CHA P TER

16
Digestion and Absorption | 235

DÏGËSTÏØÑ ÅÑD
ÅBSØRPTÏØÑ
236 | A Handbook of Biology

 Nutrition is the process of obtaining and utilising of energy rich nutrients

(food) by an organism. Food consists of carbohydrates, proteins, fats
(lipids), vitamins, minerals and water. Food provides energy for life
activities, materials for growth, maintains body temperature and repairs
tissues. The water plays an important role in metabolic processes and
prevents dehydration of the body.

HÜMÅÑ DÏGËSTÏVË SÝSTËM

ALIMENTARY CANAL

Mouth
Buccal cavity
Pharynx
Oesophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Anus

DIGESTIVE GLANDS

Salivary glands
Gastric glands
Liver
Pancreas The human digestive system

Intestinal glands

ÅLÏMËÑTÅRÝ ÇÅÑÅL (GÜT)

It includes the following parts:

MØÜTH:
To receive the food (ingestion).

TËËTH :
The tooth is made up of three structures basically.
Digestion and Absorption | 237

Pulp : Mass of
Enamel : The connective tissue Dentin : The
hard chewing in center of tooth tissue beneath
surface of teeth. beneath dentin the enamel
layer

Nature & mode of arrangement of teeth is called dentition.

Human dentition is Thecodont, Heterodont & Diphyodont. (NEET 2018)
 Thecodont : It means teeth are placed in the jaw sockets.
 Heterodont : It means different kinds of teeth are present.
They are incisors (I) for cutting, canines (C) for tearing, premolars (PM) &
molars (M) for mastication.
Premolars & molars are collectively called as cheek teeth which have cusps.

Diphyodont

It means teeth appear twice in the lifetime. They are milk (deciduous)
teeth and permanent teeth. Milk teeth (20 in number) are erupted at 6-7
months of birth. They are replaced by permanent teeth (32 in number) at
the age of 6-7. Last 4 molars (wisdom teeth) appear only at the age of 18.

Monophyodont

Teeth appearing just once in lifetime.

DENTAL FORMULA :

It explains the kinds and number of teeth.

HUMAN DENTAL FORMULA (OF PERMANENT TEETH) :

2 1 2 3  2123  Incisor
I C PM M × 2 = 32  
2 1 2 3  2123 
Canine

Premolars
DENTAL FORMULA OF MILK DENTITION :

2 1 0 2  2102  Molars
I C PM M × 2 = 20   Socket
2 1 0 2  2102  of jaw

0021
DENTAL FORMULA OF MONOPHYODONT =
0021
238 | A Handbook of Biology

BÜÇÇÅL ÇÅVÏTÝ (ØRÅL ØR MØÜTH ÇÅVÏTÝ):

 Consists of palate (roof), teeth & muscular tongue.
 Palate has anterior hard palate and posterior soft palate.

Tongue is a muscular organ attached to the floor of oral cavity by

the frenulum. Tongue has small projections called papillae. Some
papillae bear taste buds.
Type of papillae are: filiform, fungiform, circumvallate
At the back, on either side of tongue tonsils are present.

PHÅRÝÑX:
Common passage for digestive and respiratory systems.
When food materials pass through the pharynx, the cartilaginous
epiglottis closes the glottis (opening of larynx) and prevents the entry
of food into trachea.
An eustachian tube connects the middle ear cavity with the Pharynx

ØËSØPHÅGÜS:
Muscular tube (30 cm) that conducts food into J – shaped structure
called stomach.
Posterior part of the oesophagus has gastro-oesophageal sphincter
(a circular muscle). It controls the opening of oesophagus into
stomach.

STØMÅÇH :
'J' shaped structure for storage
and digestion of food.
4 parts: upper (anterior) fundus,
cardiac, main body, & lower
(posterior) pyloric (antrum).
Pyloric stomach leads to small
intestine by an opening called
Pylorus, guarded by pyloric
sphincter muscle.
Inner wall of stomach bears rugae
(longitudinal muscular folds).
Digestion and Absorption | 239

SMÅLL ÏÑTËSTÏÑË :
 Longest part of gut (7 m long and 2.5 cm diameter).
 Consists 3 parts, namely duodenum (C shaped first part 25 cm
long), Jejunum (middle part 1 m long, coiled) and Ileum (terminal
part 2 m long, highly coiled). (NEET 2020)
 Finger-like villi are seen at the mucosa. Each villus has a brush-
bordered columnar epithelial layer provided with microvilli. Villus
consists of a capillary network and a small lymph vessel (lacteal).

