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Index
1. Introduction
2. Principles of Radiation
3. X-Rays
4. Gamma Rays
5. Radiation Safety
6. Time, Distance and Shielding
7. Radiographic Film and Processing
8. Screens and Cassettes
9. Radiographic Density
10. Radiographic Sensitivity
11. Exposure Techniques
12. Common Radiographic Faults
13. Radiograph Interpretation - Welds
14. Radiograph Interpretation – Castings
15. Definitions

Appendix A Formula Sheet

Appendix B Periodic Table
Appendix C Technique Sheets
Appendix D Test Reports

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Introduction
Shortly after the German scientist Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895, he made a radiograph of a shotgun. This was
probably the first “Industrial Radiograph” and marked the beginning of an inspection method that was later to prove of
inestimable value to the industry.
For many years the main uses of radiography were surgery, medicine, and dentistry. It was not until 1913, when the
Coolidge Hot-Cathode-Tube was invented, that industrial radiography on a reasonable scale became practicable. The new
tube enabled X-rays of higher intensity and a greater penetrating power to be produced, and radiographic inspection came
into greater use as a check on technique and materials.
Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another form of penetrating rays was discovered. In 1896, French scientist Henri
Becquerel discovered natural radioactivity. Many scientists of the period were working with cathode rays, and other
scientists were gathering evidence on the theory that the atom could be subdivided. Some of the new research showed that
certain types of atoms disintegrate by themselves.
While working in France at the time of Becquerel's discovery, Polish scientist Marie Curie became very interested in his work.
She suspected that a uranium ore known as pitchblende contained other radioactive elements. Marie and her husband,
French scientist Pierre Curie, started looking for these other elements. In 1898, the Curies discovered another radioactive
element in pitchblende, and named it 'polonium' in honor of Marie Curie's native homeland. Later that year, the Curies
discovered another radioactive element which they named radium, or shining element. Both polonium and radium were
more radioactive than uranium. Since these discoveries, many other radioactive elements have been discovered or
produced.
Since then people have become involved with radiography the world over and the number is growing each year. The
properties of Ionising radiation, which make radiography such a valuable industrial tool, also make it potentially dangerous
to man. For radiation in the industry to remain an effective tool, measures have to be taken to protect industrial
radiographers and the public from its harmful effects.
The South Africa Government – Department of Health – Directorate: Radiation Control, through its rules and regulations,
and your company, through its operating and safety procedures, help to use radiation safely. But the ultimate responsibility
lies with you, the industrial radiographer. You must be knowledgeable and safety conscious.

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Advantages and Limitations of Industrial Radiography

Because of the penetration and absorption capabilities of X-Rays and Gamma Rays, Radiography is used
to test a variety of products such as welds, castings, forgings and fabrications.

Advantages of Radiography

 Can be used with most materials

 Provides a permanent visual image
 Reveals the internal nature of the material
 Discloses fabrication errors
 Reveals structural discontinuities

Disadvantages of Radiography

 Impractical to use on specimen of complex geometry

 The specimen must lend itself to two-side accessibility
 Laminar type discontinuities are often undetected by radiography
 Safety considerations imposed by X- and gamma rays must be considered.
 It is a relatively expensive method of non-destructive examination

Test Objective

The Objective of Radiographic Testing is to insure Product reliability by providing a means of:

 Obtaining a visual image of the interior of materials

 Disclosing the nature of materials without impairing them
 Separating Acceptable and Rejectable material in accordance with a Specification
 Evidencing errors in manufacturing processes
 Revealing structural discontinuities, mechanical failures and assembly errors

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Principles of Radiation
In the industrial radiography, the usual procedure for producing a radiograph is to have a source of penetrating
radiation ( X – Rays or Gamma – rays) on one side of the specimen to be examined and a detector of the radiation
( the film) on the other side. The energy of the radiation must be chosen so that sufficient radiation is
transmitted through to the detector.

The detector is usually a sheet of photographic film, held in a light – tight envelope or cassette having a very thin
front surface which allows the x-rays to pass through.

The source of radiation is chosen to be physically small (a few millimeters in diameter) and as x-rays travel in
straight lines from the source through the specimen to the film, a sharp “image” is formed on the film of any
defects, edges, or discontinuities in the specimen. This geometric image formation is exactly analogous to
shadow formation with a visible light source, and the sharpness of the image depends, in the same way, on the
radiation source diameter and its distance away from the surface on which the image is formed.

The film in its cassette is normally placed close behind the specimen and the x-rays are switched on for an
appropriate time (the exposure time) after which the film is taken away and processed photographically, i.e.
developed, fixed, washed and dried. The film (radiograph) is then placed on an illuminated screen, when the
differences in x-ray intensity in the x-ray beam transmitted through the specimen can be seen to be reproduced
on the film as differences in film blackening (photographic density), which are seen on the illuminated film as
differences in brightness.

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Gamma and X-radiation form part of the electromagnetic spectrum by nature, and is similar to radio or
light waves, but of a much shorter wavelength.
The table above shows the position of X-rays and gamma rays in the spectrum of electromagnetic
radiation.

Properties of X-and Gamma Rays:

 They travel at the speed of light (3 X 108 m/s in a vacuum)
 They travel in straight lines
 They cannot be detected by any of our senses
 They cannot be deflected by means of a lens or prism, although their path can be bent
(diffracted) by a crystalline grid
 They are not affected by magnetic fields
 They will expose photographic film
 They pass through matter, and are partly absorbed in transmission
 They are ionizing radiation, that is, they liberate electrons in matter
 They can impair or destroy living cells.

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Wavelength (λ)

Wavelength is the measure of the length of a wave, from one peak to the next (or one trough to next).
Unit for λ = Angstrom

Frequency (Hz)

Frequency means the number of completed waves that pass a given point in a certain amount of time.
Frequency is measured in cycles per second, a unit that is called Hertz (Hz).

The bottom wave has a higher Frequency than the top one.

Velocity (m/s)

Remember, all electromagnetic waves travel at the same velocity.

Wavelengths and frequency of electromagnetic waves are inversely proportional, this means, when one
increases the other decreases by proportional amount (i.e. double one the other decrease by half).
X- and gamma rays have the same amplitude or wave height, but they can have different wavelengths
and frequencies. The shorter the wavelength the more penetrating ability the radiation wave will have.

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X-Rays
X-rays are emitted whenever matter is bombarded by a stream of electrons. Transformation of
Electron Energy into X-Rays. When an electron with kinetic energy eV strikes the target of an X-ray
tube, the energy may be transformed in several ways. The simplest transformation occurs when the
electron interacts directly with the nucleus of a target atom. The electron is stopped by the nucleus
which, due to its heavy mass, is not appreciably disturbed and so gains no energy. Hence all the
kinetic energy of the electron is transformed into a quantum of radiation.
To produce X-rays, the anode is connected to the positive pole of a high voltage generator, the
cathode to its negative pole.
A suitable current is passed through the filament to attain high temperatures, (± 23000 C).
When the temperature of the filament is high due to the effect of the electrical tension set up
between the anode and the cathode (the voltage on the tube) these electrons from the cathode
(negative charge) are attracted to the anode (positive charge).
By controlling the filament current, and therefore its temperature, it is possible to control the
cathode electron emission and the tube current. X-rays are produced when the accelerated
electrons strike the target.
When low current (mA) is applied to the cathode the filament will glow (heat up) releasing electron.
When high voltage (kV) is applied to the anode. The released electrons are attracted across the gap
to the anode - due to potential difference between the voltages on anode and X-ray energies are
determined by the voltage (kV) applied to the X-ray tube.
With an X-ray machine a wide range of energies can be produced. The energy of X- and gamma ray
is measured in kilo electron volts (keV) and mega electron volt (MeV). An electron volt is an
amount of energy equal, to the energy gained by one electron when it is accelerated by one volt.
When X-rays are produced, there is a wide range of energies (wavelengths). Not all electrons are
accelerated to the maximum voltage set on the X-ray machine.
X-ray intensity is determined by the current (mA) applied to the X-ray tube filament. Also
remember that the intensity of the X-ray is related to the number of rays striking a unit in a given
length of time. Intensity of the X-ray beam can be changed when either the voltage on the anode
or the current on the filament is changed.

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The Classic X-Ray Tube

The classical X-ray tube consists of a glass envelope containing the anode and cathode assemblies,
evacuated to a very high vacuum.
The cathode comprises of a shaped metallic electrode, known as a focusing cup, in which a straight
or cylindrical tungsten filament is placed.
The filament is the electron-emitting element. The filament is brought to very high temperatures by
means of a suitable electric current (mA). The stream of electrons is concentrated in a beam by the
focusing cup in the direction of the anode. The focusing cup acts as an electrostatic lens and
determines the size of the beam.
The anode consists of a metal electrode having high thermal conductivity. The part facing the
cathode contains a metal target with a very high melting point and, in most cases is made of
tungsten.

 The cathode comprises a filament which, when brought to incandescence by a current of a few
amperes, emits electrons
 Under the effect of the electrical tension set up between the anode and cathode (the voltage of the
tube) these electrons from the cathode are attracted to the anode
 This stream of electrons is concentrated in a beam by a "cylinder" or focusing cup.
 The anode assembly consists of a target with high melting point, recessed into the anode block
 The accelerated electrons from the heated filament produce X-rays when they strike this target.
 The higher the atomic number of the element struck by electrons and the higher the speed of the
latter, the greater will be the energy and penetrating power of the X-rays produced. The target is
generally made of tungsten, partly because of the high atomic number of this element, and partly
because of its high melting point (3400°C approx.)

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Cooling the Anode

The heat, which accompanies the production of X-radiation, is quite considerable, so that the anode has
to be cooled. This can be done in a variety of ways:

 Cooling by Radiation
The anode, consisting of a block of tungsten cools itself by radiating the heat
 Cooling by Convection
The heat is carried away by a copper extension of the anode block. The end of this extension is
immersed in oil or an insulating fluid, and is cooled by natural or forced convection currents.
 Cooling by forced circulation of fluid
Here a liquid flowing on to the back of the anode carries the heat away. The liquid (oil or water) is
usually circulated by means of a pump

The Focal Spot

The area of the target, which is struck by the electrons, is called the focal spot or focus. This area
should be sufficiently large to avoid overheating which might damage the anode and to allow rapid
dissipation of the heat, but from the radiographic point-of-view, it needs to be as small as possible.

Effective Focal Spot Size

The projection of the focal spot on a surface perpendicular to the axis of the beam of X-rays is termed
the "effective focal spot size" or "focus size".
This focus has to be as small as possible in order to achieve maximum sharpness in the radiographic
image.
The dimensions of the focus are governed by:
 The size of the focal spot, and
 The value of target angle in the anode

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Characteristic X-Rays

Some of the impinging (colliding) electrons give up part of their kinetic energy collide with and dislodge
orbital electrons in the target atoms.
Energy thus gained by the atom is lost as the ejected electron is replaced, and is emitted as X-radiation
consisting of discreet spectral lines.
Only narrow bands of higher intensities are generated and have much lower energy than continuous X-
radiation, which can be a source of unwanted scattered radiation.
Can also be called a monochromatic radiation band, thus X-ray tube giving X-ray of one wavelength.

Continuous X-Rays

Most of the impinging (colliding) electrons interact with electrons associated with the target atoms.
Only a part of the energy of a high-speed electron is required to remove an electron from an atom.
When an impinging electron has lost some of its energy in this way and then is suddenly stopped by
an atomic nucleus, the energy that is transformed into an X-ray photon is less than the original kinetic
energy, eV, of the electron.
The quantum of radiation produced in this manner has a wavelength greater then 108 cm. In general,
X-rays of many wavelengths are emitted. The X-ray spectrum is continuous.
Some of the impinging (striking) electrons give up part of their kinetic energy collide with and dislodge
orbital electrons in the target atoms.
Some of the impinging (striking) electrons as well as the electrons ejected from target atoms give up
kinetic energy as they strike the nuclei of the target atoms. This loss in energy results in the emission of
X-rays.
Only a part of the energy of a high-speed electron is required to remove an electron from an atom.
When an impinging electron has lost some of its energy in this way and then is suddenly stopped by
an atomic nucleus, the energy that is transformed into an X-ray photon is less than the original kinetic
energy, eV, of the electron.
In general, X-rays of many wavelengths are emitted. The X-ray spectrum is continuous.
The wavelength of the emitted radiation depends upon the energy given up by the electron.
Since the electrons have a wide range of velocities, the generated x-rays have a continuous distribution
of wavelengths.
This continuous spectrum of x-rays is the band of radiation most used in industrial radiography.

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X-ray tube types
Depending on the shape of the anode, x-ray tubes can produce:
 A beam of radiation in one direction;
 A panoramic beam of radiation;
 A panoramic beam of radiation at right angles to the tube axis.

