MECH 1906 Mechanical Engineering for Modern Life

Aircraft Structures
 Contents
• Introduction
• History of Aircraft Structures
• Major Parts of Aircraft
• Loads on structural components
• Functions of structural components
• Type of structures
• Frame-based or Wire-braced structures
• Stressed Skin Construction
• Materials used in aircraft structures
• Aluminum Alloys
• Steel, Titanium
• Composites and Sandwiches
• Aircraft Structural Failures
 Introduction
• Proper design of aircraft structure is essential to
• achieve intended functions;
• avoid unexpected failure;
• obtain desired lifetime.
• The history of aircraft structures underlies the history of aviation in
general.
• Advances in materials and processes for aircraft construction have
led to evolution from simple wood truss structures to the sleek
aerodynamic flying machines of today.
• Tests need to be conducted to ensure design calculations are correct
• Beyond design, there is a need to monitor components under
manufacture and service conditions to ascertain safety
 History of Aircraft Structures
[Link]

(1) Frame-Based or Wire Braced Structures

• The first fully controllable aircraft, consisting

of giant spruce wood structure, fabric cover, a
sprocket chain drive and powered by twin
propellers.
• The cradle wires pulled the wing (rolling),
and turned the rudder (yawing) and elevator
(pitching) simultaneously.

Wright Flyer
• The Wright brothers built the world's
first successful airplane and making the
first controlled, powered and sustained
heavier-than-air human flight, on
December 17, 1903.
• Orville and Wilbur’s design allowed
every aircraft ever since to have
controls; such as controls to roll the
wings left or right, pitch to move the
nose up or down, and yaw to move the
nose from side to side. These controls
allowed pilots to navigate an airplane
in all three dimensions.

[Link]
 The 1917 Sopwith Camel (Bi-plane) The 1935 Hawker Hurricane (Mono-plane)

Single wing structure: taking full advantage of thin

sheet metal manufacturing techniques such that
wooden spars and struts are just replaced by
Two parallel wings: a lighter yet stronger structure
thinner metal tubing.
than a single wing, and two wings could be
The metal skin mainly defines the shape and
supported with two light wires rather than with a
aerodynamic profile
single, thicker wooden member along with fabric
cover
 (2) Semi-monocoque Structures

Major advantages
• The outer skin of the fuselage and wing no
longer just define the shape and
aerodynamic profile of the aircraft, but
becomes an active load-carrying member
of the structure as well.
• The structure becomes “multifunctional”
and more efficient.
• The thin-skinned construction means that
compression and shear buckling become
the most likely forms of failure. In order to
increase the critical buckling loads the
skins are stiffened by stringers and broken
up into smaller sections by spars and ribs.
Semi-monocoque fuselage construction of an
early wooden flying boat
 (3) Sandwich structures and composite materials
To improve the rigidity of thin-skinned structures,
(1) the bending stiffness is increased with the aid
of external stiffeners.
(2) lightweight core material is sandwiched
The Beech Starship whose fuselage design uses
between two thin skins; the role of the
sandwich construction with minimal internal
sandwich core is to carry any shear loads and
bulkheads and ribs
separate the two skins as far as possible.
 (4) Novel Design
In addition to extensive use of carbon fiber and other composites, completely new
designs are explored to redefine the shape of aircraft.
(a) Silent wing concept
(b) NASA: Morphing of shape-changing aircraft

NASA morphing wing aircraft

MIT Silent Aircraft concept
Major Parts of Aircraft

Typical sub-assembly breakdown

 Major Parts of Aircraft
• Wing
– Provide lift, store fuels and weapons
• Fuselage
– Contains crew & payload (passengers, cargo, fuel, weapons etc.)
• Tail (horizontal & vertical stabilizers)
– Major contributor of flight stabilization and directional control
• Ailerons (rolling), elevators (pitching), rudder (yawing)
• Enable maneuver and stability
• Flaps and Spoilers
• Flaps are intended to reduce the speed at which an aircraft can be safely
flown and to increase the angle of descent for landing
• Spoilers are intended solely to create drag and not lift, for landing

A fully extended double slotted

Spoilers after landing
fowler flaps before landing
Loads on Aircraft Structure: When they act?

