LYMPHATIC SYSTEM & IMMUNITY

Learning Outcomes
1. List and describe the components of the lymphatic system
2. Describe the source of lymph and the differences between blood, interstitial fluid and lymph
3. Describe the distribution of lymphatic tissue throughout the body
4. List and describe the functions of the lymphatic system
5. Outline differences between primary and secondary lymphatic organs
6. Describe the general structure and distribution of the lymphatic vessels
7. Outline the flow of lymph through the lymphatic system back into the cardiovascular system
8. Describe the structure and function of the lymphatic capillaries
9. Describe the structure and function of lymph nodes
10. Describe the mechanisms of lymph transport
11. Describe the basic functions of leukocytes

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 Workbook Module 15
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INTRODUCTION TO THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM & IMMUNITY

The lymphatic system is comprised of lymphatic organs, lymphatic vessels and lymph (the fluid
contained within the lymphatic system). The lymphatic system is responsible for draining excess
interstitial fluid, transporting dietary lipids and activating the body’s adaptive immune response.

The immune system is the complex collection of cells and organs that destroys or neutralises
pathogens that would otherwise cause disease or death. The lymphatic system, for most people, is
associated with the immune system to such a degree that the two systems are virtually
indistinguishable.

To successfully complete Workbook Module 15 you will need to have completed the  The

Lymphatic System: Anatomy Key Concept Module and  The Lymphatic System: Physiology
Key Concept Module available to you on the unit site.

You will also need access to the  Virtual Laboratory PowerPoint Presentation,  Leukocyte
Information Sheets and the  OpenStax Anatomy and Physiology Textbook.

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 LYMPHATIC ORGANS AND TISSUES

As well as the lymphatic fluid known as lymph, the lymphatic system consists of the primary and
secondary lymphatic organs and the lymphatic vessels.

The body uses the lymphatic system to enable lymphocytes (one of several different types of white
blood cells) to encounter antigens in order to initiate adaptive immune responses. Most
lymphocytes are short-lived with an average life span of only a week to a few months. However, a
few live for years forming our immunological memory – the ability to quickly recognise and respond
to an antigen that the body has previously encountered.

Primary lymphatic organs are organs where lymphocytes proliferate (lymphopoiesis) and undergo
development and maturation into immunocompetent cells. Immunocompetence refers to the ability
of cells to produce a normal immune response following antigen exposure. The bone marrow of long
bones and the thymus gland constitute the primary lymphatic organs.

If immunocompetence refers to the ability to produce a normal immune response following antigen
exposure, what is immunodeficiency?

Both B-lymphocytes (also known as B-cells) and T-lymphocytes (also known as T-cells) are
produced from stem cells in the bone marrow. B-cells remain in the bone marrow to mature and hence
they are named B-cells (bone marrow-derived cells). The other primary lymphoid tissue, the thymus
gland, is the site where progenitor cells from the bone marrow immigrate to differentiate into mature
thymus-derived cells and hence the name T-cells.

The secondary lymphatic organs and tissues are arranged as a series of filters monitoring the
contents of the extracellular fluids. These are sites where lymphocytes interact with antigens and
includes the organs such as the lymph nodes and the spleen.

Examine the following images of models displaying important lymphatic system structures. Some of

these models can also be found within the  Virtual Laboratory PowerPoint Presentation. Identify
and note the location of the following structures:

• Thymus gland
• Tonsils
• Spleen

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• Appendix
• Thoracic (left lymphatic) duct
• Right lymphatic duct
• Cisterna chyli
• Regional lymph node clusters: cervical lymph nodes, axillary lymph nodes, mesenteric lymph
nodes, inguinal lymph nodes

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Lymph Nodes

The lymph nodes are the key secondary lymphoid organs and are scattered along the lymphatic
pathway. Humans have about 500–600 lymph nodes distributed at strategic locations throughout the
body. The two main functions of the lymph nodes are to filter the lymph and to activate the immune
system when required.

Dendritic cells and macrophages within this

organ internalise and kill many of the pathogens
that pass through. The lymph node is also the site
of adaptive immune responses mediated by T-cells
and B-cells.

Examine the model of the lymph node found within

the  Virtual Laboratory PowerPoint

Presentation and identify the following structures:

• Afferent lymphatic vessels

• Efferent lymphatic vessels
• Fibrous capsule
• Cortex (region)
• Medulla (region)
• Hilum
• Lymphoid follicle
• Trabeculae

Mucosa-associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)

Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT) consists of small aggregates of lymphoid tissues

found in submucosal membrane epithelia. They are named according to their location. Specific types
of MALT include GALT (gut-associated lymphoid tissue), BALT (bronchus-associated lymphoid
tissue), NALT (nasal-associated lymphoid tissue), CALT (conjunctival-associated lymphoid tissue)
and LALT (larynx-associated lymphoid tissue).

Peyer’s patches, a type of GALT, are found in the small intestine. These are especially important for
immune responses against ingested substances.

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 Lymphatic Vessels & Lymph

A major function of the lymphatic system is to drain excess transient interstitial fluid that has leaked
from the capillaries and return it to the bloodstream. Hydrostatic pressure causes the leakage of
fluid from the capillaries beds resulting in the accumulation of fluid in the interstitium. In humans up
to 20 litres of plasma is released into the interstitial space of the tissues each day! Of this 20 litres 17
is reabsorbed directly by the blood vessels. The excess 3 litres of fluid is picked up by the lymphatic
system and returned to the bloodstream via a series of lymphatic vessels, trunks, and ducts.