Usually three transformers are required:

1. Auto-transformer, which will furnish 110 Volts to the filament

2. Step-up transformer (high voltage transformer)
3. Step-down transformer (filament transformer)

A typical X-ray control panel will usually consist of the following controls:

1. Filament control and meter

Usually calibrated in mA to control filament current
2. High voltage control and meter
Usually calibrated in kV and permits adjusting voltage between cathode and anode
3. Exposure timer
Usually calibrated in minutes and controls the length of exposure
4. Power off/on switch
Controls application of power to X-ray unit
5. Indicator lamp
Usually indicates when the equipment is energised and X-rays are being produced

High energy x-ray equipment

Conventional x-ray equipment is used to generate x-rays up to about 450kV, but there are applications
for x-rays of much higher energy and penetrating power, in the range 1 MeV - 25 MeV, in industrial
radiography. For this, special forms of radiographic equipment have been developed.

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Gamma Rays
Proton and neutrons are packed in the centre of an
atom called the nucleus. A Helium atom has two
protons and two neutrons in the nucleus. Since
neutrons have no charge, the nucleus has a plus 2
(+2) electrical charge. As an atom must be neutral,
Helium has two electrons with negative charge of 2
(-2) orbiting the nucleus.

A complete atom must have equal number of

protons and electrons but can have different
numbers of neutrons as can be seen for instance
with beryllium.

The atomic number “Z-number” of an atom

describes the number of protons in the nucleus and
this is used to identify the elements. Beryllium has
4 protons and would have a “Z-number” of 4.

Basic elements can also be identified by their weight

(mass). Mass number “A” is a combination of
protons and neutrons. Beryllium has an “A”
number of 9 (4 protons and 5 neutrons)

Radioactive Materials

Elements with the same “Z” number and a different “A” number are called “isotopes” of that element.
To identify isotopes from the basic elements, they are showed with the “A” number after the name of
the elements, i.e. Cobalt-60.

Many isotopes of the various elements occur in nature, but artificial isotopes are now very commonly in
use.

Artificial isotopes are created by bombarding an element with excess neutrons. This is done in a
nuclear reactor where the atomic fission process gives off large numbers of free neutrons. After being
exposed in the nuclear reactor, the basic element absorbs some of the free neutrons.

This is called activation. This activation increases the element’s “A” number, i.e. Cobalt-59 becomes an
artificial isotope Cobalt-60 after activation.

When these excess neutrons do not upset the balance of the nucleus, then this new isotope is said to
be “stable”. When these excess neutrons do upset the balance of the nucleus, the isotope is unstable
and will disintegrate or decay into a more stable form.

Some radioactive isotopes are found in nature, such as Radium and Uranium.

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Artificial radioactive isotopes commonly used in industrial radiography are:

 Iridium-192 (Ir192)-is an artificial isotope with a half-life of 75 days

 Cobalt-60 (Co60)-is an artificial isotope with a half-life of 5.3 years
 Selenium-175 (Se175)-is an artificial isotope with a half - life of 120 days

Other isotopes, which are sometimes used, include:

 Radium-226-is a natural isotope with a half-life of about 1620-years

 Caesium-137-a by-product of fission process, half-life of 30 years
 Thulium-170-is an artificial isotope with a half-life of 130 days

When an unstable isotope is decaying or disintegrating, tiny particles travelling at high speed are
emitted and/or energy in form of waves is given off. All radiation comes from the nucleus of the atom.

The following particles and energies are released from the unstable radioactive atom:

 Alpha particles: Largest radiation particle with 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

 Beta particles: Very light high speed electrons
 Gamma Rays: An energy photon, not a particle

A radioactive isotope can decay by any one of the following:

 Alpha emission only

 Beta emission only
 Alpha emission with associated gamma ray emission
 Beta emission with associated gamma ray emission

We are not concerned with alpha and beta particles, because alpha particles can only travel a few
centimetres in air and beta particles only a few meters.
Only gamma rays are of use to the Industrial Radiographer.

Activity (Source strength)

The number of atoms of the substance gives the activity of a radioactive substance, which disintegrates
in a given time.
This is measured in Bq. The Bq is the quantity of any radioactive substance in which the number of
disintegration's is 1 per second (1Bq = 1/s). The non-SI unit of source strength the curie (Ci) is still widely
used, although, according to Government regulations, the curie may as from 1 January 1989 no longer
be used.

Activity

The activity of a source is, in part, a measure of the number of gamma rays that are being produced
from the isotope

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Curie (Ci)
Is the quantity of any radioactive nuclide in which the number of disintegration is 3.7x10 10 per second.
The curie is the non-SI unit previously used.

Becquerel (Bq)
More recently, the international body responsible for radioactive units has recommended that the Ci is
a superfluous quantity and that the new SI-unit should be the Becquerel (Bq), which is equivalent to a
reciprocal second (s-1) so:

1 Bq = 2.703 x 10-11 Ci
1 Ci = 3.700 x 1010 Bq

Specific Activity
The specific activity of a radioactive source is the activity of 1 gram of this substance expressed a
Becquerel (Bq), or Ci/g.
For a given number of Bq, the dimensions of a radioactive source will be governed by its specific
activity.

The Half-Life of a Radioactive Source

The half-life of a radioactive source is the period of time in which the intensity of the radiation emitted
will fall to one-half of its initial level.
Each radioactive element has its characteristic half-life.
One of the unique characteristics of radioactive isotopes such as 192Ir or 60Co is the time required for
one-half of the initial number of unstable atoms to decay. The time required for one-half of the
unstable atoms to decay is known as the half-life. The half-life of an isotope cannot be changed.
1. After one half-life, the activity of a radioactive source will be one-half of its original activity
2. After two half-lives the activity will be reduced to ¼ of its original activity
(½ + ½ = ¼)
3. After three half-lives, only ⅛ of the original activity will be left (½ + ½ +½ = ⅛)
4. After 10 half-lives, less than one-thousandth of the original activity will remain

NB: As isotopes decay, their intensity decreases and therefore the exposure time must be increased.

Example:
Iridium-192 has a half-life of 74 days. After 148 days (two half-life) the strength of a 37 GBq source of
Iridium-192 will be reduced to 9.25 GBq, and after three half-life to 4.625 GBq, etc.

Decay
The decay of individual atoms of a radioactive material occurs quite irregularly in time, but the average
rate of decay over a period is found to obey statistical laws in which, if a large number of disintegration
are considered, the statistical error will be small.

A = Ao x e (-t)

ln 2
Where:  = = decay constant
t 12
t = time
A = activity after a certain time
Ao = original activity

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Advantages of using Isotopes rather than X-Rays:

 The cost of equipment and sources is much less than that of X-ray machines of comparable kV
energies
 Isotope equipment is more easily transported than X-ray equipment
 The isotope source is small enough to pass through small openings
 No external power supply is necessary; permitting use in remote areas
 Both panoramic and directional exposure can be made
 The equipment is rugged and simple to operate
 Their size is small, making them specially suited to circumstances where a short source-to-film
distance is necessary
 Some isotopes have a very high penetrating power, permitting radiography of very thick material.

Disadvantages of using Isotopes rather than X-Rays:

 The radiation cannot be turned off and presents a greater safety consideration than X-ray sources
 Isotope radiographs generally have less contrast than those exposed by X-ray
 The penetrating ability is dependent upon the particular isotope and cannot be changed or varied
to accommodate different thickness of materials
 If the isotope has a short half-life, there is an added cost of replacing the source
 The shielding necessary to properly handle an isotope may be quite heavy.
 Isotope sources present a severe radiation hazard and when not in actual use, these sources must
be handled carefully and stored and locked in shielded containers

Isotopes Equipment:

Then…

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Now…

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Basic Operation

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REEL ASSEMBLY

PIGTAILS

COLLIMATORS CONTAINERS

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Radiation Safety
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION

The energy absorbed from Ionising radiation when it is incident on living tissue can result in damage or
destruction of the cells. X-ray machines and radioactive materials are not the only source of radiation.
Cosmic radiation from space reaches our planet and it is impossible for humans to avoid all radiation
exposure.
However, one fact must be remembered:
Ionising radiation has the ability to damage human body tissue.

Damage of human tissue occurs when enough electrons are knocked out of enough atoms to:
 Break down the structure of cells to the point where they may die
 Cause the cells to lose their ability to reproduce
 Cause the cells to reproduce in an abnormal manner

Body cells that are easily damaged are considered to have a "high radiosensitivity". List of body cells,
listed in order of decreasing radiosensitivity:
1. Lymphocytes
2. White blood cells
3. Immature red blood cells
4. Cells lining the gastro-intestinal canal
5. Cells of reproductive organs
6. Skin cells
7. Cells of blood vessels
8. Cells of tissue, bone, muscle, and nerves.

The biological effects caused by an overdose of radiation can be divided into two types:

Somatic effects

These are effects that result from damage to the cells and are evident in the exposed individual.
Somatic effects can be further subdivided into:

 Early somatic effect, which is radiation damage that occurs within a relatively short period of time
after an acute exposure. Early somatic effects occur when a large number of irradiated cells cannot
replace themselves in a short period of time – the process of mitosis has been stopped. Much
published data exists on early somatic effects from atomic explosion victims and radiation accident
victims.

 Late somatic effect, which is latent damage that does not become apparent until some time, has
elapsed.

Genetic effects

These are effects to the cell that may be passed to the next generation or to later descendants as
hereditary characteristics

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Radiation Units

The units of radiation used to measure dose and dose-rate are quite complicated and have been made
further so by an ICRP (International Committee for Radiological Protection) recommendation that a new
series of units should be used to be more compatible with the SI-system.

Roentgen – R
The Roentgen is a unit used to express the dose of radiation; it is measured by means of the ionisation
caused by this radiation in air. The R is the quantity of gamma- or X-radiation, which liberates ions of
either sign, each of absolute charge of one electrostatic unit (e.s.u.) in traversing a volume of 1cm3 of
pure air. The use of the Roentgen as the non-SI unit for the quantity exposure is still permitted.

Coulomb – C
The SI-unit for exposure is the coulomb per kilogram ([Link]-1), which is equal to 3876 R.

Radiation absorbed dose - RAD

The dose of absorbed energy of ionising radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, or X-radiation) is expressed in
RAD (non-SI unit). One rad equals approximately an absorbed dose of 100 ergs per gram of matter. The
RAD is replaced by the SI unit Gray (Gy).

Gray - Gy
In 1975 the ICRP recommended that a new unit of absorbed dose be brought into use, the Gray. Gy =
100 RAD = 1 J/kg

Relative biological effectiveness – RBE

The RBE is a factor for determining the comparative biological effect of each type of radiation.

Roentgen equivalent man – REM

The REM is the effect produced in human body by any type of radiation.
RAD x RBE = REM

Sievert – Sv
The ICRP recommended in 1975 also that the unit of dose-equivalent be renamed the Sievert. 1 SV =
100 REM

Absorption
Absorption is the ability of the specimen to block the passage of X-rays through the material.

Curie – Ci
The Ci is the non-SI unit of radioactivity of a source of gamma-radiation. The Ci is subdivided into milli-Ci
(mCi), and micro-Ci (Ci). The Ci is the amount of radioactive material in which 3.7x10 10 disintegration
per second take place. The Ci corresponds to the rate of disintegration of 1g radium per second. The SI
unit the Becquerel replaces the curie.

Becquerel - Bq
1 Bq = 1 disintegration/second 1 Curie = 3.7x1010 Bq

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Permissible Dose Limits

Regulations on maximum permissible dose and dose-rates are comparatively complex and are not
precisely the same in all countries.
A summary of the dose limits as established by the Atomic Energy Corporation of South Africa is given
below:

TISSUE ANNUAL LIMIT WEEKLY AVERAGE HOURLY AVERAGE

mSv mSv mSv

Whole body 50 1 0.025

Skin, extremities 500 10 0.250
Lens of eye 150 3 0.750

The six variables that influence the effect radiation doses have on an individual are:

1. The amount of the body exposed

2. The time-span over which the dose is received
3. The age of the individual exposed
4. The biological difference among individuals
5. The part of the body exposed
6. The radiation level

Skin Effects – Single Exposure

Exposure Early Effect Chronic effect

0.5 Sv Chromosomal changes only None. Possible slight risk of

neoplastic alterations
5 Sv Transitory erythema. Transitory epilation Usually none. Risk of altered
function increased.
25 Sv Temporary ulceration Atrophy, telangiectasis
Permanent epilation Altered pigmentation
50 Sv Permanent ulceration Chronic ulcer, substantial risk of
carcinogenesis
500 Sv Ordinarily necrotising, but recovery possible Permanent destruction to a
when radiation has extremely low depth dependent upon radiation
penetration energy

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Expected Effects of Acute Whole-Body Radiation Doses

Acute Dose - Sv Probable Effect

0 to 0.5 No obvious effect, except possibly minor blood changes

0.8 to 1.2 Vomiting and nausea for about 1 day in 5 to 10 % of exposed personnel.
Fatigue but no serious disability

1.3 to 1.7 Vomiting and nausea for about 1 day, followed by other symptoms of
radiation sickness in about 25% of personnel. No deaths anticipated

1.8 to 2.2 Vomiting and nausea for about 1 day, followed by other symptoms of
radiation sickness in about 50% of personnel. No deaths anticipated

2.7 to 3.3 Vomiting and nausea in nearly all personnel on first day, followed by other
symptoms of radiation sickness. About 20% deaths within 2 to 6 weeks
after exposure; survivor’s convalescent for about 3 months.

