Chapter One Review Of Fundamental Concepts

1.1 Analytical Chemistry

Is the branch of chemistry concerned with the determination of the type as well as the amount
of substances, It consists of the followings:-
1) Qualitative Analysis
Comprises the tests that enable the chemist to determine what species are present
2) Quantitative Analysis
Provides the means for determining how much of some component is present in a unit quantity
of sample.
There are many methods of determining these amounts, all based on chemical molecules and
ions.
1.2 Chemical Analysis Methods
Chemical analysis methods can be classified into three major groups:-
1) Volumetric Analysis
It is involving the measurement of volume of solution of knows strength that required reacting
with specific amount of the sample e.g.: Acid-Based Titration.
2) Instrumental Analysis
This type of measurement methods is based on measuring certain physical properties of the
sample which can be classified to three major categories:-
I) Optical Methods
These techniques are used to measure the wave length of the electromagnetic radiation that is
either absorbed or emitted by the sample.
II) Electro Analytical Methods
These methods are based on electrical measurements such as:-
1) Potentiometer
2) Amperometry

III) Separation Methods

Most commonly used method is "Chromatography" this technique is based on separation of a
mixture into its components by difference in adsorption or relative adherence of component
molecules to a stationary phase, mobile phase passes over it.

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3) Gravimetric Analysis
The final measurement involves the determination of weight e.g. determination the weight of
silver in the sample from the weight of silver chloride (AgCl) produced by the addition of
chloride ion to the sample according to the following reaction:-
Ag+ + Cl- → AgCl↓
1.3 Steps of Chemical Analysis
The chemical analysis process consists of the following steps:-
1) Sampling
The sample must be:-
A) Homogenous and representative of the whole substance
B) Size of sample may vary from a few grams or less to several pounds depending on the type
of bulk material.
This sample is called (Gross Sample)
The portion of this sample that can be taken for analysis is called (Analysis Sample). The
accuracy of measurements is highly limited by the sampling process.
2) Pretreating the Sample
In some cases the analysis sample must be chemically or physically pretreated before the
chemical analysis, such as: - Dissolving, Dilution, Crushing……………etc.
3) Method Selection
The selection of the method employed for quantitative analysis depend on many factors:-
Accuracy, Economics, Sensitivity , Selectivity and Cost.
4) Measurements or Taking the Analysis Data
Several replicate analyses may be performed on the same sample and the standard procedures
that put by professional societies.
5) Data Handling and Obtaining the Result
The laboratory data observed from chemical analysis or instrumental reading must be
mathematically treated in order to observe a feasible results.

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1.4 Application of Chemical Analysis

The major areas are:-
1) Chemical analysis of air and water to determine the pollutants.
2) Medicine relies heavily on chemical analysis to diagnose illness properly and to monitor the
progress of patients.
3) The flue gas analysis (e.g. Orsat Analysis) can be used to evaluate the energy produced
from combustion processes of fuel.
4) Chemical analysis of raw materials and final products for quality control of industrial
products.
5) Chemical analysis of soil and plants is used to determine the type of fertilizer which must be
added to the soil to increase productivity.
6) Most of the applied researches in many scientific fields such as:- Chemical, Biological,
Engineering……….etc. cannot be performed without Chemical Analysis.

1.5 Atomic Weight

The atomic weight of element: Is the mass of an atom of that element.
1.6 Molecular or Formula Weight
It is the sum of atomic weights of the elements that constitute molecule of the substance as
given by the molecular formula.
Mwt of Water (H2O) =2(1.008) +1(16.00) =18.02 gm/mol.
Mwt of Hydrogen (H2) =2(1.008) =2.016 gm/mol.
The (SI) unite of molecular weight (gm/mol)
H.W (1.1)
Calculate the molecular weight of: - A) Na2SO4 B) CaSO4.7H2O
Ans.: A) 142.04 gm/mol B) 262.25 gm/mol.
1.7 Mole
Number of moles is computed as:-

The (SI) unite of mole (mol)

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Example (1.1)
Calculate the number of moles in (500mg) of Sodium Tungstate (Na2WO4). Given that the
atomic weights of (Na= 22.99) (W= 183.85) (O= 16)
Solution
Mwt of Na2WO4= 2(22.99) + 183.85 + 4(16) =293.83 gm/mol.

