Rift Valley University Bishoftu

Campus

Mechatronics

Department of Mechanical Engineering

11 May 2024
Books
References:
1. Robert H. Bishop. Editor-in-chief. “The Mechatronics Handbook”, CRC Press, with
ISA–The Instrumentation, Systems, Automation Society (50 Chapters), 2002. ISBN: 0-
8493-0066-5 44
2. G. Webster. Editor-in-chief. “Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors
Handbook” CRC Press. 1999. 0-8493-2145-X.
3. Dan S. Necsulescu, Mechatronics, Prentice Hall, 2002, (311 p.). ISBN: 0-201-44491-7
4. VICTOR GIURGIUTIU and SERGEY EDWARD LYSHEVSKI.
“MICROMECHATRONICS - Modeling, Analysis, and Design with MATLAB”. CRC
PRESS, Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. (ISBN: 0-8493-1593-X).
2004.

11 May 2024
CHAPTER

Chapter one
Introduction to Mechatronics

Ketema Bobe
Department of Mechanical Engineering

11 May 2024
 Mechatronics

What is
Mechatronics?

11 May 2024 4
 What is Mechatronics?
Mechatronics is the synergistic combination of mechanical
engineering (“mecha” for mechanisms), electronic engineering
(“tronics” for electronics), and software engineering.
Mechatronics is the field of study concerned with the design,
selection, analysis and control of systems that combine
mechanical elements with electronic components, including
computers &/or microcontrollers.
The mechatronics field is not simply the
sum of these three major areas, but rather the
field defined as the intersection of these
areas when taken in the context of systems
design.
Mechatronics may alternatively be referred to as “electromechanical
systems.”
11 May 2024 5
 Contd…

11 May 2024 6
 Historical Background
Mechatronics: a concept of Japanese origin, 1970’s. This concept
applicable in 1980’s to produce industrial robots.

The Japanese were the first to recognize the limitations of

traditional mechanical engineering and introduced the term
“Mechatronics” to mean an integrative multidisciplinary approach
for design of mechanical systems and processes.

Virtually every modern electromechanical system has an

embedded computer controller. Therefore, computer hardware and
software issues (in terms of their application to the control of
electromechanical systems) are part of the field of mechatronics.

11 May 2024 7
 Evolution of Mechtronic Systems
The development of mechatronics has gone through three stages.

The first stage corresponds to the years when this term was
introduced. During this stage, technologies used in mechatronics
systems developed rather independently and individually.

During the second stage, i.e., with the beginning of the eighties, a
synergistic integration of different technologies started taking
place. For example: Optoelectronics (i.e. an integration of optics
and electronics). The concept of hardware/software co-design also
started in those years.

The third and the last stage can also be considered as the
beginning of the mechatronics age since early nineties.
11 May 2024 8
 Contd…
Important achievement of the third stage
Increased use of computational intelligence in mechatronic
products and systems. It is due to this development that we
can now talk about Machine Intelligence Quotient (MIQ).
It is the possibility of miniaturization of components; in the
form of micro actuators and micro sensors (i.e. micro
mechatronics).

11 May 2024 9
 Contd…

Significance of Mechatronics

11 May 2024 10
 Significance of Mechatronics
The purpose of this interdisciplinary engineering field is

Ability to increase competitiveness of the product

through use of technology.
It automata from an engineering perspective.
It control advanced hybrid systems
Support and enable development of new product
High levels of precision and reliability (Enhance existing
products)

11 May 2024 11
 Characteristics of Mechatronic Systems
Since Mechatronics is not just a marriage of electrical and
mechanical systems and is more than just a control system; it is a
complete integration all of them,
 They are generally complex systems with high levels of
integration.
 They have more functionality than conventional systems.
 Functionality is transferred from the mechanical to the
electronic and software domain.
 They are based on the development of some of real-time
system architecture, often involving distributed and devolved
intelligence.
 Operation at the system level is generally transparent to the
user.
11 May 2024 12
 The Why of Mechatronics
Mechatronics system designs can often leads to
L„ow volume
M„ore variety „
Lower cost of production
H„igher levels of flexibility

Reduced lead time in manufacture „

Automation in manufacturing and assembly
Lower maintenance cost

11 May 2024 13
 Contd…

Application of Mechatronics

11 May 2024 14
 Application of Mechatronics
 Automotive
 Aerospace
 Telecommunication
 Computer Hardware and Software
 Medical/ Biomedical application
 Home application
 Manufacturing (Robotics and Automated) application
 Defense application

11 May 2024 15
 Contd…
A typical example of a Mechatronic System

11 May 2024 16
 Contd…

An office copy machine consists of analog and digital

circuits, sensors, actuators and microprocessors.

Analog circuits control the lamp, heater and other power

circuits in the machine.

Digital circuits controls the digital displays, indicator

lights, buttons and switches forming the user interface.

Optical sensors and micro switches detects the presence

or absence of the paper, its proper positioning and
whether or not doors and latches are in their correct
positions.
11 May 2024 17
 Contd…
Other sensors include encoders used to track the motor
rotation.

Actuators include servo and stepper motors that load and

transport the paper, turn the drum and index the sorter.