4.0 to 5.0 Vomiting and nausea in nearly all personnel on first day, followed by other
symptoms of radiation sickness. About 50% deaths within 1 month;
survivor’s convalescent for about 6 months.

5.5 to 7.5 Vomiting and nausea in nearly all personnel within 4 hours from exposure,
followed by other symptoms of radiation sickness. Up to 100% deaths;
few survivors convalescent for about 6 months.

10 Vomiting and nausea in all personnel within 1 to 2 hours. Probably no

survivors from radiation sickness

50 Incapacitation almost immediately. All personnel will be fatalities within 1

week

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 23

Radiation Monitoring Equipment

Since our senses cannot detect radiation, several devices are commonly used in the field of
radiography. These devices are classified according to use and are called:
a) Survey meters
b) Personnel monitoring devices

Survey Meters
Survey meters are designed to give an instantaneous reading in R or mR/h at any distance from the
source. Survey meters differ from personnel monitoring devices in that the survey meter measures the
radiation rate.
There are two types of survey meters in common use:
Ionisation chamber meters
This meter is like a pocket dosimeter and is commonly used because it is rugged and has a relatively
wide range - 0 to 50 R/h (0 to 0.5Sv/h). Ion chambers are more suitable for X-ray radiography.
Geiger-Müller counter – G-M counter
The Geiger - Müller counters are used to measure relatively low levels of radiation. The maximum range
of most modern counters is about 0 - 1000 mR/h (0 to 10 mSv/h). One important disadvantage of the
Geiger - Müller counter is that if it is in a very high field of radiation, the needle may not react in a
normal manner.

The most important radiation survey you will make is the survey after an exposure. This survey is to
make sure the source has returned to its fully shielded position in the camera.

Description of basic survey techniques:

 After returning the source to the camera, look at the survey meter. Note the needle position and
check if the needle is in a position where it should be.
 Approach the guide tube and camera. Is the needle rising at about the expected rate?
 Survey the camera. This is very important because a source that is almost, but not completely,
retracted can have a thin beam of radiation coming out the front.
 If you get unexpected readings, something is wrong. It could be an exposed source or a
malfunctioning survey meter. Always assume the source is exposed until you understand what the
problem is. Resist the temptation to believe that the survey meter is wrong!
 Another important survey you will have to make is to ensure your restricted area boundaries are
properly set. A survey is usually conducted during your first exposure.
 Carefully note your set-up. Note where beams of radiation could occur. If you are using a
collimator, in which directions will there be unshielded beams? Are there pipes or concrete walls
(intervening shielding) to affect your reading?
 Based on your observations of the situation, make measurements of the dose rates at enough
points on the boundary of the restricted area to be sure you have set it up properly.
 Repeat these measurements during later exposure any time you have changed your set-up in a way
that might change the dose rate at the restricted area boundary.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 24

Personal Monitoring Devices
Personal monitoring devices are attached to the clothing of the radiation worker. These devices are
designed to give cumulative readings of exposure.
There are basically two types of pocket dosimeters, both of which are similar in appearance and
operation. One is the direct reading type, and the other the non-direct reading type.
The dosimeter is usually worn in conjunction with a film badge or a thermo luminescent dosimeter
(TLD) to give the wearer a double check on the radiation dose received.
When radiation strikes the film of the film-badge, ionisation within the film emulsion darkens or
"exposes" the film. After the film badge has been worn over a period of time, a comparison is then
made between the film from the film badge and the characteristics of a similar film called the "control
film".
The advantage of the film badge is that it provides a permanent record of the wearer’s exposure and is
considered to be the most reliable personnel-monitoring device.

Digital Audible-alarm Dosimeters

Digital audible-alarm dosimeters are another type of direct reading dosimeters.

Operating Principle:
 In these dosimeters, the output of the radiation detector (usually a Geiger-Mller counter) is
collected and, when a predetermined exposure has been reached, the collected charge is
discharged to trigger an electronic counter.
 The counter displays the accumulated exposure in digital form.
 Digital audible-alarm dosimeters generally include an audible alarm feature. They emit an audible
signal (beep or chirp) with each recorded increment of exposure. They can also be set to provide a
continuous audible signal when a preset exposure has been reached.
 The dosimeter should be recharged at the start of each working shift.
 During the shift, the dosimeter reading should be checked frequently.
 The measured exposure should be recorded at the end of each shift. If a dosimeter becomes
discharged beyond its range, the individual wearing the dosimeter should stop work with
radioactive material and have his film badge immediately processed to determine the magnitude of
the exposure.

Advantages of Digital Audible-alarm Dosimeter:

 Reading errors associated with the direct reading pocket ionisation chamber dosimeter are
minimised
 The instrument can achieve a higher maximum readout before resetting is necessary.
PD – 31TM Personal Dosimeter
11

12

3 1 4 5 6

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 25

 7 8 9

13

10

14

15

16

Legend:

1. DOSE Icon 9. Backlight Button

2. RATE Icon 10. Communicator surface
3. Battery Icon 11. Belt Clip Release Button
4. Numeric Display 12. GM Tube Centre Mark
5. Units Display 13. Belt Clip
6. Gamma Icon 14. GM Tube Centre
7. Mode Button 15. Battery Compartment Cover
8. Sound Port 16. Battery Compartment Lock

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 26

Thermo luminescent Dosimeters – TLDs
TLDs are similar to film badges in appearance and can be used by radiographers in place of film badges.
TLDs contain crystalline materials that store energy deposited by radiation. Heating the dosimeter
afterwards and measuring the energy released as light can measure the energy deposited. A special TLD
reader measures the amount of light emitted. The light emitted by the dosimeter is a measure of the
radiation dose.

TL Badge: Model UD – 802 A

st
1 Element

Li2B4O7 : Cu

behind
nd
thin windows
2 Element

Li2B4O7 : Cu

behind
rd plastic walls
3 Element

CaSO4 :Tm

behind plastic walls

th
4 Element

CaSO4 :Tm

Construction of the Model UD – 802 A behind Lead shields

7
8
1

2
9
3
10

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 27

Reading Method and Construction
Legend

1. Slide 6. Magazine
2. Reference light source 7. Element plate
3. Dosimeter element 8. Dosimeter holder
4. Photo multiplier 9. Lamp
5. ID reading unit 10. Silicon filter

Recommendations when using a film badge or TLD badge:

1. Clip your badge firmly to your clothing – between your waist and neck – and always wear it
while doing radiography
2. Do not expose the badge to high temperature or water.

3. If you lose or damage your badge, stop work. Submit a damaged badge to your employer and
get a new one. Replace a lost badge.

4. Routine processing of badges is done on a regular schedule. Know the schedule and have your
badge available for processing

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 28

 Time, Distance and Shielding

Time

The less time you spend near a radioactive source, the less radiation dose you will receive.

Don’t stay near a radiography source any longer than you have to. LESS TIME = LESS EXPOSURE

The individual exposure will be equal to the product of the radiation intensity and the amount time
spent in that radiation intensity.

Exp = I x t
Exposure = Intensity x Time

Example:
1. If an individual spends two hours in a radiation intensity of 20 Sv/h, what would his exposure be?

Exp = Ixt
Exp = (20Sv/h )x(2 h) Exp = 40 Sv

2. If an individual spends five hours in a radiation intensity of 20 Sv/h, what would his exposure be?

Exp = Ixt
Exp = (20 Sv/h)x(5 h) Exp = 100 Sv

3. If an individual spends 15 minutes in a radiation intensity of 20 Sv/h, what would his exposure be?
15
Exp = (20Sv/h)x(15 min) 15 min = h = 0.25 h
60
(20 Sv /h)x(0.25 h)
Exp = 5 Sv

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 29

The formula can also be used to determine the amount of time required receiving a specific exposure in
particular radiation intensity.

Example:

An individual is required to perform an operation in a radiation intensity of 100 Sv/h.

He wants to limit his exposure to 20 Sv. What is the maximum amount of time he can spend
performing this operation?

Exp = I x t
(20 Sv) = (100 Sv/h) x t
20 Sv
=t
100 Sv / h
0.2 h = t t = 12 min

Work performed in a radiation area should be well planned in advance to minimize the time spent in
the area.

Exercise:

Your Survey meter reads 35mSv/h, how long can you stay in this area before you will receive a dose of:

a. 50mSv
b. 100μSv
c. 1Sv

a. ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 30

Distance

Increasing your distance from a source will decrease the amount of radiation you receive.
GREATER DISTANCE = LESS EXPOSURE

Sources used in radiography can be considered as point sources of radiation.

The radiation from this sources is emitted uniformly in all directions

In recognition of the fact that some radiation monitors marked in Sieverts (Sv) or multiples thereof are
now in use in South Africa, it has been decided that for the time being these instruments are to be
calibrated on the basis 1 Sv = 100 R for all radiation energies. Instruments designed to measure photon
radiation that are marked in rem are to be calibrated on the basis that 1 rem = 0.01 Sv = 1 R. Existing
instruments marked in roentgens (R) or multiples thereof may continue to be used. [12]

It can be mathematically demonstrated that the radiation intensity from these sources is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the source. This is known as the

Inverse Square Law.

I1 D12 = I2 D22
Where: I1 = The known intensity at a known distance
D1 = The distance from a source where intensity is known
I2 = The unknown intensity at a given distance
D2 = The distance from a source at which you want to find the unknown intensity

Example:
Suppose the emission of a given source of radiation is 1 Sievert (100 Roentgens) per hour at a distance
of 1 meter.
a) What is the dose rate at 2 m?
b) What is the dose rate at 4 m?

a) I1 = 1 Sv/h, D1 = 1 m, D2 = 2 m

2 2
I1  D2  1 2
       I2 = 0.25 Sv/h
I 2  D1  I2  1 

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 31

b) I1 = 1Sv/h, D1 = 1 m, D2 = 4 m

2 2
I1  D2  1 4 1
       I2 = = 0.0625 Sv/h
I 2  D1  I2  1  16
As can be seen from the examples, the radiation intensity is lower at the greater distance from the
source.
In order to compute the radiation intensity at the first distance from a known source, the specific
gamma ray constant () is used.
The specific gamma ray constant () represents the radiation intensity from one curie source at a unit
distance usually one meter. To determine the radiation intensity for other activity sources, one simply
multiplies the specific gamma ray constant for the radioisotope of interest by the activity in curies.

Specific Gamma Ray Constants for Radioisotopes

Cobalt60 0.3648 mSv/h/GBq@1m

Iridium192 0.1486 mSv/h/GBq@1m

Example:
What is the radiation intensity at one meter from a 64-curie iridium 192 (2368 GBq) source?
 for Iridium192 = 0.55 R/h at one meter

I1 = A I1 = (0.55)(64)  I1 = 35.2 R/h

 I1 = 0.352 Sv/h

Remember:

Distance is an important consideration in minimising radiation exposure. Always attempt to maximise

the distance from the source when planning work to be performed in a radiation area.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 32

Shielding

Shielding can greatly reduce radiation exposure and any available shielding should be used to
advantage.

MORE SHIELDING = LESS EXPOSURE

To calculate the necessary thickness of protective walls it is necessary to have the following data:
 The radiation output of the source of radiation (Sievert per hour)
 The distance between the source and the point of measurement; the dose rate varies inversely
as the square of this distance
 The absorption characteristics of the material of the protective walls.

Protective Materials
For medium-energy X-rays lead is the most suitable shielding material, but concrete is also used.

a) Lead -Sheets make good barriers against primary radiation

b) Concrete is used for floors, ceilings, and for heavy structure
c) Bricks are used for walls
d) Lead glass is used in the construction of fluoroscopic screens and viewing windows

Half-value layer
As an x-ray penetrates a material, the energy is absorbed by the photoelectric and Compton
effect.
At some place in the material there is a level at which the number of rays (intensity) of the
radiation is one half of the intensity on the surface.
Definition: Half value layer (thickness) of a particular material which reduces the intensity of a
beam or radiation to half and can be calculated from:
HVL = 2ln/μ
where: μ= linear coefficient.

Typical half-values

Isotope Typical Half Value Typical Half Value

Layer of steel(cm) Layer of Lead(cm)
Co-60 2 1.1
Se-75 0.8 1.5
Ir-192 1.3 0.5
Cs-137 1.7 0.6

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 33

 Formula: I = I₀ X e ⁻⁽µ X d⁾
Where: I = Intensity with shielding in place
I0= Original Intensity (without shielding)
μ = Absorption coefficient of shielding material
d = Thickness of shielding material

Example:
What will the Intensity behind a 5cm thick lead shield be, if the intensity without the shield is 15mSv/h?
(μ for the shield is 0.77cm-1)

I=?
I0= 15mSv/h
μ = 0.77cm-1
d = 5cm

I = I₀ X e ⁻⁽µ X d⁾

I = 15 X e –(0.77 X 5)

I = 0.319mSv/h = 319μSv/h

Exercise:

a. What thickness of lead shielding will reduce a dose rate of 5mSv/h to 10μSv/h?
(μ for the shield is 0.77cm-1)

a. ______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 34

SCATTERED ABSORPTION

The absorption of X-rays is not necessarily a simple process in which the primary X-ray energy changes
to some form of energy other than ionising radiation (true absorption). There may be conversion to X-
ray energy of a different wavelength and a different direction of travel, or there may be liberation of
secondary atomic particles. The main types of absorption of concern in industrial radiography are:

Photoelectric absorption of x-rays occurs when the x-ray photon

is absorbed, resulting in the ejection of electrons from the outer
shell of the atom, and hence the ionization of the atom.
Subsequently, the ionized atom returns to the neutral state with
the emission of an x-ray characteristic of the atom. This
subsequent emission of lower energy photons is generally
absorbed and does not contribute to (or hinder) the image
making process. Photoelectron absorption is the dominant
process for x-ray absorption up to energies of about 500 KeV.
Photoelectron absorption is also dominant for atoms of high
atomic numbers.