No. of moles = = 0.00170 mol =1.7 m mol

Example (1.2)
Calculate the mass of (0.250mmol.) of Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3)? Given that the atomic weights of
(Fe= 55.845) (O= 16)
Solution
Mwt of Fe2O3 = 159.69 mg/mmol
Mass = 0.250 mmol ×159.69 =39.9 mg

Example (1.3)
A) Calculate the number of moles of (K2CO3) that contains (117.3gm) of potassium?
B) Calculate the mass in grams of other elements in such compound?
Given that the atomic weights of (K=39.1) (O =16) (C =12)
Solution
A) No. of mole of potassium (K) = (117.3/ 39.1) = 3 mol.
Each mole of K2CO3 contains [Link] of K
NO. of moles of K2CO3 =

B) Mass of Oxygen = mol. of oxygen × atomic weight =1.5×3×16 =72g.

Mass of carbon = mol. of carbon ×atomic weight = 1.5 (1) (12) =18g.
1.8 Equivalent Weight
Equivalent weight is the molecular weight divided by the number of reacting units
A) For Acids
The number of reacting units is the number of hydrogen ions that will furnish.

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Example (1.4)
HCl ↔ H + + Cl- [Link] HCl =

H2SO4 ↔ 2H+ + SO4-2 [Link] H2SO4 =

CH3COOH ↔ H+ + CH3COO- [Link] CH3COOH =

Note
For H3PO4: The [Link] depends on the reaction

H3PO4 H++H2PO4- [Link]:

H3PO4 2H+ + HPO24- [Link]:

H3PO4 3H++PO43- [Link]:

B) For Bases
The number of reacting units is the hydrogen ions that will react with it.
Examples (1.5)
KOH + H+ → K++H2O [Link] = Mwt

Ba(OH) 2 + 2H+→Ba2++2H2O [Link] = [Link]

C) For Salt
Examples (1.6)

Na2CO3 + 2HCl H2CO3 + 2NaCl [Link] = [Link]

D) For Oxidation – Reduction Reaction

The number of reacting units is based on the number of electrons that the oxidizing or reducing
agent will take on or supply.
Example (1.7)

MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- Mn2+ + 4H2O Reacting unit = 5units

MnO4- + e- MnO42- Reacting unit = 1units

IO3- + 6H+ + 4e- I+ + 3H2O Reacting unit = 4 units

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E) For Reactions Involving Formation of a Precipitate or Soluble Complex

The charge of the metal ion is taken as the reacting unit.

Example (1.8)
HgCl2↔ Hg2+ +2Cl- [Link] = Mwt HgCl2

Examples (1.9)
Calculate the equivalent weight of the following substances:-
A) NH3OH B) H2C2O4 C) KMnO4 D) AgNO3 (in precipitating Ag+).
Solution

A) [Link] of NH3OH = =

B) [Link] of H2C2O4 = =

C) KMnO4- + 8H+ + 5e Mn 2+ + 4H2O No. of electrons = 5

[Link] of KMnO4 = = 31.608 g/eq

D) AgNO3 →Ag+↓ + NO3- [Link] of AgNO3 = 170/1 = 170 gm/eq

1.9 Concentrations of Solutions

- There are a number of expression in which the concentration of solution can be expressed.
- Some of them are more useful than others in quantitative calculations.
- The common concentration expression are reviewed in this section
- Gas concentrations are usually expressed by their pressure or partial pressure.
1.9.1 Molarity (M)
It is defined as the number of moles of solute in each liter of solution.
A one molar solution is prepared by (Dissolving one mole of solute in the solvent and diluting
to a final volume of one liter.)
Molarity (M) = moles/liter

Molarity (M) =
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Example (1.10)
1) Calculate the Molarity of Silver Nitrate solution which is prepared by dissolving (1.26gm)
of (AgNO3) in (250ml.) volumetric flasks and diluting to volume?
2) How many (mmmol.) of (AgNO3) was (1.26 gm) dissolve?
Solution

1) M = = 0.0297

2) mm mol. = 1.26 / 169.9 = 0.00742 mol. = 7.42 mm mol.