Blood, Interstitial Fluid and Lymph

Blood, interstitial fluid and lymph are related, but different fluids of the body. Blood is the transport
medium of the cardiovascular system. It consists of a cellular component comprised of red blood cells,
white blood cells, and platelets, as well as larger fluid component known as plasma. Blood plasma is
the fluid portion of blood that contains glucose, amino acids, ions, hormones and proteins.

Interstitial fluid is an ultra-filtrate of blood. It has the same composition as blood, except it has no
red blood cells or large proteins.

Discuss how hydrostatic pressure and blood colloidal osmotic pressure contribute to the leakage
and subsequent reabsorption of fluid from the capillary beds of the cardiovascular system. How are
these mechanisms related to interstitial fluid?

Lymphatic Capillaries

Lymphatic capillaries are the sites of interstitial fluid collection and are distributed throughout the
body where they are intimately intertwined with the capillaries beds of the cardiovascular system. The

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unique structure of lymphatic capillaries permits the continuous and rapid removal of interstitial fluid,
plasma proteins, and cells from the interstitium. Once interstitial fluid enters into the lymphatic system
it is referred to as lymph.

Lymphatic capillaries known as lacteals absorb dietary fats in the villi of the small intestine (examine

the model of the section of small intestine found within the  Virtual Laboratory PowerPoint
Presentation and note the location of the lacteal). As such, the composition of lymph differs again
from that of interstitial fluid. Lymph contains less oxygen and nutrients than interstitial fluid, but has a
high concentration of fatty acids.

Why are fats not directly absorbed into the blood from the small intestine?

Draw a labelled diagram of a lymphatic capillary highlighting the important anatomical features that
permits the flow of fluid into, but not out of, the lymphatic system.

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 The Lymphatic Pathway

Lymphatic capillaries merge to form progressively larger lymphatic vessels en route to the subclavian
veins. This series of vessels forms the lymphatic pathway – the route along which lymph flows from
the interstitial space back to the bloodstream. However, unlike blood which flows throughout the body
in a continuous loop, lymph flows in only one direction — upward toward the neck.

Map the flow of lymph from the interstitial space back into the cardiovascular system.

The duct returns the majority of lymph to the bloodstream. This duct
drains lymph from the left side of the neck, head, chest and left upper limb and from the entire body
inferior to the ribs. The duct receives lymph from the upper right side
of the body.

Lymph is dumped back into the circulatory system via the lymphatic ducts located at the confluence
(or junction) of the and veins in the neck
through the valves.

Circulation of Lymph

A major distinction between the lymphatic and cardiovascular systems in humans is that lymph is not
actively pumped by the heart.

Discuss mechanisms which promote the flow of lymph along the lymphatic pathway.

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 BLOOD

Blood is a fluid connective tissue. Like all connective tissues, it is made up of cellular elements
and an extracellular matrix (in the case of blood, the extracellular matrix is known as plasma). The
cellular elements, referred to as the formed elements, include erythrocytes (also known as red blood
cells or RBCs), leukocytes (also known as white blood cells or WBCs), and cell fragments called
platelets (also known as thrombocytes). Erythrocytes and platelets were discussed as part of the
 Haemostasis Key Concept Module.

Identify the formed elements of blood.

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The fluid extracellular matrix of blood is what makes blood unique among connective tissues. This
fluid, which is mostly water, suspends the formed elements and enables them to circulate throughout
the body within the cardiovascular system.

Complete the following table by identifying the correct formed element for each of general blood
functions.

Transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Recognise and fight infections and foreign substances.

Form a clot to stop bleeding.

Composition of Blood

One of the most common blood tests checks for the quantity of the formed
elements of blood itself. One such test, called a haematocrit, measures the
percentage of erythrocytes in a blood sample. It is performed by spinning a sample
of blood in a specialised machine known as a centrifuge. The process of spinning
blood causes the heavier elements suspended within the blood sample to separate
from the lightweight, liquid plasma.

Access the following readings  Haematocrit (Lab Tests Online AU, 2020) and
 Hematocrit test (Mayo Clinic, 2019) to complete the following activities.

Colour in the test tube to represent a normal blood sample following centrifuge.

What is anaemia?

What is polycythaemia?

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Leukocytes

Leukocytes, commonly known as a white blood cells (or simply WBCs), are the major component
of the body’s defences against disease. Leukocytes protect the body against invading
microorganisms, body cells with mutated DNA, as well as cleaning up debris. They are larger than
erythrocytes but far less numerous.

One of the most distinctive characteristics of leukocytes is their movement. Leukocytes routinely leave
the bloodstream to perform their defensive functions in the body’s tissues, whereas erythrocytes
spend their days circulating within the blood vessels.

There are five (5) subtypes of leukocytes. From the  Leukocyte Information Sheets summarise the
differences between the 5 subtypes.

What do the terms ‘granular’ and ‘agranular’ refer to?

Complete the following table by identifying the granular and agranular leukocytes and summarising
their key functional differences.

Granular leukocytes

Agranular leukocytes

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 Word Element Glossary
a/n- not, without immune/o protection
-aemia condition of blood leuk/o white
erythr/o red macro- large
granul/o granules -penia deficiency
haem/o blood poly- many, much

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