Microprocessors coordinate all the functions in the machine

Computer Scanner
disk drive
Exhibits quick response, Photocopy
Fax machine
precision, and robustness
11 May 2024 18
 Contd…
A typical example of a Mechatronic System

11 May 2024 19
 Contd…

 Water temperature
 Load size

Clothes
washer

11 May 2024 20
 Contd…

11 May 2024 21
 Contd…
Smoke Detector System

11 May 2024 22
 Contd…
A typical example of a Mechatronic System

11 May 2024 23
 Contd…

a)Vehicle application area

Safety
 Airbag system
Anti-lock breaking system
Electronic stability controls
Comfort
 Door locks
Key less entry system
Heating system controls
Seat positioning controls
Power train
 Engine control  Fuel sensing controls
Fuel pump control  Gearbox controls
11 May 2024 24
 Contd…
Door
System/Module-

11 May 2024 25
 Contd…
b)High Speed Trains

• Train Position and Velocity

constantly monitored from
main command center. JR-Maglev
• Error margin in scheduling Top Speed: 574 km/h (357
mph) Country: Japan
no more than 30 seconds
•Fastest trains use magnetic levitation

Magnetic Levitation

Transrapid
Top Speed: 550 km/h (340
mph) Country: German
11 May 2024 26
 Contd…
c) Segway

Systems Uses
•Tilt and pressure sensors
•Microcontroller
•Motors
•Onboard power source

Advantages
•Simple and intuitive personal transportation
device

11 May 2024 27
 Contd…
A typical example of a Mechatronic System

11 May 2024 28
 Contd…

11 May 2024 29
Chapter 1, Dr. Besufekad Negash
 Contd…
Military Applications
• Advanced technology is making Stealth Bomber
our soldiers safer.
• Some planes can now be flown
remotely.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

11 May 2024 30
 Contd…
A typical example of a Mechatronic System

11 May 2024 31
 Contd…

 Vacuum cleaner
 Assisting solders in combat fields
 Delivering food and medicine in hospitals
 Operate in unstructured environments

Vacuum cleaner
Wheelchair

Obstacle avoiding mobile

robot
11 May 2024 32
 Contd…
A typical example of a Mechatronic System

11 May 2024 33
 Contd…
Prosthetics
Arms, Legs, and other body parts can be replaced with
electromechanical ones.

11 May 2024 34
 Contd…
A typical example of a Mechatronic System

11 May 2024 35
 Contd…

Automatically changes cushioning in shoe for different

running styles and conditions for improved comfort

11 May 2024 36
 Contd…
A typical example of a Mechatronic System

11 May 2024 37
 Contd…

a) CNC Bending

• Fully automated bending: load sheet metal and the finished

bent parts come out
• Can bend complex shapes
11 May 2024 38
 Contd…
b) CNC Machining

Advantages
• Deliver the highest accuracies
• Can create very complex shapes
11 May 2024 39
 Contnd
c) Industrial robots…
Main components: Mechanical arm and controller

11 May 2024 40
 Contd…
A typical example of a Mechatronic System

11 May 2024 41
 Contd…

BigDog System Can

•Carry 340 lb
•Run 4 mph
•Climb, run, and walk
•Move over rough terrain

Advantages
• Robot with rough-terrain mobility that
could carry equipment to remote location.

11 May 2024 42
 Contd…
A typical example of a Mechatronic System

11 May 2024 43
 Contd…
System Can
Phoenix Mars Lander's •Collect specimens
• Has automated onboard lab for
testing specimens
Advantages
•Robot that can travel to other
planets and take measurements
automatically.

11 May 2024 44
 Contd…
A typical example of a Mechatronic System

11 May 2024 45
 Contd…

Implantable Defibrillation
•Monitors the heart. If heart fibrillates
or stops completely it will shock the
heart at high voltage to restore a
normal heart rhythm.

Pace Maker

•Used by patients with slow or erratic

heart rates. The pacemaker will set a
normal heart rate when it sees an
irregular heart rhythm.

11 May 2024 46
 Contd…
A typical example of a Mechatronic System

11 May 2024 47
 Contd…

System Uses Advantages

•Proximity sensors •Reduces spread of germs by making
•Control circuitry device hands free
•Electromechanical valves •Reduces wasted water by automatically
•Independent power source turning off when not in use

11 May 2024 48
 Contd…
Systems Uses Paper Towel Dispenser
•Motion sensors
•Control circuitry
•Electromechanical actuators
•Independent power source

Soap Dispenser

Advantages
• Reduces spread of germs by making device
hands free
• Reduces wasted materials by controlling how
11 May 2024 much is dispensed 49
 Basic Elements of Mechatronics System
Generally any Mechatronic system is an integration of the
following major components:
 Sensors
 Actuator
 Controller
 The control logic
 Signal Processing

11 May 2024 50
 Design of mechatronic systems
Stages in design process
 The need

 Analysis of problem

 Preparation of Specification

 Generation of possible solutions

 Selection of a suitable solution

 Production of a detailed design

 Production of working drawings

11 May 2024 51
 Contd…
Advantages of mechatronics design
 High resolution and accuracy
 Reduces house hold heating cost
 Self calibrating
 Flexible design
 Environmental friendly

11 May 2024 52
CHAPTER

Chapter Two
Sensors and Actuators

11 May 2024 53
 Sensors and Actuators
Contents
 Sensor and transducer
 Terminologies
 Displacement, position and proximate
 Velocity and motion
 Force and fluid pressure
 Liquid flow and level
 Temperature
 Light sensor
 Selection of sensor
 Inputting data by switches

11 May 2024 54
 Sensors and/ Transducer
is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of
sensing of a physical phenomenon.
It is used for an input device that provides a usable output in
response to a specified physical input.
For example, a thermocouple is a sensor that converts a temperature
difference into an electrical output.

is a device that converts a signal from one form to a

different physical form.
It is a device that converts one type of energy to another.
Energy types include (but are not limited to) electrical,
mechanical, electromagnetic (including light), chemical,

11 May 2024 69
 Terminologies

a front-end preprocessing, which generally includes

functions such as signal amplification, filtering, electrical
isolation, and multiplexing.
In addition, many transducers require excitation currents or
voltages, bridge completion, linearization, or high amplification
for proper and accurate operation.

