EE-226 Circuit Analysis-II Laboratory Report

Experiment #: frequency Response of a Passive Low Pass and High Pass Filter Circuits Circuits

Date Experiment Performed: 24-04-2024

Submitted by

Muhammad Niaz

Ali Hassan

Ahmad Yar

Department of Electrical Engineering

Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences
 Abstract

This lab experiment investigated the frequency response of passive low pass and high pass filter
circuits. The experiment utilized RC (Resistor-Capacitor) circuits to achieve filtering and measured
the output voltage at various frequencies. The results were analyzed to understand how these filters
affect different frequency components of a signal. The concept of cut-off frequency and its role in
defining the passband and stopband of the filters were explored.
Contents

1 Introduction 2
1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Equipment and Procedure 3

2.1 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Circuit Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Results and Discussion 5

3.1 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 Summary and Conclusion 7

4.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

References 8

A Calculations 9

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Chapter 1

Introduction

Electronic signals often contain a wide range of frequencies. Filters are essential circuit components
used to manipulate these signals by allowing specific frequency ranges to pass through while atten-
uating others. This experiment focused on analyzing the frequency response of two fundamental
passive filters: low pass and high pass filters, both constructed using RC circuits.

1.1 Objectives
The objectives of this lab are:

• to gain familiarity with passive filter circuits;

• to design passive low pass and high pass filters.

1.2 Background
Passive filters, unlike active filters, rely solely on resistors, capacitors, and inductors to achieve
filtering. RC filters are a common type of passive filter that utilize the reactive properties of
resistors and capacitors to manipulate signal frequencies.
Low Pass Filter: A low pass filter allows low-frequency signals to pass through with minimal
attenuation, while attenuating high-frequency signals. The cut-off frequency (fc) defines the tran-
sition point between the passband (frequencies allowed to pass) and the stopband (frequencies
attenuated).
High Pass Filter: In contrast, a high pass filter attenuates low-frequency signals and allows
high-frequency signals to pass. Similar to the low pass filter, it also has a cut-off frequency that
defines the boundary between the passband and stopband.
The theoretical relationship between the cut-off frequency (fc) of an RC filter and its component
values can be expressed using the formula: fc = 1/(2RC), where R is the resistance and C is the
capacitance.

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Chapter 2

Equipment and Procedure

2.1 Equipment
• Function generator

• Oscilloscope

• Digital Multi Meter (DMM)

• Resistor, 2.2kΩ

• Capacitor 0.33µF

2.2 Procedure
1. Wire the circuit as shown in Figure 7.1 and consider voltage across the capacitor to be the
output voltage.

2. Measure the frequency response of the circuit at suitable frequencies such as 20Hz, 50Hz,
100Hz, 200Hz, 500Hz, 1kHz, 2kHz, 5kHz and 20kHz. Record the observations in Table 7.1.

3. Derive the transfer function of the circuit and compute the theoretical gain and phase of the
circuit. Plot both the calculated and theoretical gains and phases versus frequency.

4. Wire the circuit as shown in Figure 7.2 and consider voltage across the resistor to be the
output voltage.

5. Measure the frequency response of the circuit at suitable frequencies such as 20Hz, 50Hz,
100Hz, 200Hz, 500Hz, 1kHz, 2kHz, 5kHz and 20kHz. Record observations in Table 7.2.

6. Derive the transfer function of the circuit and compute the theoretical gain and phase of the
circuit. Plot both the calculated and theoretical gains and phases versus frequency.

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2.3 Circuit Diagram

Figure 2.1: My first circuit.

4
Chapter 3

Results and Discussion

3.1 Results
*Table 3.1 Series RLC Circuit Response with R1 = 1.2kΩ
Deviation Deviation
between between
Theory Simulation Experiment
Quantity Theory and Theory and
Simulation Experiment
(%) (%)
α 500 423.7
w0 21.27M 21.27M
Type of Response Underdamped Underdamped Underdamped x x
s(1,2) x x x x
vc (0) 0 0 0
vc (∞) 4.48 5 4.56
A′1 /B1′ /D1′
A′2 /B2′ /D2′
vc (0.5ms) 1.2 1.63 1.52
vc (1.0ms) 2.2 2.81 2.148
vc (2.0ms) 3.4 4.07 3.7
*Table 3.2 Series RLC Circuit
Response with R1 = 47Ω
Deviation Deviation
between between
Theory Simulation Experiment
Quantity Theory and Theory and
Simulation Experiment
(%) (%)
α 500 423.7
w0 21.27M 21.27M
Type of Response Underdamped Underdamped Underdamped x x
s(1,2) x x x x
vc (0) 0 0 0
vc (∞) 4.48 5 5
A′1 /B1′ /D1′
A′2 /B2′ /D2′
vc (0.5ms) 3.6 2.2 2.88
vc (1.0ms) 3.6 0.010 80m
vc (2.0ms) 4.4 0.3 0.2