• Ground Loads – during transportation on the ground

– Taxiing
– Landing
– Towing
– Hoisting
• Air Loads – during flight
– Steady flight
– Manoeuvers: rolling, pitching, yawing
– Gusts
 Flight Directional Control
• Three axes of Rotation
• Longitudinal axis
• Lateral axis
• Normal axis

Rolling: Rotation about Pitching: Rotation

longitudinal axis about lateral axis

Yawing : Rotation
about Normal axis
Air Loads on Structural Components

Principal aerodynamic forces on an aircraft during flight.

(a) Pressure distribution around an airfoil; (b) Typical lift distribution for a wing/fuselage
transference of lift and drag loads to the AC. combination.
 Functions of Structural Components
• Functions of aircraft structure:
• To transmit and resist the applied loads
• To provide aerodynamic shape
• To protect passengers, payload, systems, etc. from
the environmental conditions in flight
• Frame-based or Wire-braced structures
• Stressed Skin Construction
• Monocoque
• Semi-monocoque

Truss : comprising one or more triangular units

constructed with straight members whose ends are
connected at joints, i.e. nodes.
Truss Bridge
(a) Frame-based or Wire-braced structures

• Essential load to be carried by frames

• Wires stretched from corner to corner to support
the frame from collapsing
• Two major features:
– Two wings (bi-plane) one placed above the other
can bring more lift: later the biplane concept is
abandoned for improved aerodynamics
– Frame could be held in shape with light wires for
weight reduction
 (b) Stressed skin construction
• The current standard for most general aviation
aircraft builders
• The metal skin exterior is riveted, or bolted and
riveted, to the finished fuselage frame
• The skin of the structure is load bearing, different
from a truss structure where the skin is not load
bearing
• Types
– Monocoque: Skins are used solely to resist loads
– Semi-monocoque: Outer skin is supported by longitudinal
stiffening members
 Monocoque Structure
• A thin walled tube or shell which may
have bulkheads or formers installed
within.
• It can carry loads effectively, particularly
when the tubes are of small diameter.
• The stresses in the monocoque fuselage
are transmitted primarily by the strength of
the skin.
• As the diameter of the fuselage
increases in monocoque structures,
the weight-to-strength ratio increases,
difficult to sustain the external stresses.
 Semi-Monocoque Structure
• Depends primarily on bulkheads, frames and
formers for vertical strength.
• Depends on longerons and stringers for
longitudinal strength.
• The most popular type of structure used in
aircraft design today.
• Enabled aircraft designers to use aluminum skins as
light as 0.4 mm in thickness for primary structure
on airplane
Longeron: a longitudinal structural
component of an aircraft’s fuselage.
Load Transfer in Fuselage
Strong compressive loads
applied on the fuselage skin
may cause it to buckle

The loads acting on the skin

has to be transferred to
A. Frame
B. Stringer

Fuselage section
 Load Transfer in Wings
The skin of the wing is often
not able to withstand strong
compressive loads.

The load acting on the skin

has to be transferred to
a. Rib
b. Vertical Stiffener
c. Spars
d. Flange Wing section
to withstand the load
 Connections
• Aircraft fabrication generally involves
joining one part of component to another
• With aluminum alloy construction, riveted
joints are the major means of connection
• Other connection means are
– Bolts
– Blind rivets
– Welding
– Adhesion
Boeing Fuselage Construction

The structure is semi-

monocoque in
construction.
 Airbus 380 Fuselage Section
The cross section of the aircraft is
almost cylindrical in shape.

It can be considered a thin walled

Semi-monocoque structure. There are 3
decks for the aircraft.