Charge amplifiers, lock-in amplifiers, power amplifiers,

switching amplifiers, linear amplifiers, tracking filters, low-
pass filters, high-pass filters, and notch filters are some of the
signal-conditioning devices used in mechatronics systems.

11 May 2024 56
Chapter 2, Dr. Besufekad Negash
 Contd…
- it is the limits between which the input can vary.
For example – Load cell for the measurement of forces might have
a range of 0-50 kN.
- the difference between the result of the measurement and the
true value of the quantity being measured.
Error= Measured value – True value
- is the extent to which the value indicated by a
measurement system might be wrong. It is the summation
of all possible errors that are likely to occur, as well as
the accuracy to which the transducer has been calibrated.
For Example – A sensor might be specified as having an accuracy of
+5% of full range output. Given: Temp Range 0-200 °C. Reading could be
within + 10 °C of the true reading.
11 May 2024 57
 Contd…
- is the relationship indicating how much output you get
per unit input, ie. Output/input.
For example: A resistance thermometer may have sensitivity of 0.5
ohms/ °C
Sensitivity is the ability of the measuring instrument to respond to
changes in the measured quantity. It is also the ratio of the change of
output to change of input.

11 May 2024 58
 Contd…
The error of a measurement is the difference between the result of
the measurement and the true value of the quantity being measured.
- is the maximum difference in output for increasing
and decreasing values.

Hysteresis is an error caused by when

the measured property reverses
direction, but there is some finite lag in
time for the sensor to respond, creating
a different offset error in one direction
than in the other.

11 May 2024 Hysteresis Error 59

 Contd…

The error associated in the deviation from linearity between the

input and the output. The error is quoted as the percentage of the
full range output.
Nonlinearity and hysteresis

Fig. Some source of error: (a) Nonlinearity and (b) Hysteresis

11 May 2024 60
 Contd…
the repeatability of the transducer is its ability to give
the same output for repeated applications of the same
input value.

For example: Angular velocity => repeatability + 0.01% of the full

range at a particular angular velocity.

the ability to give the same output when used to

measure a constant and is measured on a number of
occasions.

the stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same

output when used to measure a constant input over a
period of time.
11 May 2024 61
 Contd…
is often used to describe the change in output that occurs over
time.
The drift expressed as a percentage of the full range output.
The term zero drift is used for the changes that occur in
output when there is zero input.

is the range of input values for which

there is no output.
For example: bearing friction in a flow meter using a rotor might
mean that there is no output until the input has
reached a particular velocity threshold.

11 May 2024 62
 Contd…
The resolution of a sensor is the smallest change it can
detect in the quantity that it is measuring.
The resolution is related to the precision which the
measurement is made.
For example: a scanning tunneling probe (a fine tip near a surface
collects an electron tunneling current) can resolve
atoms and molecules

11 May 2024 63
 Sensors and transducers
Displacement, position and proximity
 Potentiometer
 Strain-gauged element
 C„apacitive element „
 Linear variable differential transformers „
 Eddy current proximity sensors „
 Inductive proximity switch
 Optical encoders
 P„neumatic sensors
 P„roximity switches (magnetic)
 Hall effect sensors

11 May 2024 64
 Sensors
Velocity and motion
 Incremental encoder
 Tachogenerator „
 „Pyroelectric sensors „
Force „
 Strain gauge load cell
Fluid pressure „
 D„iaphragm pressure gauge
 C„apsules, bellows, pressure tubes
 Piezoelectric sensors „
 Tactile sensor
Liquid flow „
 Orifice plate „
 Turbine meter
11 May 2024 65
 Sensors
L„iquid level „
 Floats „
 Differential pressure
Temperature
 B„imetallic strips „
 Resistance temperature detectors „
 Thermistors „
 Thermo-diodes and transistors „
 Thermocouples
Light sensors
 P„hoto diodes
 Photo resistors
 P„hoto transistor

11 May 2024 93
 Contd…

Displacement sensor- is measure the distance between the present

position of the target and the previously
recorded position.
- how much the object has been moved

Position sensor- is used for a sensor that gives a measure of the

distance between a reference point and the
current location of the target
- position of an object with a reference point

Proximity- Form of position sensors, it detects when an object has

moved
11 May 2024 67
 Contd…

11 May 2024 68
 Contd…

Two groups
Linear
Angular
 Linear displacement sensors might be used to monitor the
thickness or other dimensions of sheet materials, separation of
rollers, the position or presence of a part, the size of a part.
 Angular displacement methods might be used to monitor the
angular displacement of shafts.

11 May 2024 69
 Contd…
Application: Location and position of object on a conveyor

11 May 2024 70
 Contd…
 Two basic types of displacement / position sensor:-
1. Contact devices
• Limit switches
• Resistive position transducers

2. Non-contact devices
• Magnetic sensors, including Hall effect and magneto-resistive
sensors
• Ultrasonic sensors
• Proximity sensors
• Photoelectric sensors

11 May 2024 71
 Measuring Displacement

• Potentiometers are very common devices used to measure

displacement. A linear potentiometer is used for linear measurements
and an angular potentiometer is used for angular measurements.
• The linear potentiometer is a device in which the resistance varies as a
function of the position of a slider, shown below.