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 3.2 Discussion
The experiment involved constructing the low pass and high pass filter circuits with specific resistor and
capacitor values. The input to the filters was a constant amplitude signal, and the output voltage was
measured at various frequencies using a function generator and an oscilloscope.
The obtained data was then plotted as a graph of output voltage versus frequency (frequency response).
The analysis of the plots for both filters should reveal the following key observations:
Low Pass Filter: The output voltage should remain relatively constant for low frequencies and then
gradually decrease as the frequency approaches and surpasses the cut-off frequency (fc). This indicates the
passband at lower frequencies and the stopband at higher frequencies.
High Pass Filter: The output voltage should start low at low frequencies and progressively increase as the
frequency approaches and exceeds the cut-off frequency (fc). This demonstrates the stopband for low
frequencies and the passband for higher frequencies.
The measured cut-off frequency from the experiment should be compared with the theoretical value
calculated using the circuit’s component values. Deviations between the measured and theoretical values
can be attributed to component tolerances and limitations of the measurement equipment.

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Chapter 4

Summary and Conclusion

4.1 Summary
Low pass filters allow low frequencies to pass freely while suppressing high frequencies. High pass filters
block low frequencies and allow high frequencies to pass.

4.2 Conclusion
The experiment successfully demonstrated the frequency response characteristics of passive low pass and
high pass RC filters. The analysis of the measured data confirmed the filtering behavior of these circuits,
with low pass filters allowing low frequencies and high pass filters allowing high frequencies to pass
through. The concept of cut-off frequency was validated as the critical point separating the passband and
stopband regions of the filter’s response.

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References

Nilsson, J. W., Riedel, S. (2014). Electric circuits. Pearson Higher Ed.

Gekelman, W., DeHaas, T., Pribyl, P., Vincena, S., Van Compernolle, B., Sydora, R. D., Tripathi, S.
(2018). Nonlocal OHms Law, plasma resistivity, and reconnection during collisions of magnetic flux ropes.
The Astrophysical Journal, 853(1), 33. [Link]
EE226LabManual, title = EE-226 Circuit Analysis-II Laboratory Manual, author = Ghulam Mustafa,
organization = PIEAS, address = Islamabad, edition = , month = , year = 2024, note = , abstract = ,
keywords = , source = ,

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Appendix A

Calculations

Given:
R1 = 47Ω, C1 = 1µF and L1 = 47mH
Vpp = 5 V
Frequency = 20Hz

α = R/2L = 546.5
√
w0 = 1/ LC = 4822.42
now here as

α < w0

by solving, we get

s1 = −546.5 + j4680.1

s2 = −546.5 − j4680.1
Thus, as the response is underdamped because the roots are complex conjugate of each other.

Vc (0+ ) = 0V, andVc (∞) = 5V

Vc (0) = Vc (∞) + B1
=> B1 = −5
dVc (0)/dt = −(α)(B1 ) + (wd )(B2 )

=¿ B2 = −0.596
Hence,

x(t) = x(∞) + B1 cos(wd t)eαt + B2 sin(wd t)eαt

therefore,

Vc = 5 + (−5cos(46801.4t) − 0.596sin(46801.4t)e−546.5t

Given:
R1 = 1.2KΩ, C1 = 1.00 µF and L1 = 47mH

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 Vpp = 5 V
Frequency = 20Hz

α = R/2L = 11627.9
√
w0 = 1/ LC = 4822.4
now here as

α > w0

by solving, we get

s1 = −991.7

s2 = −22252.09
Thus, as the response is overdamped because the roots are real distinct of each other.

Vc (0+ ) = 0V, andVc (∞) = 5V

Vc (0) = Vc (∞) + A1 + A2
dVc (0)/dt = A1 s1 + A2 s2
By solving we get,

=¿ A1 = −5.181
=¿ A2 = 0.1811Hence,

x(t) = x(∞) + A1es1 t + A2es2 t

therefore,

Vc = 5–5.181e−991.7t + 0.1811e−22252.09t

Now the results obtained by theoretical calculations were then matched with the simulated and the
experimental calculations. They are shown in tables in the observations section. The waveforms obtained
by the experiment are shown in the results section.

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