LÅRGË ÏÑTËSTÏÑË
1.5 m long. Consists of caecum, colon and rectum.
Caecum is well-developed in herbivores but in man it is very small.
Arising from the caecum is a finger-like vestigial organ, the vermiform
appendix.
The colon consists of ascending colon, transverse colon, descending
colon and sigmoid part (opens into the rectum)
Sigmoid or pelvic colon leads to rectum that opens out by anus. Anus is
guarded by sphincter (circular voluntary muscles).
In some herbivores, the large intestine consists of several cellulose
digesting bacteria.

HÏSTØLØGÝ ØF HÜMÅÑ GÜT (TRÅÑSVËRSË SËÇTÏØÑ)

HÜMÅÑ GÜT ÏS FØRMËD ØF 4 LÅÝËRS

Mucosa : Innermost, moist epithelial layer. Contains secretory

1 (E.g. Gastric glands in stomach and crypts of Lieberkuhn in
intestine (NEET 2019) and absorptive cells. (E.g. villi in small
intestine). Mucosa Associated Lymphatic Tissues (MALT) is
present on the lining of mucosa layer. Villi are supplied with a network of
capillaries & large lymph vessel called the lacteal.

Sub-mucosa : Soft connective tissue layer just outside the

2 mucosa. Nerves and blood vessels are present. In duodenum,
glands are also present in sub – mucosa.
240 | A Handbook of Biology

Muscularis externa : Outer to sub-mucosa. Smooth muscle

3 layer (inner circular & outer longitudinal muscles).

Serosa : Outermost fibrous layer. It is made of thin mesothelium,

4 with some connective tissues. Epithelium of visceral organs

DÏGËSTÏVË (ÅSSØÇÏÅTËD) GLÅÑDS

 They secrete digestive juices. They include salivary glands, gastric
glands, intestinal glands, pancreas & liver

Salivary glands : 3 pairs. They are

 Parotids (2) : largest salivary gland. Seen in cheeks. Stenson’s duct is the
major duct
 Sub-maxillary/sub-mandibular (2): Seen in lower jaw. Wharton’s duct
is the submaxillary duct
 Sub-lingual (2) : Below the tongue. Duct of Rivinus connects the
sublingual gland to the floor of the buccal cavity
 Salivary glands secrete saliva. It contains 99.5% water, mucin (mucus),
enzymes like salivary amylase (Ptyalin) and lysozyme and electrolytes
(Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3- etc).

Gastric glands : Tubular glands found on the inner wall. They consists of :

Mucus neck cells: Secrete mucus. Mucus and bicarbonates protect the
stomach wall (mucosal epithelium) from HCl and prevents autodigestion.

Chief (zymogen or peptic) cells: Secrete proenzymes like pepsinogen &

pro-rennin and some lipase

Oxyntic (parietal) cells: Secrete HCl & Castle’s intrinsic factor (for
absorption of vitamin B12). Gastric glands secrete acidic (pH 1.8-2.0)
gastric juice. (NEET – I 2016) Small amounts of lipases are also secreted
by the gastric glands.
Digestion and Absorption | 241

LÏVËR :
 Largest gland (1.2 - 1.5 kg) Reddish brown.
 Situated in abdominal cavity, just below the
diaphragm.
 Bilobed (large right lobe & small left lobe). Each
lobe is formed of hepatic lobules (structural &
functional units).
 A lobule has many hepatic cells arranged as
cords around a central vein. They secrete alkaline bile juice.
 Liver lobule is covered by Glisson’s capsule.
 Bile secreted by the hepatic cells, passes through the hepatic ducts &
is stored & concentrated in a thin muscular sac called the gall bladder.
 The duct of gall bladder (cystic duct) along the hepatic duct from the
liver forms the common bile duct.
Bile is transported from liver to duodenum as follows:

Bile ® hepatic duct ® gall bladder ®

cystic duct ® common bile duct ®
common hepato®pancreatic duct ®
duodenum.

 Hepato-pancreatic duct is guarded by sphincter of Oddi. (NEET 2016)

 Bile has no enzymes but contains bile pigments (bilirubin & biliverdin),
bile salts, cholesterol and phospholipids.

PÅÑÇRËÅS :
Second largest gland. Seen near duodenal loop

It is a cream-coloured heterocrine gland, i.e. it has both exocrine and

endocrine parts.

The exocrine part has a pancreatic duct or duct of wirsung that opens
into duodenum along with bile duct (hepato-pancreatic duct).

Acini cell is functional unit of the exocrine pancreas, it secretes alkaline

pancreatic juice. It contains inactive protease enzymes (trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen & procarboxypeptidases), amylases, lipases &
nucleases. (NEET 2017)
242 | A Handbook of Biology

Intestinal glands : Simple tubular glands are of 2 types:

CRYPTS OF LIEBERKUHN

Consists of mucus-secreting goblet cells and antibacterial enzyme

secreting paneth cells. (NEET 2017)

BRUNNER’S (DUODENAL) GLANDS

Confined to submucosa of duodenum. Secrete mucus only.