• With the supply voltage (Vs), the output voltage (Vo) will vary
between zero and the supply voltage.
• Displacement is measured based on potential difference
„Plastic
•11 resin embedded with carbon powder
May 2024 99
 Contd…

• It should be noted that the device measuring Vo must have a high

impedance to maintain a linear response and avoid loading error.
•Linear potentiometers can be used to measure displacements as
small as 0.1 to 0.2 in. (2.5 to 5 mm) up to displacements of more than
[Link] 2024
73
 Contd…

11 May 2024 74
 Contd…

 The electrical resistance strain gauge is a metal wire, metal foil strip, or
a strip of semiconductor material which is wafer like and can be stuck
into surfaces like a postage stamp.
 When subject to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional change
in resistance ∆R/R being proportional to the strain E, that is
∆R/R=GE
 Where G, the constant of proportionality, is termed as the gauged
factor.
 The resistance change of a strain gauge is a measurement of the change
in length of the element to which the strain gauge is attached

11 May 2024 75
 Contd…

 Electric-resistance strain gauge

 Metal wire, metal foil strip, a strip of semiconductor material
„∆R/R= Gε
 G = constant of proportionality, Gauge factor
 G„ = 2, Calibration based on actual experiments „
 Constantan alloy: copper-nickel (55-45%) alloy

11 May 2024 76
 Contd…

Example: An electrical resistance of 100 ohms and a gauge factor of

2.0. What is the change of resistance ΔR of the gauge
when it is subject to a strain of 0.001.

Answer:
ΔR = R×G × strain
ΔR =100×2.0×0.001
ΔR =0.2 ohms

11 May 2024 77
 Contd…
Strain gauges
• „Deflection or deformation of flexible
elements
• Attach to flexible elements „viz.
cantilevers, pipes, U shaped elements
• „Linear displacement in the order of 1 to
30 mm
•„Nonlinearity error 1% of the full range

11 May 2024 78
 Contd…
Strain Gauge

11 May 2024 79
 Contd…

 Monitoring of displacement „
 Non-contact type displacement
sensor
 C„= (εrεoA)/d
 ε„r= relative permittivity of
dielectric between the plates
 ε„o=permittivity of free space
 „A= area of overlap „
 d = plate separation
Example: T„ouch-screen: Apple „

11 May 2024 80
 Contd…

Fig. a Capacitive proximity sensor detects a change Fig. Presence of the metal target reduce the metal target

in capacitance incurred by the presence of a seal ring reduces the effective distance between electrodes (by the

target factor t), resulting in an increase in capacitance.

11 May 2024 81
 Contd…

 It is a mechanical displacement transducer.

 It gives an a.c. voltage output proportional to the distance of the

transformer core to the windings.

 The LVDT is a mutual-inductance device with three coils and a core An

external a.c. power source energizes the central coil and the two-
identical secondary coils connected in series in such a way that their
outputs oppose each other.

11 May 2024 82
 Contd…
A magnetic core is moved through the central tube as a result of
displacement being monitored. However when the core is displaced
from the central position there is a greater amount of magnetic core
in one coil than the other.
A greater displacement means even more core in one coil than the
other, the output, the difference between the emf increases, the
greater the displacement being monitored.

11 May 2024 Fig. LVDT 83

 Contd…
A greater displacement means even more core in one coil than the
other, the output, the difference between the emf increases, the
greater the displacement being monitored.

11 May 2024 84
 Contd…
 Primary transducer „
 Operating range ±2 to ±400 mm „
 Non-linearity error ±0.25% of
full range „
 Absolute position sensor „
 Good repeatability and
reproducibility „
 Highly reliable
N„on-contact, no friction or
sliding „
 Completely sealed „
 Servomechanisms, automated
measurement in machine tools „
 Works with phase sensitive
demodulator and low pass filter
11 May 2024 85
 Contd…

 Detection of non-magnetic conductive material

 Relatively inexpensive
 Small in size
 High reliability
 High sensitivity for small displacements

11 May 2024 86
 Contd…

 Coil wound on a core

 close to a metallic object
 inductance changes metallic object
 inductance changes
 monitored by a resonant circuit
 triggers a switch
 Detection of metallic objects

11 May 2024 87
 Contd…

An encoder is a device that provides digital output as a result of

linear and angular displacement.
Position encoders are of two types:
[Link]
[Link]
Incremental encoders : Detect changes in rotation from some datum
while the absolute encoders give the actual angular position.
Incremental encoder Absolute encoder

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 Contd…
D igital output as result of linear / angular displacement angular
displacement
Number of pulses proportional to angular displacement
Angular position = number of pulses from the datum position
Sequential output of the sensor = No in the binary code

11 May 2024 89
 Contd…

D„isplacement or proximity can be transformed into change in air

pressure

11 May 2024 90
 Contd…

Lever operated Roller operated Cam operated

 Output : on or off
 Micro switches: electrical contact type switches
 Conveyor belts
 Reed switch: non-contact magnetic switch
 Widely used in checking the closure of doors
 Can be used with tachometers Reed Switch
11 May 2024 91
 Contd…

„When a beam of charge particles

passes through a magnetic field,
forces act on the particles and
the beam is deflected from its
straight line path.