Membrane stresses are developed on

the fuselage because of differential
pressure between internal and external
atmosphere in flight.
Materials for Aircraft Structures
• Proper design of aircraft components is essential to avoid
failure
• Materials selection plays an important role in design,
manufacturing and service of these components
• Criteria for selection of aircraft structural materials:
strength/weight, stiffness, toughness, resistance to corrosion,
fatigue, effects of environmental heating, ease of fabrication,
availability and consistency of supply, cost, etc.
• Materials used in Aircraft Construction
• Aluminum alloy
• Steel, Titanium
• Composites and sandwiches
 Aluminium Alloys
• Aluminium
• Pure aluminum has a low-strength (σy = 7-11MPa),
is an extremely flexible metal with virtually no
structural applications.
• Duralumin or duraluminium:
• Earliest types of age-hardened aluminium alloys
(AA2024: wrought Al-Cu alloy containing 4.4% Cu,
1.5% Mg, 0.6% Mn; with σy ∼ 300MPa)
• Used in rigid airship frames in all those of the
"Great Airship" era of the 1920-30s
 Aluminium Alloys
• Aluminium Alloys
• Relatively low density, high electrical and thermal conductivities,
resistance to corrosion, high ductility (FCC)
• Lower melting temperature (~ 660°C) than Fe, Cu, Ti alloys.
• Aluminium Alloys can be either cast alloys or wrought alloys

• Commonly used Al Alloys:

Cu(2xxx); Mn(3xxx); Si(4xxx); Mg(5xxx); Mg & Si(6xxx); Zn(7xxx)

• Mechanical Properties:
 Non heat treatable alloys: low strength, high ductility
 Heat treatable alloys: high strength, moderate ductility
 Cast alloys exhibit lower ductility than wrought alloys.
 Aluminium Alloys
• Aluminium alloys for aircraft construction: airframes, skins, other stressed
components
• 2014, 2024 (typically 4% Cu, 0.5% Mg, 0.5% Mn, 0.3% Si, 0.2% Fe): UTS
over 390MPa, proof stress over 230MPa
• Hiduminium (high duty Al) alloys or R.R. alloys (1-2% of Ni, higher
content of Mg, plus Cu, Si, Fe): for higher retention of strength at high
temperatures for engine components (e.g. piston).
• Hiduminium RR58 (CM001): main structural material for Concorde
• 7075 (Typically 2.5% Cu, 5% Zn, 3% Mg, 1% Ni) with UTS over 585MPa,
proof stress over 510MPa
• Latest developments: Al-Li alloys
• Can be welded, have a higher fracture toughness
• 8090 (Al-Li-Cu-Mn alloys): fuselage structure of GKN Westland
helicopters in UK
• 2095 (Al-Li-Cu alloys) fuselage frames of F-16 to replace 2024 in
US, with 5-fold increase in fatigue life and a reduction of weight
•
 Steels
• Stainless steels
• Highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments:
austenitic stainless steels are the most corrosion resistant.

• Maraging steels (Martensitic and aging)

• Superior strength and toughness without losing melleability,
although they cannot hold a good cutting edge.
• Low-carbon ultra-high-strength steels which derive their strength
not from carbon, but from precipitation of inter-metallic
compounds. The principal alloying elements are Ni (17-19%),
Co (8-12%), Mo (3-5%), Ti (0.2-1.6%)
• Co, Mo and Ti are added to produce intermetallic precipitates at
temperatures of about 480 °C.
• Applications of Maraging steels: Aircraft arrester hooks, rocket
motor cases, helicopter undercarriages, Gears, ejector seats,
various structural forgings
 Titanium Alloys
• Use of Ti alloys increases since 1980s, particularly in the construction of combat
aircraft. Common alloying element: Al, V, Sn, Nb
• Relatively low density (4.5 g/cm3 for pure Ti) and high melting point (1668°C).
Two phases: α (HCP) and β (BCC). Ti alloys commonly exhibit two-phase
structure. High corrosion resistance.
• Excellent mechanical properties
• high strength (UTS = 1400MPa) and ductility
• high Young’s modulus compared to light metals
• good fatigue strength/tensile strength ratio
• high retention of strength up to 400-500°C
• Major limitation: chemical reactivity with other materials at elevated
temperatures and expensive cost.
• Applications: aeroplane structures, space vehicles, and in the petroleum and
chemical industries, biomedical devices and implants.
• Airframes and engines of Concorde
• Tornado wing carry-through box
• F15, F22, Boeng777 (Tail assembly)
 Composites
• A composite is a mixture of two or more phases (materials).
• A better or unique combination of properties is realized when different
materials (or phases) are combined
• The primary needs for all advanced composites are:
light weight, higher operating temperatures, higher specific
mechanical properties, higher reliability and affordability