(NEET 2019)

DÏGËSTÏØÑ ÅÑD ÅBSØRPTÏØÑ ØF FØØD

Digestion is the conversion of complex insoluble food materials into
simple and absorbable form. It includes mechanical processes such as
mastication (chewing), deglutition (swallowing) & peristalsis (wave-like
movement of food bolus through the gut by muscular contraction).

Intestinal glands secrete alkaline intestinal juice (succus entericus).

It contains enzymes (maltase, lactase, sucrase, dipeptidase, lipases,
nucleotidases, nucleosidases etc).

The bicarbonate and mucus provide alkaline medium and protect

intestinal mucosa.

Digestion in buccal cavity: Only starch

digestion. Ptyalin converts starch
(polysaccharide) into disaccharides. About 30%
of starch is digested by ptyalin.

Salivary amylase Limit

Starch Maltose Isomaltose
pH 6.8 dextrins

Digestion in stomach: The gastro –

Oesophageal sphinter controls the passage
of food into the stomach. The Stomach stores
food for 4-5 hrs. It is mixed with gastric juice
by the churning movements and is converted
into acidic pasty form (chyme).
Digestion and Absorption | 243

HCl
Pepsinogen (inactive) Pepsin (active)

Pepsin Peptones
Protein Proteoses
(peptides)

 The gastric lipase hydrolyses a small amount of lipids

 In infants :

HCl
Prorennin (inactive) Rennin (active)

Rennin
Casein (milk protein) Paracasein

Ca2+
Paracasein Ca Paracaseinate (curd)

Pepsin
Ca Paracaseinate Peptones

Digestion in small intestine: Chyme is mixed with succus entericus,

pancreatic juice & bile juice. Pancreatic juice and bile are released through
the hepato pancreatic duct

a Action of bile: Bile helps in digestion by emulsification (conversion

of fat into micelles or tiny droplets). It provides large surface area
for the action of lipase on fat. Bile also activates lipase.

b Action of pancreatic juice: Amylopsin (Pancreatic amylase)

hydrolyses remaining starch into disaccharides.

Starch Amylopsin
¾¾¾¾¾® Maltose + Isomaltose + limit dextrins Enterokinase
(Enterokinin) secreted by intestinal mucosa activates trypsinogen
to active trypsin. Trypsin activates chymotrypsinogen &
procarboxypeptidase

c
c) Pancreatic juice contains : Trypsinogen, Chymotrypsinogen,
Amylases, Lipases, Procarboxypeptidase, nucleases [NEET 2017]
244 | A Handbook of Biology

Enterokinase
Trypsinogen Trypsin [NEET 2020]

Trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen Chymotrypsin

Trypsin
Procarboxypeptidase Carboxypeptidase

Proteins, Peptones and Trypsin/Chymotrypsin

Dipeptides
Proteoses Carboxypeptidase

Lipases Lipases
Fats Diglycerides Monoglycerides

Nucleases
Nucleic acids Nucleotides

Action of intestinal juice: The enzymes of the intestinal juice act on the end
products of the above reactions.
Dipeptidase
Dipeptides Amino acids
Maltase
Maltose Glucose + Glucose
Lactase
Lactose Glucose + Galactose

Sucrase
Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Nucleotidase
Nucleotides Nucleosides
Nucleosidase
Nucleosides Sugar + Bases
Lipases
Diglycerides, Monoglycerides Fatty acid + Glycerol

FAT DIGESTION MAINLY OCCURS IN SMALL INTESTINE.

 Fully digested semifluid and alkaline food formed in small intestine is
called chyle.

REGULATION OF DIGESTION
 The digestive activities like gastric and intestinal secretions are controlled
by the neural and hormonal mechanisms. The sight, smell or the
presence of food in the buccal cavity stimulate the salivary secretions.
Gastric & intestinal mucosa secretes digestive hormones. They control
secretion of digestive juices.
 Endocrine cells present in different parts of the gastro – intestinal track
secrete 4 major peptide hormones – Gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin
Digestion and Absorption | 245

(CCK) & gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP).

1). Gastrin, produced by

2). Secretin stimulates the
intestine, acts on gastric
secretion of bicarbonate
glands and stimulates
ions rich pancreatic fluid.
the secretion of HCl and
(NEET II 2016)
pepsinogen.

3). CCK, secreted from

4). GIP inhibits gastric
duodenum cause of
secretions and motility
contraction of gall bladder.

ÅBSØRPTÏØÑ ØF DÏGËSTËD PRØDÜÇTS

 Absorption is the transfer of end products of digestion through the
intestinal mucosa into blood & lymph. It is of 2 types- passive and active.
 Passive absorption (Passive transport): Absorption of nutrients from
higher concentrated region to lower concentrated region without the
expenditure of energy. It includes osmosis (absorption of water) and
diffusion (absorption of solute molecules).