11 May 2024 92
 Contd…
 Displacement, position a well as proximity detection „
 Needs necessary signal conditioning circuitry
A„dvantages
 C„an be operated at 100 kHz „
 Non-contact „
 Immune to environment contaminants „
 Can be used under severe conditions

11 May 2024 93
 Contd…

This can be used for measuring angular velocity, number of pulses

produced per second being determined.

Used to measure angular velocity. It is essentially a small electric

generator, consisting of coil mounted in magnetic field .when the coil
rotates an alternating emf is induced in the coil, the size of the
maximum emf being a measure of the angular velocity. when used
with a commutator a dc output can be obtained which is a measure of
the angular velocity.

11 May 2024 94
 Contd…

11 May 2024 95
 Contd…

 L„ithium tantalate, crystal material

 Generates charge in response to heat
flow „
 Material > heat + electric field >
electrical dipoles line up > polarization>
retains the polarization after cooling „
 Such polarized material > infrared
radiation > rise in temp > reduces the
polarization „
Pyroelectric sensor = pyroelectric
polarized material + thin metal film
electrodes on opposite faces
11 May 2024 ∆q= kp∆T 96
 Contd…

Force: The measurement of the interaction between bodies.

The most commonly used sensors are generally based on either
piezoelectric quartz crystal or strain gage sensing elements.

Technology Fundamentals
Quartz force sensors suited for the measurement of dynamic
oscillating forces, impact, or high speed compression/tension
forces.
The basic design utilizes the piezoelectric principle, where applied
mechanical stresses are converted into an electrostatic charge that
accumulates on the surface of the crystal.
11 May 2024 97
 Contd…

Devices to measure these small changes in dimensions are called

strain gages.
Strain Gauge Load Cell –use of electrical resistance to monitor the
strain produced in some member when stretched, compressed or bent.
 S„pring balance
 S„train gauge load cell
 Electrical resistance „
 Forces up to about 10 MN „
 Non-linearity error ±0.03%
 Repeatabilityerror±002

11 May 2024 98
 Contd…
Technology Fundamentals
Sensors based on foil strain gage
technology are ideally designed for the
precise measurement of a static weight or
force.
The applied input is translated into a
voltage by the resistance change in the
strain gauges.
The amount of change in resistance
indicates the magnitude of deformation in
the transducer structure and hence the load
that is applied.

11 May 2024 99
 Contd…

a) Metal wire b) Metal foil c) Semiconductor

A strain gauge, a device whose electrical resistance varies in

proportion to the amount of strain in the device. The most widely
used gauge
11 May 2024 is the bonded metallic strain gauge. 100
 Contd…
 Two common arrangements of the three strain gages are:
 Rectangular rosette
 Equiangular rosette
 In rectangular rosette, the gages are placed at angles of 0, 45 and
90 degrees.
 In equiangular rosette, the gages are arranged at 0, 60 and 120
degrees.

11 May 2024 101

 Contd…

In industrial processes, chemical

petroleum, power industry Flat diaphragm Corrugated diaphragm
E„lastic deformation of diaphragms,
capsules, bellows „
Absolute pressure measurement
Use of strain gauges „
S„ilicon diaphragms with doped
strain gauges Capsule (more sensitive Bellows
than diaphgm)

11 May 2024 102

 Contd…

Stretched or compressed generates electric charge > voltage „

Ionic crystals
q = kx= SF „
Measurement of forces, pressure, acceleration

11 May 2024 103

 Contd…

 Pressure sensor „
 Finger tips of robot hands „
 Touch screen devices
 PVDF piezoelectric polyvinylidene fluoride

11 May 2024 104

 Contd…

Based on measurement of pressure

drop „
Quantity of fluid flow is proportional
to square root of pressure difference
O„rifice plate : simple, cheap with no
moving parts „
 Does not work with slurries „
 Accuracy ±1.5%, nonlinear „
Turbine meter: multi bladed rotor
and a magnetic pick-up „
 Accuracy ±0.3%, expensive

11 May 2024 105

 Contd…

D„ irect method : monitoring the

position of liquid surface, floats „
Indirect method : measurement of
some variable related to the height,
weight, pressure difference

11 May 2024 106

 Contd…

 Bimetallic strips „
 Metals with different coefficients of
expansion
 Temperature controlling switches

11 May 2024 107

 Contd…

 Mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and

nickel : semi conductors „
 Resistance decreases in a very nonlinear manner with increase in
temperature „
Large change in resistance per degree change in temperature
 Highly nonlinear

11 May 2024 108

 Contd…

T„ wo metals held together, potential difference (PD) occurs at the

junction
PD depends upon metals and temperature „
Complete circuit involving two junctions „
Reference junction 0⁰C (Ice and water)
Compensation circuit, to compensate emf by dropping voltage
across a resistance thermometer element „
Use of sheath, low response time
11 May 2024 109
 Selection of sensors
 Nature of measurement required „
 Variable V„ariable „
 Nominal value „
 Range
 Accuracy
 Speed „
 Reliability
 Environmental conditions
 Nature of output, decides signal conditioning requirement „
 Maintainability L„ife L„ife „
 Power supply requirements „
 Ruggedness „
 Availability „
 Cost
11 May 2024 110
CHAPTER
Chapter Three