Compton scattering occurs when the incident x-ray photon is

deflected from its original path by an interaction with an
electron. The electron gains energy and is ejected from its
orbital position. The x-ray photon loses energy due to the
interaction but continues to travel through the material along an
altered path. Since the scattered x-ray photon has less energy, it,
therefore, has a longer wavelength than the incident photon. The
event is also known as incoherent scattering because the photon
energy change resulting from an interaction is not always orderly
and consistent. The energy shift depends on the angle of
scattering and not on the nature of the scattering medium.

Pair production can occur when the x-ray photon energy is

greater than 1.02 MeV, but really only becomes significant at
energies around 10 MeV. Pair production occurs when an
electron and positron are created with the annihilation of the x-
ray photon. Positrons are very short lived and disappear
(positron annihilation) with the formation of two photons of
0.51 MeV energy. Pair production is of particular importance
when high-energy photons pass through materials of a high
atomic number.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 35

Below are other interaction phenomenon’s that can occur. Under special circumstances these may
need to be considered, but are generally negligible.

Thomson scattering (R), also known as Rayleigh, coherent, or

classical scattering, occurs when the x-ray photon interacts with
the whole atom so that the photon is scattered with no change in
internal energy to the scattering atom, nor to the x-ray photon.
Thomson scattering is never more than a minor contributor to
the absorption coefficient. The scattering occurs without the loss
of energy. Scattering is mainly in the forward direction.

Photodisintegration (PD) is the process by which the x-

ray photon is captured by the nucleus of the atom with
the ejection of a particle from the nucleus when all the
energy of the x-ray is given to the nucleus. Because of
the enormously high energies involved, this process
may be neglected for the energies of x-rays used in
radiography.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 36

Radiographic Film and Processing
An X-ray film is made up of the following layers:

= Hard gelatine to protect emulsion

= Emulsion
= Substrate to attach emulsion to base
= Base - Cellulose triacetate or polyester

In order to obtain as effective absorption as possible, X-ray emulsions are considerably thicker than
those used for photography with light, and also there is a coating of emulsion on each side of the base.
Only a small fraction of the X-radiation falling on the film is actually absorbed. If, however, a foil of
metal such as lead is placed in intimate contact with the emulsion, the electrons ejected from the foil by
the action of X-rays can also enter the emulsion and assist in formation of the latent image. This is the
principle of metal intensifying screens.

How the Image is formed:

The silver bromide grains when exposed to radiation would become visible and turn the f ilm black
to form an image. However, the image is "latent" and no visible change in film would be noticeable
until after development.
A latent image is formed on the film when some of the silver bromide grains are ionised by the X- or
gamma ray.
The latent image is made visible by developing the film where the ionised silver bromide grains are
reduced to black metallic silver. Each individual grain that has been exposed then helps form the
image on the film.
There is no partial exposure of a silver grain.
The difference in radiographic films (i.e. slower and faster films) is mainly due to the various grain
sizes (even the largest of which are microscopic).
The larger grained film (faster) expose more silver to the rays per grain, therefore, the image is
exposed more quickly.
The image less sharp and the detail is lacking compared to the fine grained film (slower).
During developing process of the film, the exposed grains will turn black and the unexposed
grains will be removed during developing process by the fixer solution.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 37

Processing

The development process consists of several steps:

 developer
 stop bath
 fixer
 rinsing
 wetting agent
 drying

Developer
The developer is an alkaline solution (combination of chemicals), each of which serves a vital function.
One of the chemicals is an accelerator that makes the solution alkaline. This chemical removes the
protective layer and swells the emulsion, thus allowing the developing agent to interact with the
exposed grains.
Another chemical in the developer is the reducer which reduces the exposed silver bromide grains to
black metallic silver.
The entire film does not turn black because the reducer can distinguish between exposed and
unexposed grains.
Time and temperature are important factors in the developing stage.
As the temperature of the solution increases, the speed at which the alkali penetrates the emulsion also
increases, causing the reducer to reduce even unexposed silver grains to black metallic silver, thus
increasing the film density (degree of blackness of the film).
Developing time is usually 5 minutes at a temperature of 20°C.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 38

Stop bath (acid)
When a film is removed from the developer, a small quantity of alkaline solution remains on the film.
The chemical used in a stop bath is usually glacial acetic acid.

The stop bath serves two functions:

 Stops developing action by neutralising the alkaline developer.
 Extending the fixer life by neutralising the alkaline developer before the film is put into the fixer.
The film is usually placed in the stop bath for plus minus 10 seconds.

Fixer
The fixer permanently fixes the image on the film. In the developer, the silver bromide grains were
reduced to black metallic silver.
However the unexposed silver bromide grains are still in the emulsion and appear cloudy (milky-yellow)
on the film. The fixer removes all unexposed silver grains from the film.
There are two separate stages in the fixing process:
 Clearing time - This removes all unexposed silver grains from the film and the film starts to appear
clear.
 Hardening - the fixer also hardens the emulsion gelatin which helps prevent scratching during
handling.

The total time in the fixer should be double the time it takes to clear the film.

Rinsing - Final wash

Rinsing eliminates any trace of chemical product which could go on reacting with the film.
Rinsing should be carried out carefully in a container with running water.
The water temperature is not essential and should be between 16ºC and 24ºC. Rinsing period should be
between 20 and 30 minutes.
If rinsing has been carried out correctly, it will improve the preservation time of the film.

Wetting agent
The film is dipped into a container of water added with wetting agent. This bath will prevent water
droplets from forming while drying and, therefore, any other water marks remaining on the film.

Drying
Drying may be done at ambient (room) temperature, but drying time is very long.
Drying in a temperature controlled room with upward air circulation ensures the film drying in about 30
minutes.
Film drying is achieved when the areas of the film touching the film hangers are fully dry.
A roller dryer is best suited for drying of films.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 39

Processing Facilities

The location, design, and construction of the film processing facilities are major factors in
the installation of adequate radiographic services.
The facilities may be a single room or a series of rooms for individual activities, depending
on the amount and character of the work performed.
Because of the special importance of these rooms for the handling, processing, and storing
of radiography films, both their general and detailed features should be most thoughtfully
worked out.
The flow of radiography films from the radiographic room, through the processing
facilities, and to the viewing room should be a simple yet smooth operation requiring the
fewest possible steps or unnecessary motions.
The routine may be expedited by planning the location properl y within the department of
the room or rooms devoted to processing and by efficiently arranging the equipment.

Processing Area

The volume of films to be handled in the department will determine the layout. If the
work load is small or intermittent, a single room containing all the facilities may be
employed.

However, if the volume is relatively high, production can be expedited by dividing the
operations among three areas:
 a room for loading and unloading cassettes;
 a processing room with a through-the-wall tank; and
 a washing and drying room.

A continued high volume of films may require the use of automatic -processing equipment,
with necessary modifications in floor space layout.
In such instances the equipment manufacturer should be consulted concerning layout
problems.
In general the processing room should be large enough to hold all the necessary
equipment without crowding. There is no advantage in having excessive floor space,
however, although need for future expansion should be anticipated.

Entrances

Three general types of entrances are used for the processing room:
 the single door,
 the light-lock (double or revolving doors), and
 the labyrinth or maze.

The one best suited to a particular installation is determined largely by the number of
people who must use the processing room and by the amount of floor space available.
The single door equipped with an inside bolt or lock is most economical of floor space and
is practical where one employee handles the processing.
However, in most instances a labyrinth, or a vestibule with two interlocking doors, is
generally employed.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 40

Loading Bench

Basically, operations performed in the processing areas should be separated into parts -
the "dry" and the "wet" film-handling areas.
The dry activities, such as the handling of unprocessed film, loading and unloading of
cassettes and exposure holders, and the loading of processing hangers are all done at the
loading bench.
This may be either opposite the processing tanks in the same room or in a separate
adjacent room.
Where a cassette-transfer cabinet is used, it should open onto the loading bench, wh ich
should contain facilities for storage of processing hangers and other items, and a light -
tight film bin.

Processing Tanks.

Processing of films, which involves the "wet" activities of developing, stopping, fixing, and
washing should be carried out in an area separate from the loading bench.
This arrangement is designed to avoid splashing solutions on screens, films, and loading
areas, and in general to prevent interference with loading -bench operations.
The tanks must be constructed of a corrosion-resistant material. Special techniques must
be employed in the fabrication of these tanks.

Film Capacity

The film capacity of the entire processing area is determined by the size of the insert
tanks.
Based on a 5-min. development time, a developer tank must be capable to handle 40 films
an hour, with four hangers being handled simultaneously, and allowing for the time during
which hangers are removed and inserted in the stop bath.
The capacity of the stop-bath tank should equal that of the developer tank.
The washing tank should hold at least four times the number of hangers accommodated in
the developer tank.

Film Dryers

One of the important considerations in designing the processing area is the film dryer.
It should be fast-acting, without overheating the films.
A removable drip pan underneath each film compartment or drawer is useful as an aid in
keeping the dryer clean.
As a precaution, the heating elements should be connected in the fan circuit so that the
heat cannot be turned on without also turning on the fan.

Illumination

The processing area must be provided with both white light and safelight illumination.
White light is desirable for many activities, such as mixing chemicals, cleaning tanks,
inserting films into the dryer, and unloading processing hangers.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 41

Arrangement of Safelights

Since excessive exposure of film to safelight illumination will result in fog, the
arrangement of the safelight lamps must be carefully consider ed.
The area should be divided into three zones of safelight intensity: the brightest, in which
the films are washed and placed in the dryer; the medium zone, where films are developed
and fixed; and the dimmest zone, where loading -bench activities are carried out.
The "safeness" of these lamps is dependent not only upon the use of bulbs of the correct
wattage and the type of filter but also upon the proper lamp placement in relation to the
film.
Exposed Films are more sensitive to the safelight illumin ation than are unexposed films.
Hence it is important to guard the films against direct light when loading them in hangers
prior to development.

Checking Illumination Safety

A simple method of checking the safety of illumination is to test it with the fastest film
used in the laboratory, as follows:
An exposure is made of a stepped wedge.
The holder is unloaded in the processing room and the films are placed in the area where
they are normally handled.
Part of the film is covered with opaque paper. The remainder is exposed to the safelight
illumination for the maximum time normally needed for handling.
The test film is then given standard processing.
If no density shows on the uncovered part that received the safelight exposure, as
compared with the covered part, the lighting may be assumed to be safe.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 42

Intensifying screens

The degree of photographic effect of the gamma or X-rays depends upon the amount of radiation energy
absorbed by the sensitised coatings of the film; this is of the order of 1 % for radiation of medium
penetrating power.
The remaining radiation passes through the film and is consequently not used. To overcome this, the film
is sandwiched between two intensifying screens.
Under the action of the gamma or X-rays these screens either fluoresce (fluorescent intensifying screens -
salt screens) or emit electrons (lead screens), and the result is an extra photographic effect upon the film
emulsion layers. Close contact between the film and the screens is essential in order to obtain sharp
images

Lead intensifying screens

These are made up from a thin sheet of lead foil (which is especially uniform in structure) stuck on to a
thin base such as a sheet of paper or card.

Without lead screen With lead screens

Two lead screens are used; the thickness of the front screen must be matched to the hardness of the
radiation being used, so that it will pass the primary radiation while stopping as much as possible of the
secondary radiation (which is less penetrating and has a longer wavelength).
The screen is usually 0.02 to 0.15 mm thick. The back screen is usually thicker (0.25 mm), but the
thickness is not critical.
The metallic surface of lead screens is polished, to allow as close a contact as possible with the surface
of the film.
Flaws such as scratches or cracks on the surface of the metal will be visible on the radiograph.
Lead screens emit a-particles (electrons) to which the film is sensitive. With lead screens there is a partial
absorption of primary radiation by the front screen, and there is a greater absorption of all "soft"
radiation and scattered radiation; that is, the front intensifying screen acts as a filter as well as an
intensifying screen.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 43

The overall effect of using lead or metal intensifying screens is therefore that
 there is an improvement in the contrast of image detail, due to the reduction of scatter.
 there is a decrease in the exposure-time when the intensifying effect is greater than the attenuation
produced by the absorption in the front screen. The intensification factor obtained with lead screens is
seldom greater than 5, and the intensifying action is only achieved with X-rays above 120 kV.
There are sometimes cases, using X-rays below 120 kV, when the filtering action of a front screen is useful
even though there is no intensifying effect. X-ray film is also marketed in paper envelopes with built-in
lead screens,
For certain radiations, lead is not the best material for metal intensifying screens. With cobalt-60 gamma-
rays, copper or steel screens have been shown to produce better quality radiographs than lead screens,
but they require a longer exposure-time (x2).
With mega voltage X-rays in the energy range 5-8 MeV, thick copper screens produce better radiographs
than lead screens of any thickness, and in the 15-31 MeV range, tantalum and tungsten screens are to be
preferred, usually using a front screen only, with no back screen.