DIFFUSION IS 2 TYPES:

Simple diffusion In this, molecules alone can be diffused. E.g. small

amounts of monosaccharides like glucose, amino acids, vitamins,
electrolytes like chloride ions etc.

Facilitated diffusion Diffusion with the help of carrier proteins. E.g.

glucose, fructose etc.

 Active absorption (Active transport): Absorption of nutrients from

lower concentrated region to higher concentrated region (i.e. against
concentration gradient). It needs energy. E.g. absorption of amino acids,
monosaccharides like glucose, electrolytes like Na+ etc.

ÅBSØRPTÏØÑ ØF LÏPÏDS
 Monoglycerides, diglycerides and fatty acids cannot be absorbed
directly as they are insoluble in water.
 Bile salts and phospholipids convert them into small spherical water-
soluble droplets called micelles.
246 | A Handbook of Biology

 They are reformed into small protein coated fat globules (chylomicrons).
[NEET 2013]
 They are transported into lacteals in the villi. From the lymph, the
chylomicrons enter the blood.

ÅBSØRPTÏØÑ ÏÑ DÏFFËRËÑT PÅRTS ØF ÅLÏMËÑTÅRÝ ÇÅÑÅL

 Mouth: Certain drugs.
 Stomach: Water, simple sugars, some drugs & alcohol.
 Small intestine: Almost all nutrients including minerals, vitamins etc.
Ileum is the chief area of absorption due to the presence of villi (it
increases surface area of absorption), its great length and coiled nature.
 Large intestine: Water, some minerals & drugs. The absorbed materials
are incorporated into tissues for their activities. It is called assimilation.
 The undigested substances like plant fibres, dead bacteria etc. form
faeces. It enters caecum through the ileo-caecal valve, which prevents
back flow of faeces.
 Faeces are temporarily stored in rectum and are eliminated through
anus. It is called egestion (defaecation).

ÇÅLØRÏFÏÇ VÅLÜË ØF PRØTËÏÑ, ÇÅRBØHÝDRÅTË ÅÑD FÅT (ÑØT FØR

ËVÅLÜÅTÏØÑ)
 One calorie is the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1g of water by 1°C.
 This value is tiny amount of energy. So physiologists use kilocalorie (kcal
or Cal) or kilo joule (kJ or Joule).
 One kilo calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature
of 1kg of water by 1°C.
 Amount of heat liberated from complete combustion of 1g food in a
bomb calorimeter (a closed metal chamber filled with O2) is its gross
calorific (gross energy) value.
 Actual amount of energy combustion of 1g of food is the physiologic
value of food.

Gross calorific value Physiologic value

Carbohydrates 4.1 kcal/g 4.0 kcal/g
Proteins 5.65 kcal/g 4.0 kcal/g
Fats 9.45 kcal/g 9.0 kcal/g
Digestion and Absorption | 247

DÏSØRDËRS ØF DÏGËSTÏVË SÝSTËM

Jaundice: Here, the skin and eye turns yellow due to the deposition of bile
pigments. It indicates liver damage.

Vomiting: Ejection of stomach content through mouth. It is controlled by

medulla oblongata.

Diarrhoea: Frequent elimination of watery faeces. It reduces the

absorption of food.

Constipation: Infrequent elimination of dry stool. It is due to decreased

peristalsis in colon with retention of faeces and irregular bowel movements.
Indigestion: Condition leading to feeling of fullness due to improper
digestion. It is due to anxiety, inadequate enzyme secretion, food
poisoning, spicy food etc. (AIPMT 2012)

Protein-Energy malnutrition (PEM): It is the dietary deficiencies of

proteins & food calories. PEM causes Marasmus & Kwashiorkor in children.

Marasmus: It is due to deficiency of both proteins and calories. It is found

in infants less than a year in age. (AIPMT 2009)

Reason: Replacement of mother’s milk by foods with poor proteins and

caloric value. This often happens if mother has second pregnancy or
child birth when the older infant is still too young.

Symptoms: Impaired growth and replacement of tissue proteins; extreme

emaciation of the body, thin limbs, dry, thin and wrinkled skin, declined
growth rate and body weight, impaired growth and development of
brain and mental faculties.

Kwashiorkor: It is due to protein deficiency only

Reason: Replacement of mother’s milk by a high calorie- low protein diet
in a child more than one year in age.
Symptoms: Like marasmus, it shows wasting of muscles, thinning of
limbs, failure of growth & brain development. Unlike marasmus, some
fat is still under the skin; extensive oedema and swelling of body parts
are seen.
248 | A Handbook of Biology

Notes