3 Signal Conditioning

11 May 2024
• Signal conditioning circuits are used to process
the output signal from sensors of a measurement
system to be suitable for the next stage of
operation.
 What is Signal Conditioning?
 The sensing element converts the non-electrical signal
(e.g. temperature, flow…) into electrical signals (e.g.
voltage, current, resistance, capacitance etc.).
 The job of the signal conditioning element is to convert
the variation of electrical signal into a voltage level suitable
for further processing.
 The next stage is the signal processing element.
 It takes the output of the signal conditioning element and
converts into a form more suitable for presentation and
other uses (display, recording, feedback control etc.).
 Analog-to-digital converters, linearization circuits etc. fall
under the category of signal processing circuits.
• The success of the design of any measurement system
depends heavily on the design and performance of the
signal conditioning circuits.
• Even a costly and accurate transducer may fail to deliver
good performance if the signal conditioning circuit is not
designed properly.
• Nowadays, many commercial sensors often have in-built
signal conditioning circuit.
• This arrangement can overcome the problem of
incompatibility between the sensing element and the signal
conditioning circuit.
The function of the signal conditioning circuits
include the following items:
 Signal amplification
 Filtering
 Interfacing with Data Acquisition (ADC)
 Protection(Zener & photo isolation),
 Linearization,
 Current – Voltage change circuits,
 Resistance change circuits (Wheatstone bridge),
 Error compensation
Linearization
Conversion
 Filtering
 we can also use filters to reject unwanted noise within a certain
frequency range.
 Many systems will exhibit 60 Hz periodic noise components from
sources such as power supplies or machinery.

 Many signal conditioners include low pass noise filters to remove

unwanted noise, an extra precaution is to use software averaging to
remove additional noise.
 Low pass filters on our signal conditioning circuitry can
eliminate unwanted high-frequency components.
 However, be sure to select the filter bandwidth carefully so
that we do not affect the time response of our signals.
 Software averaging is a simple and effective technique of
digitally filtering acquired readings.
 For example, a common approach is to acquire 100 points
and average those points for each measurement you need.
 For slower applications in which you can oversample in
this way,
 averaging is a very effective noise filtering
technique.
 Operational Amplifiers
 Many sensors develop extremely low-level output signals.
 The signals are usually too small for applying directly to
low-gain, multi flexed data acquisition system inputs, so
some amplification is necessary.
 Two common examples of low-level sensors are
thermocouples and strain-gage bridges.
 Amplification
 Unwanted noise can play havoc with the measurement
accuracy of system.
 The effects of system noise on the measurements can be
extreme if we are not careful.
 An amplifier, located directly on the in external signal
conditioners and can apply gain to the small signal before
the Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC) converts the
signal to a digital value.
Isolation:-
 Improper grounding of the DAQ system is the most
common cause of measurement problems and damaged
DAQ boards.
 Isolated signal conditioners can prevent most of these
problems by passing the signal from its source to the
measurement device without physical connection.
 Isolation breaks ground loops, rejects high common-mode
voltages, and protects expensive DAQ instrumentation.
 Common methods for circuit isolation include using optical,
magnetic, or capacitive isolators.
CHAPTER

Chapter Four
MECHANICAL ACTUATION
SYSTEMS

11 May 2024
 Actuation Systems
What are actuators?
 Actuators are basically the muscle behind a
mechatronics system that accepts a control command
(mostly in the form of an electrical signal) and
produces a change in the physical system by
generating force, motion, heat, flow, etc.
 Normally, the actuators are used in conjunction with
the power supply and a coupling mechanism.
 The power unit provides either AC or DC power at
the rated voltage and current.
 The coupling mechanism acts as the interface
between the actuator and the physical system.
 Typical mechanisms include (rack and pinion, gear
drive, belt drive, lead screw and nut, piston, and
linkages).
Figure 1. A typical actuating unit.
 Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which
are responsible for transforming the output of a
microcontrollers or microprocessor or control system into
a controlling action on machine or device.

e.g. Pneumatic, hydraulic, mechanical, and electrical actuation systems

 Classification
 Actuators can be classified based on the type of energy as

listed in Table 16.2.

 They are essentially of electrical, electromechanical,

electromagnetic, hydraulic or pneumatic type.

 The New generations of actuators include smart material

actuators, micro actuators, and Nano actuators.

 Actuators can also be classified as binary and continuous

based on the number of stable-state outputs.

Table 16.2 Type of Actuators and Their Features
Cont.…
Cont.…
 Electrical Actuators
 Electrical switches are the choice of actuators for most of the
on-off type control action.
 Switching devices such as diodes, transistors, triacs, MOSFET,
and relays accept a low energy level command signal from the
controller and switch on or off electrical devices such as motors,
valves, and heating elements.
 Electric actuators are in general precise and flexible.
 They are ideal to position mechanical part precisely or to
develop forces quickly when it is required.
 Their major disadvantage is that they need cooling systems during
their operation.
 Electromechanical Actuators
 The most common electromechanical actuator is a motor that
converts electrical energy to mechanical motion.
 Motors are the principal means of converting electrical energy
into mechanical energy in industry.
 Broadly they can be classified as DC motors, AC motors, and
stepper motors.
 DC motors operate on DC voltage and varying the voltage can
easily control their speed.
 They are widely used in applications ranging from thousands of
horsepower motors used in rolling mills to fractional horsepower
motors used in automobiles (starter motors, fan motors,
windshield wiper motors, etc.).
 Although they are costlier, they need DC power supply and
require more maintenance compared to AC motors.
 The governing equation of motion of a DC motor can be written
as:
 These actuators own the following
advantages:
 High speeds

 Self contained

 Low cost

 Simple design

 Reliable operation (less maintenance)

 High efficiency

 Long life
Mechanical actuation system

 Mechanical system involving:

