treated to facilitate or permit
the selected method of disposal.

Disposal in water – this is an economical but not common method because it is contingent on the
availability of bodies of water adequate to permit it. At some seacoast cities sludge either raw or digested
is pumped to barges and carried to sea to be dumped in deep water far enough off shore to provide huge
dilution factors and prevent any ill effects along shore.

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Disposal on land – under land disposal the following may be included:

1. Burial
2. Fill
3. Application as fertiliser or soil conditioner.

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 STEP 1:
The Sewer Outfall

STEP 4: STEP 2: The Inlet Works

Activated Sludge Reactor
Screens Grit removal tanks STEP 3 A:
Aerobic basin Primary Settling
Tanks

Flow measure Primary raw

sludge
Aerobic
basin STEP 3 B:
STEP 5 A: Flow balancing tank Primary Sludge Treatment
Secondary Sludge
Settling Tanks recycled STEP 5 B:
Secondary Sludge
Thichening
STEP 6: Disinfection
Compressed Secondary
Maturation ponds air sludge storage Anaerobic Digestors
Digested sludge
storage
STEP 7:
Maturation STEP 8:
Sludge disposal Drying Beds
to land

STEP 9: Final Effluent

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5.3. SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

KEY :

STEP 1 : The Sewer Outfall

The sewage is collected in the city through a network of pipes (sewage system) and
eventually drains via gravity or is pumped into the big main sewer, which discharges into the
sewage works.

STEP 2 : Inlet Works

The raw sewage is screened and grit is removed which would otherwise clog the downstream
processes. Rags and debris larger than 13mm are removed by screens and buried in trenches.

STEP 3A : Primary Settling Tanks

Solids settle out which remove about 1/3 rd of the pollution load.

STEP 3B : Primary Sludge Treatment

Raw sludge is thickened and fermented, releasing a valuable supernatant for aerobic
treatment. The remaining sludge is digested under anaerobic conditions for about 25 days.

STEP 4 : Activated Sludge Reactor

A natural population of micro-organisms grow in flocs and removes organic pollutants as
well as inorganic pollutants like nitrogen and phosphorous. Chemicals (such as lime and
alum) may be added to help remove phosphorous.

STEP 5 A : Secondary Settling Tanks

The activated sludge flocs settle out as secondary sludge to be recycled / wasted. A clear
effluent is produced, ready for disinfection.

STEP 5B : Secondary Sludge Thickening

Secondary sludge thickening is done by air flotation. Compressed air is forced through the
sludge.

STEP 6 : Disinfection
Adding chlorine or bromine disinfects effluent – or a more environmentally friendly product
is the UV (ultra violet) filter.

STEP 7 : Maturation
Effluent is stored for up to 24 hours to allow improvement in the effluent.

STEP 8 : Sludge Disposal to Land

The land must be cultivated regularly and carefully monitored for pollution. Sludge may also
be sent to drying beds to dehydrate. From here the sludge may be collected and used as
fertiliser, as it is rich in nutrient.

STEP 9 : Final Effluent

Treated final effluent is now safe enough to enter our environment.

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