Example (1.11)
How many grams of (Na2SO4) is required to prepared (500ml) of (0.1M) solution? Given that
Mwt. of (Na2SO4= 142 gm/mol)?
Solution
M = n / V → n = M . V → n = 0.1 * (500/1000) = 0.05 mol.
n = wt / Mwt. → wt = n . Mwt. → wt = (0.05) * (142) = 7.1 gm
1.9.2 Normality (N)
A one normal solution (1N) is that contains one equivalent weight of solute per liter of solution.

Normality (N) = =

Example (1.12)
How many grams of (NaOH) are needed to prepare (500ml) of (0.1N) sodium hydroxide
solution? Given that (Na=23) (O =16) (H=1)
Solution
Mwt = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40

[Link] = Mwt / R.U

[Link] = 40 / 1 = 40 gm/ Eq
N = (Wt/ Eq .Wt) / V
Wt = N * [Link] * V
Wt = 0.1 * 40 * (500/1000)
Wt = 2 gm

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Example (1.13)
What is the Molartiy and Normality of an oxalic acid (H2C2O4.2H2O) solution prepared by
dissolving (25.20 gm) in (1.2L) of solution? Given that (H=1) (C=12) (O= 16)
Solution
Mwt of H2C2O4.2H2O = 126.1 gm/mol

No. of moles solute = = = 0.1998 mol.

M= = 0.1665

N=M valiancy

N = 0.1665 2 = 0.333

Example (1.14)
Calculate the normality of solution containing (5.26 gm/L) of (K2Cr2O7) (RU= 6)?
Solution
[Link] = = = 49.03 gm/eq

No. of Eq. = = = 0.1074 eq

V= 1 L
Normality (N) = No. of Eq. / V = 0.1074 Eq/L
1.10 Density and Specific Gravity
Density
The mass per unit volume at the specified temperature. It is usually expressed in (gm/ml) or
(gm/Cm3) at (25C )
Density of water: is taken as 1.0 gm/ml or 1.0 kg/L or 1000 kg/m3
Specific Gravity (SPGR.)
Is defined as the ratio between the density of solution at (20C ) to that of water at (4C ), hence
it is a dimensionless quantity.

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1.11 Expression of Analysis

Results of an analysis may be reported either as a weight or volume basis i.e. the quantity of
substance per unit weight or per unit volume of sample.
1) The Weight Fraction or Weight Percent

Weight (or mass) fraction of solute =

Wt fraction = 1
The weight (or mass) percent of solute = weight fraction 100

% =

In general, calculations of solid samples and sometimes of liquid samples are based on weight
2) Mole Fraction or Mole Percent (Mol./Mol.%)

Mole fraction of solute =

mol. fraction = 1
The mol% of solute = mole fraction 100 = Ʃ mole% =100
The average Mwt. of a mixture (Mwt.) mix can be calculated according to the following:-
(Mwt) mix = Mwt.A YA+ Mwt.B YB +…….∑ Mwti Yi
(A,B) are the components of the mixture with mole fraction (YA,YB) respectively.

Total moles of sample =

3) Volume Fraction or Volume Percent (Vol./Vol.%)

Vol. fraction of solute =

Vol. fraction = 1
Vol. % of solute = Vol. fraction × 100
∑Vol. % = 100 only for ideal solutions
mol% = Vol. % for ideal gases

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4) Parts per million (ppm)

Used to express trace concentration of solute. It can be expressed either on: or

basis as follows:-
6
ppm ( )=

6
ppm ( )=

Example (1.16)
A sample with mass of (2.6gm) contains (3.6µg) of zinc. Calculate the concentration of zinc in (PPM)

Solution
6
PPM ( )=

6
= = 1.4 PPM

H.W (2.2)
It is well known that air consists of (21mol.) (O2) and (79mol) (N2). Calculate the average
molecular weight of air and its composition by weight percent?

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