 Linkages

 Cams

 Gears

 ratchet and pawl

 belt and chain drives

 Cont.…
 Provide function as:
 Motion converters

 rotational to linear

 Force amplification
 lever
 Change of speed
• gears

 Transfer of rotation axis

 timing belt
 Particular types of motion
 quick return mechanism, cam
 Cont.…
Types of motion
 Translational, rotational and its combination

 Degree of freedom, dof

 dof = 6 – number of constrain

 Cont.…
Ty p e s o f m o t i o n
 Translational, rotational and its combination
 Degree of freedom, dof
 dof = 6 – number of constrain
 For planar
dof = 3(N-1) – 2L
where:
N = number of link
L = number of join
Kinematic chains
Cont.…
 A link is part of a mechanism

 A joint is a connection between link

 Kinematic chain is a sequence of

link and joints

 Cont.…

Kinematic chains
 Open loop kinematic chain
 Cont.…
Kinematic chain

 Slider crank mechanism

 Cont.…
Kinematic chain
 The four bar chain

 Grashoff theorem

 Lmax + Lmin less than or equal to La + Lb

 for one link to rotate 360 deg

Double lever Lever crank

Double crank
 Cont.…
Kinematic chain
Example
 Cont.…
Cams
 Rotates to provide reciprocating motion to the follower
 Cont.…

 Cams
 Cont.…

 Cams
 Geneva wheel
Upper Wheel

Upper wheel axis of rotation

Driving pin

Lower wheel axis of rotation

Lower Wheel

 Mechanism is used for achieving intermittent motions.

 The component has two wheels; upper & lower
 Continuous rotational movement of the lower wheel
 Intermittent motion of the upper wheel; rotates step-wise
 Cont.…
Gear trains
 Used to change speed or torque of rotating device
 Cont.…

Gear trains
 Used to change speed or torque of rotating device
 Cont.…

Gear trains
• G = A / B = dB / dA= B / A

G = A / B x B / C = A / C
 Cont.…
Epycylic gear train

 Consists of groups of gears

 3 possibility of gear ratios

 Cont.…

Ratchet and pawl

 Used to lock a mechanism when its holding a load

 Cont.…
Belt and chain drives

 Torque on A, A = (T1 - T2) rA

 Torque on B, B = (T1 - T2) rB
 Power = (T1 - T2)v
–where belt speed v = A rA
 Cont.…
Belt and chain drives
 Reversing drive
End of the lecture

T h a n k Yo u !

?
CHAPTER -5
PLC
 Introduction
What is PLC?
A PLC is a solid state / industrial computer that performs
discrete or sequential logic in a factory environment.

It was originally developed to replace mechanical relays,

timers, counters.

A sequence of instructions is programmed by the user to the

PLC memory. Its purpose is to monitor crucial process
parameters and adjust process operations accordingly.

11 May 2024
 History and Origin
 Developed to replace relays in the late 1960s

 PLC began in the 1970s, and has become the most common
choice for manufacturing controls.

 The PLC was invented in response to the needs of the American

automotive manufacturing industry (primarily General motors).

 Costs dropped and became popular by 1980s

 Now used in many industrial designs

11 May 2024
 Programmable Logic Devices (PLD)
Programmable Logic Devices (PLD) - to perform different
control functions, according to the programs written in its
memory, using low level languages of commands.
 Microprocessor, a digital integrated circuit –digital functions
necessary to process information
 Microcomputer - uses microprocessor as its central
processing unit and contains all functions of a computer
 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) - to control the
operation of electro-mechanical devices

11 May 2024
 Contd…
What is a Microprocessor (MP)?
The word Microprocessor is a combination of two words micro and
processor
In our context processor means a device which processes binary
numbers (0’s and 1’s)
Micro means small
Before the birth of microchip, processors were large discrete
elements
After invention of microchip, the size of the processor became
much smaller
A microprocessor is a multi-purpose, programmable, integrated
logic device that reads binary instructions from a storage device
called memory, accepts binary data as input and processes the data
according to those instructions and provides result as an output.
11 May 2024
 Contd…
Differences between microcomputer, microprocessor and
microcontroller
Microcomputer– a computer with a microprocessor as its CPU.
Includes memory, I/O

Microprocessor– silicon chip which includes ALU, register circuits

and control circuits

Microcontroller– silicon chip which includes microprocessor,

memory and I/O in a single package.

11 May 2024
 Organization of Microcomputers
Microcomputer – a computer with a microchip(microprocessor) as
its CPU.
It Includes memory and I/O
It combines three basic components
 Microprocessor, memory and I/O

Block diagram of Micro-computers

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Expanded diagram of Microcomputers

11 May 2024
 Contd…
 A typical programmable machine has basic three components :
1. Processor,
2. Memory
3. I/O (input/output) :Hardware
 A set of instructions written for the processor to perform a task is
called program
 A group of programs is called software.