Fluorescent intensifying screens (Salt Screens)

Fluorescent intensifying screens consist of a thin, flexible base coated with a fluorescent layer made up
from micro-crystals of a suitable metallic salt, (usually calcium tungstate).
When subjected to X-rays the screen emits light to which the film is sensitive. The light intensity is in
direct proportion to the X-radiation intensity and produces a very large screen intensification effect on the
film.
Because of the loss of image quality they cause, salt screens are very rarely used in industrial radiography,
although there has recently been a resurgence of interest in them for a special application (projected
image radiography with a microfocus X-ray tube)

Fluorometallic screens
Apart from fluorescent and lead intensifying screens, there are also fluorometallic screens, which to a
certain extent combine the advantages of lead and fluorescent intensifying screens. These screens are
provided with a lead foil between the base and the fluorescent layer.
The amount of intensification achieved with these screens largely depends on the spectral sensitivity of
the X-ray film used to the light emitted by the screens, on the exposure time, and on the temperature.
To achieve satisfactory radiographs with fluorometallic screens, these screens must be used with the
appropriate radiographic film (such as STRUCTURIX RCF film with RCF screens).
When used correctly, a reduction in exposure-time of up to x10 can be obtained, compared with lead
screens, but this is not a constant increase in speed which is obtainable with all radiation energies and all
exposure-times.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 44

Radiographic Density
When a radiographic film is placed on an illuminated screen for inspection, it will be observed that the
image is made up of areas of different brightness, dependent on the local densities of the developed
emulsion.
Density (D) is defined as the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the incident light and the
transmitted light through the film:

Density (D) = log10 Intensity of incident light

Intensity of transmitted light

There are three different ways of measuring the density of the film:

1. Density Comparators
The film to be measured is compared with a standard calibrated film, usually in the form of a density
wedge
2. Measurement with a Photocell
The amount of light transmitted through the film is measured through a photocell
3. Electronic Amplifying Circuit
These light measuring types of densitometer have the advantage that they do not depend on an
observer’s skill in balancing two light fields.

Film Characteristic Curves

Different types of radiographic film respond differently to a
given amount of exposure. Film manufacturers commonly
characterize their film to determine the relationship between
the applied exposure and the resulting film density. This
relationship commonly varies over a range of film densities, so
the data is presented in the form of a curve such as the one for
Kodak AA400 shown to the right. The plot is called a film
characteristic curve, sensitometric curve, density curve, or H and
D curve (named for developers Hurter and
Driffield). "Sensitometry" is the science of measuring the
response of photographic emulsions to light or radiation.

A log scale is used or the values are reported in log units on

a linear scale to compress the x-axis. Also, relative exposure
values (unitless) are often used. Relative exposure is the
ratio of two exposures. For example, if one film is exposed at
100 keV for 6mAmin and a second film is exposed at the
same energy for 3mAmin, then the relative exposure would
be 2. The image directly to the right shows three film
characteristic curves with the relative exposure plotted on a
log scale, while the image below and to the right shows the
log relative exposure plotted on a linear scale.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 45

Use of the logarithm of the relative exposure scale makes it easy to
compare two sets of values, which is the primary use of the curves.
Film characteristic curves can be used to adjust the exposure used
to produce a radiograph with a certain density to an exposure that
will produce a second radiograph of higher or lower film density.
The curves can also be used to relate the exposure produced with
one type of film to exposure needed to produce a radiograph of the
same density with a second type of film.

Adjusting the Exposure to Produce a Different Film Density

Suppose Film B was exposed with 140 keV at 1mA for 10 seconds and the resulting radiograph had a
density in the region of interest of 1.0. Specifications typically require the density to be above 2.0 for
reasons discussed on the film density page. From the film characteristic curve, the relative exposures
for the actual density and desired density are determined and the ratio of these two values is used to
adjust the actual exposure. In this first example, a plot with log relative exposure and a linear x-axis will
be [Link] the graph, first determine the difference between the
relative exposures of the actual and the desired densities. A target
density of 2.5 is used to ensure that the exposure produces a density
above the 2.0 minimum requirement. The log relative exposure of a
density of 1.0 is 1.62 and the log of the relative exposure when the
density of the film is 2.5 is 2.12. The difference between the two
values is 0.5. Take the anti-log of this value to change it from log
relative exposure to simply the relative exposure and this value is
3.16. Therefore, the exposure used to produce the initial radiograph
with a 1.0 density needs to be multiplied by 3.16 to produce a
radiograph with the desired density of 2.5. The exposure of the
original x-ray was 10 mAs, so the new exposure must be 10 mAs x 3.16 or 31.6 mAs at 140 keV.

Adjusting the Exposure to Allow Use of a Different Film Type

Another use of film characteristic curves is to adjust the exposure when switching types of film. The
location of the characteristic curves of different films along the x-axis relates to the film speed of the
films. The farther to the right that a curve is on the chart, the slower the film speed. It must be noted
that the two curves being used must have been produced with the same radiation energy. The shape of
the characteristic curve is largely independent of the wavelength of the x-ray or gamma radiation, but
the location of the curve along the x-axis, with respect to the curve of another film, does depend on
radiation quality.

Suppose an acceptable radiograph with a density of 2.5 was

produced by exposing Film A for 30 seconds at 1mA and 130
keV. Now, it is necessary to inspect the part using Film B. The
exposure can be adjusted by following the above method, as
long at the two film characteristic curves were produced with
roughly the same radiation quality. For this example, the
characteristic curves for Film A and B are shown on a chart
showing relative exposure on a log scale. The relative exposure
that produced a density of 2.5 on Film A is found to be 68. The
relative exposure that should produce a density of 2.5 on Film B
is found to be 140. The relative exposure of Film B is about
twice that of Film A, or 2.1 to be more exact. Therefore, to
produce a 2.5 density radiograph with Film B the exposure should be 30mAs times 2.1 or 62 mAs.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 46

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 47
Radiographic Sensitivity
The intensity of a beam of radiation undergoes local attenuation as it passes through a specimen, due
to absorption and scattering of the radiation.
As a result, the beam emerging from the specimen contains, at the surface of the film, areas of different
intensities that make up the radiation image.
When the film is processed these variations are shown as varying densities - high radiation intensity
produces a higher film density etc.
The quality of the radiograph can be severely affected by scattered radiation, and it is important to
keep its effects to a minimum.
Before a radiograph can be of any use as a non-destructive testing tool, we must have some idea how
accurate the tool is.
The measure of accuracy of a radiograph is called the sensitivity of the radiograph.

Sensitivity in a radiograph is a function of the contrast and the definition of the radiograph.

Contrast
Is the comparison between film densities for different areas of the radiograph as shown below.

Definition
Is the line of demarcation between areas of different densities. If the image is clear and sharp the
radiograph is said to have good definition as shown below.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 48

Contrast
Remember that we have said that contrast is a comparison between film densities for different
areas of the radiograph.
Contrast is a combination of subject contrast and film contrast.

Subject contrast: Those factors in the specimen that affect the contrast

A radiograph of a specimen of uniform thickness and density has no subject contrast.

By definition, subject contrast is the ratio of X- and gamma ray intensities transmitted by two
selected portions of the specimen.
Utilising rays produced by the lowest kilo-voltage (soft radiation) that will penetrate the specimen
achieve the best possible subject contrast. (i.e. low kV X-rays will give better subject contrast than
using high kV X-ray or gamma rays for the same specimen).
Use the lowest energy radiation for the penetration of specific half value layer of a material type -
(Half value layers is a thickness of material that will reduce radiation to one half the original
intensity.)
By increasing or decreasing the penetrating power obviously affects subject contrast, but there are
limits to how far the kilo-voltage can be changed.

Figure A
As shown in figure A, a very low kV results in zero penetration of the thickest section and a high
density in the thinnest.
This result in a very high contrast, but may be impractical since discontinuities that might lie in
thickest section could not appear on the film.

Figure B

As shown in figure B, a kV is selected that is so high that it penetrates all sections almost equally
and results in equal density with no subject contrast.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 49

A skilled radiographer is expected to select a kilo-voltage that will adequately penetrate the
specimen and still give the necessary subject contrast.
Film Contrast: Those factors in the film that affect the contrast.

Film contrast is defined as the inherent ability of a film to show a density difference for a given
change in film exposure.
For example fine grain (slow) film has better film contrast as a large grain (fast) film.
All film manufacturers produce several different types of film and some types have the ability to
show more film contrast than others.

As shown above, both film types received the same amount of radiation in a single exposure.
However, film A has the ability to show better film contrast.
Film contrast values of any particular film are usually expressed as a relationship between film
exposure and resulting density.

Total radiographic contrast is defined as the combination of subject contrast and film contrast and
depends upon:
 Radiation applied
 Film type
 Exposure
 Film processing
 Specimen
 Scattered radiation
 Type of screens used.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 50

Definition
Definition is affected by the following:
 Scattered Radiation
 Unsharpness

Scattered radiation
Adversely affects both the contrast and the definition of the radiograph. Scattered radiation is usually
described with reference to its origin.

Internal scatter originates within the specimen.

On the left is a radiograph that would be obtained if there were no internal scatter.
On the right is shown a loss of definition caused by the internal scatter.

Side scatter originates from wall, or any other objects nearby that are in the path of the radiation
ray.

Backscatter originates from any material. Wall, floor, tabletop or any other objects that is
located in back of the film.
Placing a lead letter B on the back of the cassette identifies backscatter.
If the letter image appears on the film, this would indicate scatter radiation.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 51

Unsharpness

Total unsharpness is the sum of Inherent Unsharpness plus Geometric Unsharpness .

Inherent Unsharpness is caused by free electrons that are generated by the radiation ray as it passes
through the film. This scattering of free electrons through the film causes the film to be exposed
wherever the electrons travel.
The scattering causes some degree of fuzzy edges on the image and cannot be avoided.

Geometric Unsharpness must be given primary consideration in order to assure satisfactory

sharpness and essential freedom from distortion in the radiographic image.

A certain degree of distortion naturally exists in every radiograph because some parts of the test
object will always be further from the film than other parts.

The greatest magnification is evident in the image of those parts at the greatest distance from the
radiographic film.

Distortion cannot be eliminated entirely, but by the use of appropriate source-film distance it can
be lessened to a point where it will not be objectionable.

Geometric unsharpness occurs if the basic principles of shadow formation are not followed.
Five factors govern the geometric unsharpness of a radiograph
 Source size (Dimensions).
 Source-to-object distance.
 Object-to-film distance.
 Distortion of image.
 Perpendicularly of the ray.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 52

 Where:

1 = Focal or Source size (F)

2 = Geometric unsharpness (μg)
3 = Source to film distance (SFD)
4 = Defect to film distance (DFD)
5 = Source to object distance
6 = Object thickness (t)

Formula to calculate Geometric Unsharpness:

Ug = Ft Where: Ug = geometric unsharpness

d F = focal spot or source size
t = specimen thickness (penetrated thickness)
d = source to object distance

Source size must be as small as possible. When the source is not a point but a small area, the image cast
is not very sharp.
Penumbra cannot be completely eliminated because a point source cannot be obtained in radiographic
equipment.
Considering the case where the defect is narrower than the focus width.
In this situation the un-sharp images of each of the two of the defect overlap and an image results which
is not only un-sharp, but suffers a reduction in contrast, compared with the contrast of an image of the
same defect made with a point source.

Penumbra can be reduced when the source/focus-to-film distance (SFD/FFD) is increased.

To obtain a radiograph that is as sharp as possible, so as to show maximum detail, the total unsharpness
should be kept to a minimum.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 53

Several codes of good practice give graphs from which the minimum SFD/FFD can be determined.

Formula: SFD/FFD = (Ft / Ug) + t

Another very important technique to reduce penumbra is to keep the film as close to the object as
possible.
Whenever possible, the rays from the source should be directed perpendicularly to the film to prevent a
distorted image.

On a radiograph a three dimensional specimen is presented on a two-dimensional plane (the film) and the
appearance of both the specimen and the any defects depend on the orientation of the beam of
radiation.

For example, as shown below, the image of a gas wormhole may be circular or elongated according to the
beam angle.

In general, the beam of radiation should be at right angles to the film, and specimens should whenever
possible be laid flat on the film cassette.

Special angle shots are however sometimes useful.

For example, to detect lack of side-wall fusion in a single “V” weld preparation. These types of defects are
often not recorded on the radiograph. To detect such defects, several different exposures at several
different angles may be necessary for complete coverage.