Reinforcement is the strong, stiff integral component which is incorporated into the
matrix to achieve desired properties. The term ‘reinforcement’ implies some property
enhancement

Matrix is a continuous phase in composites and functions as:

To bind the reinforcements (fibers/particulates) together
To mechanically support the reinforcements
To transfer loads to the reinforcements
To Protect the reinforcements from surface damage due to abrasion or chemical attacks
Thus, a high bond strength between fibers and matrix is important
 Structural Composites
• Laminar composites: Stacked and bonded fiber-
reinforced sheets
-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0/90
-- benefits: balanced properties in all
plane directions
• Sandwich panels
-- low density, honeycomb core
-- benefit: small weight, large bending stiffness
 F-117 Nighthawk

Stealth Aircrafts
Extensive use of carbon fiber composites to
make them undetectable by radars, and as well
as to reduce visibility in the infrared, visual,
audio, and RF spectrum.

B-2 bomber

SR-71 Blackbird

B-2 “Spirit” bomber

F-22 “Rapter” Fighter
 Composites in Boeing 787 Dreamliner

Ultralight composites resulting in the reduction of :

 80% in fasteners
 30-40% in assembly time
 30% in maintenance cost
 20% in fuel usage and emissions

[Link]
Materials composition
in Boeing 747, 777 and 787

787
Materials composition
Eurofighter jet (Typhoon)

The jet body is predominantly made of

composites.
 Sandwich Structures
• A major limitation of stressed
skin construction: lack of
rigidity or stiffness
• Sandwich structure comprises
– Two thin plates
– Light, of low strength and fairly rigid
core placed in the middle
– Parts bonded together with adhesive
• Honeycomb cells is the most
common sandwich structure
currently in use in aircraft structure
• A sandwich with a high thickness
can provide a high bending
stiffness with an overall low density.
Sandwich Honeycomb Panels
Aircraft construction uses sandwich
honeycomb panels extensively.
A honeycomb sandwich panel 2 times thicker
than aluminum plate is seven times stiffer.
One that is 4 times thicker is 37 times stiffer.
The weight remains the same.
Structural Failure in Aircraft due to Fatigue

Aloha Airlines Flight 243 was a flight between Hilo and Honolulu in Hawaii. On
April 28, 1988, a Boeing 737-297 serving the flight suffered extensive damage after
an explosive decompression in flight, but was able to land safely at Kahului Airport
in Maui. The only fatality was flight attendant C.B. Lansing, who was blown out of
the airplane. Another 65 passengers and crew were injured.
[Link]
April 28, 1988
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 American Airlines Flight 587
(Airbus 300) Crash
• On November 12, 2001, American
Airlines flight 587 crashed into a
residential area of Belle Harbor,
New York.
• The plane's vertical stabilizer and
rudder separated in flight.
• It was earlier thought that the
turbulence of an earlier
plane caused the problem.
• The National Transportation
Safety Board (NTSB) concluded
that the enormous stress on the
rudder was due solely to the first
officer's over-aggressive rudder
inputs.

November 12, 2001