11 May 2024
 Microprocessor
 a multi-purpose, programmable device
 Reads binary instructions from a storage device called
memory
 Processes data according to the instructions
 Provides results as output

11 May 2024
 Contd…
 Microprocessor applications are in two classified primarily
categories :
Reprogrammable Systems : Micro computers
Embedded Systems : photocopying machine, Digital camera
Operates in binary digits 0 and 1, bits.
Electrical voltages in the machine, generally 0 - low
Voltage level and 1 level, - high voltage level
A group of bits, word
Word length of 8 bits - byte
Word length of 4 bits - Nibble
A command in binary to accomplish a task- instructions.
Instructions
entered through input devices
can be stored in a storage device called memory
11 May 2024
 Contd…
Microprocessor as an integral part of computer

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Microprocessor based programmable controllers
A controller or microprocessor-based controller can be
subdivided into two categories :
1. Programmable Logic Controllers
2. Microcontroller

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Micro controller
 A microprocessor-based system
 Implements the functions of a computer and a controller on a
single chip
 Typically programmed for one application
 Dedicated to a specific control function
 Automobiles, aircraft, medical electronics and home
appliances
 It is small and can be embedded in an electromechanical
system without taking up much space
 Functions are completely designed into the chip.
 Very little user programmable memory
 Motorola 68HC11, Zilog Z8 and Intel MCS51 and 96 series.
11 May 2024
 Contd…
Functions
 On/Off
 Timing
 Control
 Sequencing
 Data Handling
 Counting
 Arithmetic

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Programmable Logic Controller
A programmable logic controller is a special form of
microprocessor-based controller that uses a programmable
memory to store instructions and to implement functions such as
logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic in order to
control machine and process.
The main advantage of PLC is that:
It is flexible
Cost effective
Can be used for any control system complexity
Easer to troubleshoot

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Advantages
PLC Saves Value added benefits
 Material cost  Reliability
 Installation cost  Flexibility
 Troubleshooting Advanced Function
 Labor cost Communication
By Reduced wiring & associated Speed
errors Diagnostics
 Less space
 No moving parts - rugged
 Possibility of reprogramming

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Disadvantages
 Too much work required in connecting wires.

 Difficulty with changes or replacements.

 Difficulty in finding errors; requiring skillful work force.

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Basic Components of a PLC System
Network Interface
Most PLCs have the ability to communicate with other devices.
The PLC will communicate to the other devices through a
network interface.

Various Brands in PLC

 Allen Bradley USA
 Siemens Germany
 Modicon France
 Mitshubishi Japan
 GE Fanuc USA
 Omron Japan
11 May 2024
 Contd…
PLC’s Come in a Variety of Sizes...
Pico
 Typically less than 20 I/O
Micro
Typically less than 32 I/O
Small
 Typically less than 128 I/O
Medium
Typically less than 1024 I/O
Large
Typically greater than 1024 I/O

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Variety of Shapes/Configurations
Packaged
 MicroLogix 1000,1200 and 1500
Packaged with expansion
 MicroLogix 1200 and 1500
Modular (rack less)
 MicroLogix 1200 and 1500
Modular (rack based)
 SLC 500 and PLC5
Distributed
 SLC 500 and PLC5

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Packaged PLC
Power supply, inputs, outputs and communication port are
enclosed in a single package. Input and output devices are wired
individually to the packaged controller.

Packaged PLC With Expansion

Base is identical to the standard Packaged PLC, but it also has the
ability to drive additional I/O. The most common form of
expansion is a block of I/O that uses the same base, or makes use
of different types of expansion “modules”.

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Modular PLC’s
Mix N Match Components
Processors, Power Supplies and I/O are plugged into a rack
or chassis
Available in Small, Medium, and Large platforms
Flexibility results in higher costs when compared to
packaged

Modular Rack-Less PLC’s

Identical in functionality to rack based PLC’s
Typically not as robust (packaging)
Typically found on “smaller” (small and medium) sized PLC’s. Will
likely become the prevalent form of packaging in the future
11 May 2024
 Contd…
One of the benefits of a PLC system is the ability to locate the I/O
modules near the field devices to minimize the amount of wiring
required.
PLC Hardware System
A PLC system has five basic components
The processor unit
Memory
The power supply unit
Input / output interface
Programming device
PLC Architecture
The Structure of PLC is based on the same principles as those
employed in computer architecture.
11 May 2024
 Input –output devices
Input devices are connected to the terminal strip under the bottom
cover of the PLC.
Electrical contacts, pushbuttons and switches as input devices

11 May 2024
 Input –output devices
Output devices, such relays and light, are connected to the
terminal strip under the top cover of the PLC.
Actuators, relays, indicator lamps, solenoids etc are out put
devices

11 May 2024
 Contd…

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Electrical Contacts
Electrical contacts are of three types
 Normally open(NO),
 Normally closed(NC), and
 Changeover (CO)

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Actuators and Switches
 The device, which changes the state of a contact is called an
actuator
 The combination of an actuator and one or more contacts is
called a switch
 Push button switch
 A key selector
 Foot switches
 Roller lever switches and plunger operated switches : limit
switches

11 May 2024
 Contact symbol

11 May 2024
 Contd…

11 May 2024
 Bit Logic
Bit Logic
POSITIVE & NEGATIVE Transition
The Positive Transition (EU) contact allows power to flow for
one scan for each off-to-on transition.
The Negative Transition (ED) contact allows power to flow for
one scan for each on-to-off transition.

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Bit Logic
SET & RESET
The Set (S) and Reset (R) instructions set (turn on) or reset (turn
off) the specified number of points (N), starting at the specified
address (Bit). You can set or reset from 1 to 255 points.

If the Reset instruction specifies either a timer bit (T) or counter

bit (C), the instruction resets the timer or counter bit and clears
the current value of the timer or counter.

11 May 2024
 Timers
Timers are devices that count increments of time. They are used
with traffic lights, for example, to control the length of time
between signal changes.

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Timers

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Timers

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Timers

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Timer
s

11 May 2024
 Counters
Counters

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Counters

11 May 2024
 Contd…
Counters

11 May 2024
CHAPTER 6

Chapter Six
CLOSED LOOP
CONTROLLERS

11 May 2024