With set-up A it is unlikely to detect the LOF but with set-up B it is very likely.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 54

It is often difficult to obtain an image of a discontinuity that has a thickness of less than 2% of the overall
thickness of the specimen.

Object shape
Object shape is another geometrical factor that affects the definition on a radiograph.
The image of an inclusion could be almost invisible because of a gradual change in photographic density.
Object A below will have the best definition because of the abrupt thickness change.

Object A Object B

Film graininess
Film graininess also affects the definition of the radiograph. While large grain films are often used to
reduce exposure time, the small grain films provide the best definition.
Radiographic films are usually described as “ultra-fine grain”, “very-fine grain”, “medium-grain”, or very
slow, slow, medium-slow, fast etc.

Latitude
Latitude is closely related to contrast but opposite sense. The radiograph with the highest contrast has
the least latitude and vice versa.
Latitude is the range of thicknesses that can be adequately recorded on the radiograph.

With low energy the latitude At high energy, the contrast

is weak, only two steps on is not good but you have
the radiograph can be good latitude and therefore
interpreted, but you have all the steps can be
good contrast interpreted

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 55

Image Quality
Image Quality is the extent to which a radiograph is able to show clearly details of a given relative size.

The discernability of a defect on the radiograph depends in general on:

 the quality of the radiation,
 the quality of the film,
 the film viewing conditions.

Image contrast, image sharpness and film graininess govern the quality of the image.

The contrast will be controlled by:

 the thickness differences of the specimen,
 the density (opacity) differences of the specimen and defects,
 the shape and position of defects,
 the quality of the radiation,
 the amount of scattered radiation,
 the filtering.

The sharpness of the image will be controlled by:

 the effective size of the focal spot or source size,
 the focus-to-object (FFD) or source-to object (SFD) distance,
 the object-to film distance,
 the contact between the film and screens in cassette,
 the type of intensifying screens used,
 the radiation energy used.

The film quality is governed by its contrast at the density used, its resolving power and graininess, the
latter being decided by:
 the thickness of the emulsion layer,
 the concentration of the silver grains in the emulsion (silver/gelatin ratio),
 size distribution of the silver grains (film speed)
 the radiation energy employed.

Of these last factors only the next part is under the control of the radiographer, the other are
manufacturing properties.

The film viewing conditions are controlled by:

 the viewing screen light intensity (luminance),
 the ambient (viewing room) lighting,
 the diffusion and uniformity of the viewing screen,
 illumination,
 film masking,
 the acuity of vision of the film interpreter.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 56

Image Quality Indicators ( IQI) – Penetrameters

The penetrameter is a device whose image on a radiograph is used to determine radiographic

quality level (sensitivity).
It is not intended for use in judging the size or in establishing acceptance limits of discontinuities.
To be able to assess the image quality of a radiograph, it needs to be converted into a numerical
value, and to do this we use IQI's.
IQI's consist typically, of a series of thin wires of different diameters or a series of small plates of
various thicknesses drilled with small holes of various diameters.
The IQI is placed in contact with the object being radiographed on the side facing t he radiation
source (X-rays or Gamma rays).
The sensitivity of the radiograph is, for example, quoted as the number of the thinnest wire that
is visible for a distance of 10mm minimum, we then speak of the "image quality number" or the
BZ number of the IQI.
The sensitivity can also be expressed as a percentage. If, for instance, the diameter of the
thinnest wire visible is equal to 2% of the test piece thickness, the wire discernibility is said to be
2%.
The IQI does not provide a guarantee of the detection of a defect of equivalent size.
For example, it would untrue to claim that because a wire of 2% of the specimen thickness can be
seen on the radiograph, that a crack extending only 2% through the thickness can also be
detected.
The IQI used must be made of the same material as the specimen.
IQI’s are available in Copper, Steel, titanium and Aluminium with three wire lengths 10, 25 and
50mm.
There are three main IQI designs in use:
 the wire type
 the step/hole type
 the plaque/hole type

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 57

See Code Book
Exposure Techniques

Single Wall – Single Image

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 58

Double Wall – Single Image

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 59

Double Wall – Double Image

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 60

Common Radiographic Faults
Occasionally, as a result of an error in technique or of mishandling of materials, an unsatisfactory
radiograph is produces.
Obviously the radiographer will look for the cause and try to prevent a recurrence of the
condition.
To help him in his search, the possible sources of the more common faults are described and
corrective procedures are suggested here.

High film density

Excessive film density may be caused by overexposure to X -radiation, overdevelopment of the
film, or by fog (see later discussio n of Fog).

Overexposure
Overexposure of X-ray film is usually caused by incorrect exposure factors. To compensate for
overexposure, it may be feasible to view the film with a higher intensity of illumination.
To correct for overexposure, decrease the exposure by at least one-third. Also check meters and
X-ray timer to be certain that they are in adjustment.

Overdevelopment
Causes of overdevelopment are too long a development time, too warm a developer solution, or
both.
To correct for overdevelopment, follow manufacturer's development recommendations.
Check the darkroom timer and the developer temperature.

Low film density

Inadequate film density may result from underexposure, underdevelopment, or the presence of
foreign material between the lead screen and the film.

Underexposure
The usual cause of underexposure is the use of incorrect exposure factors. To correct, increase
the exposure by 40 percent or more.

Underdevelopment
Underdevelopment of X-ray film may result from too short development time, developer solution
to cold, weak developer solution, or a combination of these causes.
To correct for inadequate development time or low temperature, follow the manufacturer's
development recommendations.
Check that the darkroom timer and the temperature of the developer.
To correct for weak developer, discard the developer and make a fresh solution. Check the
capacity of the tank. Be certain that the tank does not leak and that water does not flow into it.
Material between Lead Screens and Film
Lowered density will result if any intervening material such as paper separates the lead screen
from the recording film.

High radiographic contrast

Excessive radiographic contrast may result from high subject contrast or high film contrast.

High Subject Contrast

The usual cause of excessive subject contrast is a thickness range in the test specimen too great
for the radiation quality used.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 61

To correct, increase the kilo-voltage. Use a filter at the X-ray tube. Use masking to lessen the
thickness range. (It may help to view the dense portions of too contrasty a radiograph with
increased intensity of illumination).

High Film Contrast

To correct, use film of lower contrast.

Low radiographic contrast

Causes of low radiographic contrast include low subject contrast, low film contrast, and
underdevelopment.

Poor definition
Possible causes of poor definition in X -ray images include: geometric exposure factors, poor
contact between film and intensifying screens, graininess of fluorescent intensifying screens, and
graininess of film.

Geometric Exposure Factors

Poor image definition can result from use of excessive object -film distance, from the use of an X-
ray tube with a large focal spot, or from a large gamma -ray source.
To correct excessive object-film distance, decrease the distance between object and film.
If that is impossible, increase the distance between the radiation source and the film.

Fog
Fog on X-ray films can result from excessive exposure of film to light (including safelights),
inadequacy of film storage facilities, or improper film processing.

Excessive Exposure of Film to Light

Light exposure of X-ray film can result from light leaks in the film -processing room or excessive
exposure of film to safelights during loading or unloading, or during processing.
To correct light leaks, examine the film loading and processing areas with all lights in the
processing room out and bright lights in adjoining rooms turned on.
Seal any light leaks noted.
To correct excessive exposure to safelights, check the safety factor of safelight lamps. Check the
condition of safelight filters and replace if necessary. (Faded filter dyes may result from an
overheated safelight if a bulb of high wattage is employed.)

Inadequacy of Film Storage Facilities.

Inadequacy of film storage facilities may result from insufficient protection from X or gamma
radiation or from excessive exposure to heat, humidity, and gases.
To detect insufficient protection from X -radiation, test the protection by attaching a heavy lead
strip to the exposure side of a loaded X -ray exposure holder. Place the holder in the location
where the film is stored.
Develop the test film after two or three weeks; if an image of the strip is noted, safeguards sho uld
be improved. If insufficient protection from gamma radiation is suspected, use the recommended
precautionary measures in storing and handling radioactive substances.

Improper Film Processing

Improper film processing leading to fog can be caused by overdevelopment, incorrectly mixed or
contaminated developer solutions or from prolonged inspection of film under safelights during
development.
To correct overdevelopment, check the darkroom timer and the temperature of the developer.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 62

If the developer solution has been mixed incorrectly, discard the solution and make a new
developer solution, following the manufacturer's instructions. Be sure that the processing tanks
and implements are made from materials inert to the developer.
To avoid safelight fog, do not inspect film until it is adequately fixed. Rely on the time -
temperature method to indicate correct development.

Avoid contamination of developing solutions.

Streaks
Causes of streaking of X-ray films may be associated with development, stop bath and fixer, or
film drying.

Streaks associated with Development

Streaks associated with development may result from contaminated film hangers, lack of agitation
during processing, or inspection before fixation.

Film hangers may be kept clean by making sure that the wash water covers them completely,
including the top bar. Hanger clips should be kept free of accumulated emulsion.
Streaks due to lack of agitation are eliminated by agitating the film at regular intervals during
development with proper technique.
Films should not be held in front of safelights during or directly after development because
developer running across the film will process streaks.

Streaks Associated with Stop Bath and Fixer

Streaks can also result from interaction of developer and fixer, from insufficient agitation of film
in the stop bath, -or from inspection of films before clearing.
To avoid interaction of developer and fixer, use an acid stop bath or rinse films thoroughly
running water between development and fixing.
Films should be agitated on first immersion into the stop bath.
Films should not be inspected in front of an illuminator until the original diffused milky-ness has
disappeared.

Streaks Associated with Drying

To avoid water spots and streaks, a wetting agent should be used in the final water rinse before
drying films. Alternatively, film may be gently swabbed with a moist viscose sponge to remove
drops of water clinging to the emulsion.

Yellow stain
Yellow stain may be associated with development, omission of stop bath or rinsing, or fixation.

Stain Associated with Development

Yellow stain may result from prolonged development in old, oxidized developer. To correct discard
the developer solution and replace with a fresh solution.

Stain Associated with Omission of Stop Bath or Rinsing

It is essential to use a stop bath or to rinse films thoroughly in clean water before placing them in
the fixer solution.

Stain Associated with Fixation

Yellow stain may be caused by exhausted fixer solution. To correct, replace the fixer solution
frequently.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 63

Miscellaneous artifacts
Various artifacts can result from improper technique during drying film exposure and processing.
Crimp marks can be eliminated by avoiding sharp bends in the film when inserting it in cassettes or
film holders.

To avoid pressure marks, protect the film from pressure or blows; use a rigid cassette when
possible.
To eliminate air bells, tap the top bar of the film hanger sharply against the ta nk when first
immersing the film in the developer. This will dislodge any air bubbles clinging to the surface of the
film.
Light Spots can be caused by stop bath or fixer splashed onto film, before development. Avoid
splashing of solutions.
Be sure hands are clean and dry before handling films.
Additional artifacts can result from foreign material on or imbedded in intensifying screens. To
avoid these, handle screens carefully and inspect them periodically for damage and contamination.
Hair-like material between lead or fluorescent screens and film during exposure can produce light
marks or images. These can be avoided by keeping cassettes and exposure holders clean and by
keeping them closed when not in use.

Dark spots and lines

Dark spots on films can be caused by water or developer splashed onto films before development.
Static marks are avoided by handling films gently. Film should be removed slowly from its box and
from cassettes or exposure holders.
Scratches on lead screens can also produce dark lines on the developed film.

White scum
A milky-appearing fixer solution can result when the fixer is too warm when mixed or is mixed too
rapidly. To correct, follow the manufacturer's directions.
White scum can also be a consequence of developer carried over to the fixer solution. To avoid
this, use a stop bath, or rinse films thoroughly in clean water before placing them in the fixer
solution.

Physical damage to film emulsion

Reticulation (puckered or netlike film surfaces) can result from sudd en extreme temperature
changes in processing.
To correct, maintain all processing solutions, and water for rinsing and washing, at as near the
same temperature as possible. Use a fixer solution that will provide adequate hardening action.
Frilling (loosening of film emulsion from base) can result from warm or exhausted fixer solution.
To correct, control the temperature of the fixer and replace the solution frequently.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 64

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Viewing Radiographs
Radiographs (developed film exposed to x-ray or gamma radiation) are generally viewed on a light-box.
However, it is becoming increasingly common to digitize radiographs and view them on a high
resolution monitor. Proper viewing conditions are very important when interpreting a radiograph. The
viewing conditions can enhance or degrade the subtle details of radiographs.
Before beginning the evaluation of a radiograph, the viewing equipment and area should be considered.
The area should be clean and free of distracting materials. Magnifying aids, masking aids, and film
markers should be close at hand. Thin cotton gloves should be available and worn to prevent
fingerprints on the radiograph. Ambient light levels should be low. Ambient light levels of less than 2 fc
are often recommended, but subdued lighting (rather than total darkness) is preferable in the viewing
room. The brightness of the surroundings should be about the same as the area of interest in the
radiograph. Room illumination must be arranged so that there are no reflections from the surface of
the film under examination.
Film viewers should be clean and in good working condition. There are four groups of film viewers.
These include strip viewers, area viewers, spot viewers, and a combination of spot and area viewers.
Film viewers should provide a source of defused, adjustable, and relativity cool light as heat from
viewers can cause distortion of the radiograph. A film having a measured density of 2.0 will allow only
1% of the incident light to pass. A film containing a density of 4.0 will allow only 0.01% of the incident
light to pass. With such low levels of light passing through the radiograph, the delivery of a good light
source is important.
The radiographic process should be performed in accordance with a written procedure or code, or as
required by contractual documents. The required documents should be available in the viewing area
and referenced as necessary when evaluating components. Radiographic film quality and acceptability,
as required by the procedure, should first be determined. It should be verified that the radiograph was
produced to the correct density on the required film type, and that it contains the correct identification
information. It should also be verified that the proper image quality indicator was used and that the
required sensitivity level was met. Next, the radiograph should be checked to ensure that it does not
contain processing and handling artifacts that could mask discontinuities or other details of interest.
The technician should develop a standard process for evaluating the radiographs so that details are not
overlooked.
Once a radiograph passes these initial checks, it is ready for interpretation. Radiographic film
interpretation is an acquired skill combining visual acuity with knowledge of materials, manufacturing
processes, and their associated discontinuities. If the component is inspected while in service, an
understanding of applied loads and history of the component is helpful. A process for viewing
radiographs (e.g. left to right, top to bottom, etc.) is helpful and will prevent overlooking an area on the
radiograph. This process is often developed over time and individualized. One part of the interpretation
process, sometimes overlooked, is rest. The mind as well as the eyes need to occasionally rest when
interpreting radiographs.
When viewing a particular region of interest, techniques such as using a small light source and moving
the radiograph over the small light source, or changing the intensity of the light source will help the
radiographer identify relevant indications. Magnifying tools should also be used when appropriate to
help identify and evaluate indications. Viewing the actual component being inspected is very often
helpful in developing an understanding of the details seen in a radiograph.
Interpretation of radiographs is an acquired skill that is perfected over time. By using the proper
equipment and developing consistent evaluation processes, the interpreter will increase his or her
probability of detecting defects.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 67

Radiograph Interpretation - Welds
In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the radiographer must also be skilled in radiographic
interpretation. Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three basic steps: (1) detection, (2)
interpretation, and (3) evaluation. All of these steps make use of the radiographer's visual acuity. Visual
acuity is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an image. The ability of an individual to detect
discontinuities in radiography is also affected by the lighting condition in the place of viewing, and the
experience level for recognizing various features in the image. The following material was developed to
help students develop an understanding of the types of defects found in weldments and how they
appear in a radiograph.

Discontinuities

Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These interruptions may occur in
the base metal, weld material or "heat affected" zones. Discontinuities, which do not meet the
requirements of the codes or specifications used to invoke and control an inspection, are referred to as
defects.

General Welding Discontinuities

The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.

Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base metal or the
previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently and
causes the slightly molten puddle to flow into the base material without bonding.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 68

Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take many shapes on a
radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks appearing singularly, in clusters,
or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is elongated and may appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas
attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All
porosity is a void in the material and it will have a higher radiographic density than the surrounding
area.

Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with moisture. The moisture
turns into a gas when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the welding process. Cluster
porosity appear just like regular porosity in the radiograph but the indications will be grouped close
together.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 69

Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld and base
metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along the weld joint areas
are indicative of slag inclusions.

Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld metal fails to penetrate
the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural
stress riser from which a crack may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-
defined, straight edges that follows the land or root face down the center of the weldment.

Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base metal.
Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark line or lines oriented in the direction of the weld
seam along the weld preparation or joining area.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 70

Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal has contracted as it cools and has
been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph it looks similar to a lack of penetration but
the line has irregular edges and it is often quite wide in the center of the weld image.

Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of the weld. In the
radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the centerline of the weldment.
Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP because it does not follow a ground edge.

External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of the weld. In the
radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside edge of the weld area.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 71

Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being welded together are
not properly aligned. The radiographic image shows a noticeable difference in density between the two
pieces. The difference in density is caused by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line
is caused by the failure of the weld metal to fuse with the land area.

Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld metal deposited is
less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to determine by radiograph if the weld has
inadequate reinforcement, because the image density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be
higher (darker) than the image density of the surrounding base material.

Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in excess of that specified by
engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld.
A visual inspection will easily determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the
engineering requirements.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 72

Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a direction that produces a
change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint
irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.

Discontinuities in TIG welds

The following discontinuities are unique to the TIG welding process. These discontinuities occur in most
metals welded by the process, including aluminum and stainless steels. The TIG method of welding
produces a clean homogeneous weld which when radiographed is easily interpreted.

Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the electrode in
tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding procedures are used, tungsten may be entrapped in the
weld. Radiographically, tungsten is more dense than aluminum or steel, therefore it shows up as a
lighter area with a distinct outline on the radiograph.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 73

Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded (especially aluminum).
Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding material and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly
shaped discontinuities in the radiograph.

Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW)

The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds.

Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom surface of the weld or
contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear as light, "wire like" indications.

Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to penetrate the weld zone.
Often lumps of metal sag through the weld, creating a thick globular condition on the back of the weld.
These globs of metal are referred to as icicles. On a radiograph, burn-through appears as dark spots,
which are often surrounded by light globular areas (icicles).

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 74

Radiograph Interpretation - Castings
The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is the disclosure of defects that adversely affect
the strength of the product. Castings are a product form that often receive radiographic inspection
since many of the defects produced by the casting process are volumetric in nature, and are thus
relatively easy to detect with this method. These discontinuities of course, are related to casting
process deficiencies, which, if properly understood, can lead to accurate accept-reject decisions as well
as to suitable corrective measures. Since different types and sizes of defects have different effects of
the performance of the casting, it is important that the radiographer is able to identify the type and size
of the defects. ASTM E155, Standard for Radiographs of castings has been produced to help the
radiographer make a better assessment of the defects found in components. The castings used to
produce the standard radiographs have been destructively analyzed to confirm the size and type of
discontinuities present. The following is a brief description of the most common discontinuity types
included in existing reference radiograph documents (in graded types or as single illustrations).

RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS FOR CASTINGS

Gas porosity or blow holes are caused by accumulated gas

or air which is trapped by the metal. These discontinuities
are usually smooth-walled rounded cavities of a spherical,
elongated or flattened shape. If the sprue is not high enough
to provide the necessary heat transfer needed to force the
gas or air out of the mold, the gas or air will be trapped as
the molten metal begins to solidify. Blows can also be caused
by sand that is too fine, too wet, or by sand that has a low
permeability so that gas cannot escape. Too high a moisture
content in the sand makes it difficult to carry the excessive
volumes of water vapor away from the casting. Another
cause of blows can be attributed to using green ladles, rusty
or damp chills and chaplets.

Sand inclusions and dross are nonmetallic oxides, which

appear on the radiograph as irregular, dark blotches. These
come from disintegrated portions of mold or core walls
and/or from oxides (formed in the melt) which have not
been skimmed off prior to the introduction of the metal into
the mold gates. Careful control of the melt, proper holding
time in the ladle and skimming of the melt during pouring
will minimize or obviate this source of trouble.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 75

Shrinkage is a form of discontinuity that appears as dark spots on the radiograph. Shrinkage assumes
various forms, but in all cases it occurs because molten metal shrinks as it solidifies, in all portions of
the final casting. Shrinkage is avoided by making sure that the volume of the casting is adequately fed
by risers which sacrificially retain the shrinkage. Shrinkage in its various forms can be recognized by a
number of characteristics on radiographs. There are at least four types of shrinkage: (1) cavity; (2)
dendritic; (3) filamentary; and (4) sponge types. Some documents designate these types by numbers,
without actual names, to avoid possible misunderstanding.

Cavity shrinkage appears as areas with distinct jagged

boundaries. It may be produced when metal solidifies
between two original streams of melt coming from opposite
directions to join a common front. Cavity shrinkage usually
occurs at a time when the melt has almost reached
solidification temperature and there is no source of
supplementary liquid to feed possible cavities.

Dendritic shrinkage is a distribution of very fine lines or

small elongated cavities that may vary in density and are
usually unconnected.

Filamentary shrinkage usually occurs as a continuous

structure of connected lines or branches of variable length,
width and density, or occasionally as a network.

Sponge shrinkage shows itself as areas of lacy texture with

diffuse outlines, generally toward the mid-thickness of
heavier casting sections. Sponge shrinkage may be dendritic
or filamentary shrinkage. Filamentary sponge shrinkage
appears more blurred because it is projected through the
relatively thick coating between the discontinuities and the
film surface.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 76

Cracks are thin (straight or jagged) linearly disposed
discontinuities that occur after the melt has solidified. They
generally appear singly and originate at casting surfaces.

Cold shuts generally appear on or near a surface of cast

metal as a result of two streams of liquid meeting and failing
to unite. They may appear on a radiograph as cracks or
seams with smooth or rounded edges.

Inclusions are nonmetallic materials in an otherwise solid

metallic matrix. They may be less or more dense than the
matrix alloy and will appear on the radiograph, respectively,
as darker or lighter indications. The latter type is more
common in light metal castings.

Core shift shows itself as a variation in section thickness,

usually on radiographic views representing diametrically
opposite portions of cylindrical casting portions.

Hot tears are linearly disposed indications that represent fractures formed in a metal during
solidification because of hindered contraction. The latter may occur due to overly hard (completely
unyielding) mold or core walls. The effect of hot tears as a stress concentration is similar to that of an
ordinary crack, and hot tears are usually systematic flaws. If flaws are identified as hot tears in larger
runs of a casting type, explicit improvements in the casting technique will be required.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 77

Misruns appear on the radiograph as prominent dense areas of variable dimensions with a definite
smooth outline. They are mostly random in occurrence and not readily eliminated by specific remedial
actions in the process.

Mottling is a radiographic indication that appears as an indistinct area of more or less dense images.
The condition is a diffraction effect that occurs on relatively vague, thin-section radiographs, most often
with austenitic stainless steel. Mottling is caused by interaction of the object's grain boundary material
with low-energy X-rays (300 kV or lower). Inexperienced interpreters may incorrectly consider mottling
as indications of unacceptable casting flaws. Even experienced interpreters often have to check the
condition by re-radiography from slightly different source-film angles. Shifts in mottling are then very
pronounced, while true casting discontinuities change only slightly in appearance.

Radiographic Indications for Casting Repair Welds

Most common alloy castings require welding either in upgrading from defective conditions or in joining
to other system parts. It is mainly for reasons of casting repair that these descriptions of the more
common weld defects are provided here. The terms appear as indication types in ASTM E390. For
additional information, see the Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 3, Section 9 on the
"Radiographic Control of Welds."

Slag is nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld material and base metal.
Radiographically, slag may appear in various shapes, from long narrow indications to short wide
indications, and in various densities, from gray to very dark.

Porosity is a series of rounded gas pockets or voids in the weld metal, and is generally cylindrical or
elliptical in shape.

Undercut is a groove melted in the base metal at the edge of a weld and left unfilled by weld metal. It
represents a stress concentration that often must be corrected, and appears as a dark indication at the
toe of a weld.

Incomplete penetration, as the name implies, is a lack of weld penetration through the thickness of the
joint (or penetration which is less than specified). It is located at the center of a weld and is a wide,
linear indication.

Incomplete fusion is lack of complete fusion of some portions of the metal in a weld joint with adjacent
metal (either base or previously deposited weld metal). On a radiograph, this appears as a long, sharp
linear indication, occurring at the centerline of the weld joint or at the fusion line.

Melt-through is a convex or concave irregularity (on the surface of backing ring, strip, fused root or
adjacent base metal) resulting from the complete melting of a localized region but without the
development of a void or open hole. On a radiograph, melt-through generally appears as a round or
elliptical indication.

Burn-through is a void or open hole in a backing ring, strip, fused root or adjacent base metal.

Arc strike is an indication from a localized heat-affected zone or a change in surface contour of a
finished weld or adjacent base metal. Arc strikes are caused by the heat generated when electrical
energy passes between the surfaces of the finished weld or base metal and the current source.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 78

Weld spatter occurs in arc or gas welding as metal particles which are expelled during welding. These
particles do not form part of the actual weld. Weld spatter appears as many small, light cylindrical
indications on a radiograph.

Tungsten inclusion is usually denser than base-metal particles. Tungsten inclusions appear very light
radiographic images. Accept/reject decisions for this defect are generally based on the slag criteria.

Oxidation is the condition of a surface which is heated during welding, resulting in oxide formation on
the surface, due to partial or complete lack of purge of the weld atmosphere. The condition is also
called sugaring.

Root edge condition shows the penetration of weld metal into the backing ring or into the clearance
between the backing ring or strip and the base metal. It appears in radiographs as a sharply defined film
density transition.

Root undercut appears as an intermittent or continuous groove in the internal surface of the base
metal, backing ring or strip along the edge of the weld root.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 79

Definitions
Absorption
The process whereby the incident photons are reduced in number as they pass through matter.

Activity
The number of nuclear disintegrations per unit time taking place in a radioactive source.

Anode
The positive electrode of an X-ray tube.

Anode current
The electrons passing from the cathode to the anode in an X-ray tube.

Artifact (false indication)

A spurious indication on a radiograph caused e.g. by faults in the manufacturing, handling, exposing or
processing of a film.

Attenuation
The reduction in intensity of a beam of X- or gamma radiation during its passage through matter caused
by absorption and scattering.

Attenuation coefficient µ
The relationship between the intensity (Io) of a radiation incident on one side of an absorber and the
transmitted intensity (I) for an absorber thickness (t) as expressed by I = Io · e –( µt).

Average gradient
The slope of a line drawn between two specified points on the sensitometric (H & D) curve.

Back scatter/back scattered radiation

That part of the scattered X- or gamma radiation which is emitted at an angle of more than 90° in
relation to the direction of the incident beam.

Betatron
A machine in which electrons are accelerated in a circular orbit before being deflected onto a target to
produce high energy X-rays.

Build-up factor
The ratio of the intensity of the total radiation reaching a point, to the intensity of the primary radiation
reaching the same point.

Cassette
A rigid or flexible light-tight container for holding radiographic film or paper with or without intensifying
screens, during exposure.

Cathode
The negative electrode of an X-ray tube.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 80

Calibrated density step wedge
A piece of film having a series of different optical densities which have been calibrated to be used as
reference densities.

Characteristic curve (of a film)

A curve showing the relationship between the common logarithm of exposure, log K, and the optical
density, D.

Clearing time
The time required for the first stage of fixing of a film, during which the cloudiness disappears.

Collimation
The limiting of a beam of radiation to a form of required dimensions, by the use of diaphragms made of
absorbing material.
Collimator
A device made from radiation absorbent material such as lead or tungsten, designed to limit and define
the direction and area of the radiation beam.

Compton scatter
A form of scattering caused by a photon of X- or gamma radiation interacting with an electron and
suffering a reduction of energy, the scattered radiation being emitted at an angle to the incident
direction.
NOTE For radiation in the energy range 100 keV, to 10 MeV, it is the main factor contributing to
radiation attenuation.

Computerized tomography (CT)

A procedure by which an image of the detail in a chosen plane, perpendicular to the axis of the
specimen, is computed from a large number of X-ray absorption measurements made from many
directions perpendicular to the axis.
NOTE This is computerized axial tomography and does not apply to other means of performing
tomography.

Constant potential circuit

An electronic configuration which is designed to apply and maintain a substantially constant potential
within an X-ray tube.

Continuous spectrum
The range of wavelengths or quantum energies generated by an X-ray set.

Contrast medium
Any suitable substance, solid or liquid, applied to a material being radiographed, to enhance its
radiation contrast in total or in part.

Contrast sensitivity (thickness sensitivity)

The smallest thickness change in a specimen which produces a discernible change in optical density on a
radiographic (or radioscopic) image, usually expressed as a percentage of the total specimen thickness.

Decay curve
The activity of a radioisotope plotted against time, usually as a log/linear relationship.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 81

Densitometer
A device for the measurement of the optical density of a radiographic film or reflective density of a
photographic print.

Development (of a film or paper)

The chemical or physical process which converts a latent image into a visible image.

Diffraction mottle
A superimposed pattern on a radiographic image due to diffraction of the incident radiation by the
material structure.

Dosemeter (dosimeter)
A instrument for measuring the accumulated dose of X- or gamma radiation.

Dose rate meter

An instrument for the measurement of X- or gamma radiation dose-rate.

Dual focus tube

An X-ray tube with two different size of focus.

Duplex wire image quality indicator

An image quality indicator specifically designed to assess the overall unsharpness of a radiographic
image and composed of a series of pairs of wire elements made of high density metal.

Edge-blocking material
Material applied around a specimen or in cavities to obtain a more uniform absorption, to reduce
extraneous scattered radiation, and to prevent local over-exposure, e.g. fine lead shot.
Equalizing filter (beam flattener)
A device used to equalize the intensity across the primary X-ray beam in megavoltage radiography and
so extend the useful field size.

Equivalent X-ray voltage

The voltage of a X-ray tube which produces a radiograph most nearly equivalent to a gamma radiograph
taken with a particular gamma-ray source.

Exposure
The process whereby radiation is recorded on an imaging system.

Exposure calculator
A device (for example a slide rule) which may be used to determine the exposure time required.

Exposure chart
A chart indicating the time for radiographic exposures for different thicknesses of a specified material
and for a given quality of a beam radiation.

Exposure latitude
The range of exposures corresponding to the useful optical density range of the emulsion.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 82

Exposure time
Duration of the process of exposing a recording medium to radiation.

Film base
The support material on which the photosensitive emulsion is coated.

Film gradient (G)

The slope of the characteristic curve of a film at a specified optical density D.

Film illuminator (viewing screen)

Equipment containing a source of light and a translucent screen used for viewing radiographs.

Film processing
The operations necessary to transform the latent image on the film into a permanent visible image,
consisting normally of developing, fixing, washing and drying a film.

Film system speed

A quantitative measure of the response of a film system to radiation energy, for specific exposure
conditions.

Filter
Uniform layer of material, usual of higher atomic number than the specimen, placed between the
radiation source and the film for the purpose of preferentially absorbing the softer radiations.

Fixing
The chemical removal of silver halides from a film emulsion after development.

Flaw sensitivity
The minimum flaw size detectable under specified test conditions.

Fluorescent intensifying screen

A screen consisting of a coating of phosphors which fluoresces when exposed to X or gamma radiation.

Fluorometallic intensifying screen

A screen consisting of a metallic foil (usually lead) coated with a material that fluoresces when exposed
to X or gamma radiation.

Fluoroscopy
The production of a visible image on a fluorescent screen by X-rays and for direct viewing of the screen.

Focal spot
The X-ray emitting area on the anode of the X-ray tube, as seen from the measuring device.

Focal spot size

The dimension across the focal spot of an X-ray tube, measured parallel to the plane of the film or the
fluorescent screen.

Focus-to-film-distance (FFD)
The shortest distance from the focus of an X-ray tube to a film set up for a radiographic exposure.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 83

Fog density
A general term used to denote the optical density of a processed film caused by anything other than the
direct action of image – forming radiation. It can be aging fog, chemical fog, dichroic fog, exposure fog
or inherent fog.

Gamma radiography
Radiography using a gamma-ray source.

Gamma rays
Electromagnetic ionizing radiation, emitted by specific radioactive materials.

Gamma-ray source
Radioactive material sealed into a metal capsule.

Gamma-ray source container

A container made of dense material and having a wall thickness sufficient to produce a very great
reduction in the intensity of the radiation emitted by the source, so as to make it safe to handle.

Geometric unsharpness
Unsharpness of a radiographic image arising from the finite size of the source of radiation. Its
magnitude also depends on the distances of source-to-object and object-to-film. Also called geometric
blurring or penumbra.

Graininess
The visual appearance of granularity.

Granularity
The stochastic density fluctuations in the radiograph superimposed on the object image.

Half life
The time in which the activity of a radioactive source decays to half its value.

Half value layer/thickness (HVL)

The thickness of specified material which, when introduced into the beam of X or gamma radiation,
reduces its intensity by a half.

Illuminator
Equipment for viewing radiographs.

Image contrast
The relative change of optical density between two adjacent areas in a radiographic image.

Image definition
The sharpness of delineation of image detail in a radiograph.

Image enhancement
Any process which increases the quality of an image by improving contrast and/or definition, or
reducing noise. Often done by computer programs, when it is known as “digital image processing”.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 84

Image intensifier
An electronic device designed to provide a brighter image than produced by the unaided action of the
X-ray beam on a fluorescent screen.

Image quality
That characteristic of a radiographic image which determines the degree of detail which it shows.

Image quality indicator (IQI)

A device comprising a series of elements of graded thickness which enables a measure of the image
quality to be obtained. The elements of an IQI are commonly wires or steps with holes.

Image quality value, IQI sensitivity

Measure of the image quality required or achieved.

Incident beam axis

The axis of the beam cone defined by the focal spot and the tube window.

Industrial radiology
The science and application of X-rays, gamma rays, neutrons and other penetrating radiation in non-
destructive testing.

Inherent filtration
The filtration of a radiation beam by the parts of the tube, set up or source encapsulation, through
which the primary beam will pass.

Inherent unsharpness
The blurring of a radiographic image caused by photons of radiation dislodging electrons in the
photographic emulsion and these electrons rendering silver halide grains developable.

Intensifying factor
The ratio of the exposure time without intensifying screens, to that when screens are used, other
conditions being the same, to obtain the same optical density.

Intensifying screen
A material that converts a part of the radiographic energy into light or electrons and that, when in
contact with a recording medium during exposure, improves the quality of the radiograph, or reduces
the exposure time required to produce a radiograph or both.

Latent image
An invisible image produced in a film by radiation and capable of being converted into a visible image by
film processing.

Linear electron accelerator (LINAC)

A machine for producing high energy electrons by accelerating them along a waveguide. The electrons,
strike a target to produce X-rays.

Masking
The application of material which limits the area of irradiation of an object to the region undergoing
radiographic examination.

DOCUMENT NUMBER: NASACC-504 PAGE: 85

Metal screen
A screen consisting of dense metal (usually lead) that filters radiation and emits electrons when
exposed to X- or gamma rays.

Microfocus radiography
Radiography using an X-ray tube having a very small effective focus-size of less than 100 µm in size.
Commonly used for direct geometric enlargement of the image by projection.

Movement unsharpness
A blurring of the radiographic or radioscopic image due to relative movement of the radiation source,
object or radiation detector.

Object contrast
Relative difference of radiation transmission between two considered zones of the irradiated object.

Object-to-film distance
The distance between the radiation side of the test object and the film surface measured along the
central axis of the radiation beam.

Quality (of a beam of radiation)

The penetrating power of the radiation, often measured as a half-value thickness.

Radiation contrast
Differences in radiation intensity arising from variation in radiation opacity within an irradiated object.

Radiation source
Equipment (e.g. X-ray tube or gamma ray source) capable of emitting ionising radiation.

Radiograph
A visible image after processing produced by a beam of penetrating ionising radiation on a radiographic
film or paper. The term is also used for images produced by neutrons, electrons, protons etc.

Radiographic film
A film consisting of a transparent base, usually coated on both sides with a radiation sensitive emulsion.

Radiography
The production of radiographs on a permanent imaging support.

Radioisotope
Isotopes of an element with the property of spontaneously emitting particles or gamma radiation or of
emitting X radiation.
Radioscopy
The production of a visual image by ionising radiation on a radiation detector such as fluorescent screen
and displayed on a television monitor screen.

Resolution
The distance between details this can just be separated in an image.

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Rod anode tube
A type of X-ray tube in which the target is situated at the extremity of a tubular anode; such tubes can
produce a panoramic beam of radiation.

Scattered Radiation
Radiation which has suffered a change in direction, with or without a change in energy, during its
passage through matter.

Screen type film

Radiographic film designed for use with fluorescent intensifying screens.

Source holder
A holding, carrying, or attachment device, by means of which the gamma ray source (sealed source) can
be fixed in the exposure container, or at the head of a remote control device.

Source size
The size of the source of radiation.

Source-to-film distance (SFD)

The distance between the source of radiation and the film measured in the direction of the beam.

Specific activity
The activity per unit mass of a radioisotope.

Step wedge
Object in the form of a series of steps of a same material.

Stereo radiography
The production of a pair of radiographs suitable for stereoscopic viewing.

Target
The area on the surface of the anode of an X-ray tube on which the electron beam impinges and from
which the primary beam of X-rays is emitted

Tube diaphragm
A device, normally fixed to a tube shield or head, to limit the extent of the emergent X-ray beam.

Tube head
That part of an X-ray installation that contains the tube in its shield.

Tube shield
The housing of an X-ray tube which reduces the leakage radiation to defined values.

Tube shutter
A device attached to a tube shield, generally of lead and usually remotely operated, used to control the
emergence of the X-ray beam.

Tube window
The area of an X-ray tube through which the radiation is emitted.

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Tube voltage
The high voltage applied between the anode and the cathode of an X-ray tube.

Unsealed source
Any radioactive source which is not sealed into a capsule.

Unsharpness
Due to image blurring a loss of image definition. It is combination of “geometric unsharpness”,
“inherent unsharpness” and “movement unsharpness”.

Useful density range

The range of optical density on a radiograph that is used for image interpretation. The upper limit is
determined by the film illuminator and the lower limit by the loss in flaw sensitivity.

Vacuum cassette
A light-tight container that where operated under a vacuum holds film and screen in intimate contact
during radiographic exposure.

Viewing mask
An attachment to an illuminator to exclude glare.

Visual contrast
The visual density difference between two adjacent areas on an illuminated radiograph.

X-rays
Penetrating electromagnetic radiation, within the approximate wavelength range of 1 nm to 0,0001
nanometres, produced when high velocity electrons impinge on a metal target.

X-ray film
See “Radiographic film”

X-ray tube
A vacuum tube, usually containing a filament to produce electrons which are accelerated to strike an
anode, on the surface of which X-rays are produced.

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