Capacitance and Dielectrics

5.1 Introduction

A capacitor is a device which stores electric charge. Capacitors vary in shape and size,
but the basic configuration is two conductors carrying equal but opposite charges (Figure
5.1.1). Capacitors have many important applications in electronics. Some examples
include storing electric potential energy, delaying voltage changes when coupled with
resistors, filtering out unwanted frequency signals, forming resonant circuits and making
frequency-dependent and independent voltage dividers when combined with resistors.
Some of these applications will be discussed in latter chapters.

Figure 5.1.1 Basic configuration of a capacitor.

In the uncharged state, the charge on either one of the conductors in the capacitor is zero.
During the charging process, a charge Q is moved from one conductor to the other one,
giving one conductor a charge +Q , and the other one a charge −Q . A potential difference
∆V is created, with the positively charged conductor at a higher potential than the
negatively charged conductor. Note that whether charged or uncharged, the net charge on
the capacitor as a whole is zero.

The simplest example of a capacitor consists of two conducting plates of area A, which
are parallel to each other, and separated by a distance d, as shown in Figure 5.1.2.

Figure 5.1.2 A parallel-plate capacitor

Experiments show that the amount of charge Q stored in a capacitor is linearly

proportional to∆V , the electric potential difference between the plates. Thus, we may
write

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 Q = C | ∆V | (5.1.1)

where C is a positive proportionality constant called capacitance. Physically, capacitance

is a measure of the capacity of storing electric charge for a given potential difference ∆V .
The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F) :

1 F =1 farad = 1 coulomb volt= 1 C V

A typical capacitance is in the picofarad ( 1 pF =10−12 F ) to millifarad range,

(1 mF =10−3 F=1000µ µF; 1 F =10−6 F ).

Figure 5.1.3(a) shows the symbol which is used to represent capacitors in circuits. For a
polarized fixed capacitor which has a definite polarity, Figure 5.1.3(b) is sometimes used.

(a) (b)

Figure 5.1.3 Capacitor symbols.

5.2 Calculation of Capacitance

Let’s see how capacitance can be computed in systems with simple geometry.

Example 5.1: Parallel-Plate Capacitor

Consider two metallic plates of equal area A separated by a distance d, as shown in Figure
5.2.1 below. The top plate carries a charge +Q while the bottom plate carries a charge –Q.
The charging of the plates can be accomplished by means of a battery which produces a
potential difference. Find the capacitance of the system.

Figure 5.2.1 The electric field between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor

Solution:

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To find the capacitance C, we first need to know the electric field between the plates. A
real capacitor is finite in size. Thus, the electric field lines at the edge of the plates are not
straight lines, and the field is not contained entirely between the plates. This is known as
edge effects, and the non-uniform fields near the edge are called the fringing fields. In
Figure 5.2.1 the field lines are drawn by taking into consideration edge effects. However,
in what follows, we shall ignore such effects and assume an idealized situation, where
field lines between the plates are straight lines.

In the limit where the plates are infinitely large, the system has planar symmetry and we
can calculate the electric field everywhere using Gauss’s law given in Eq. (4.2.5):

JG JG qenc
E⋅d A =

ε0

By choosing a Gaussian “pillbox” with cap area A′ to enclose the charge on the positive
plate (see Figure 5.2.2), the electric field in the region between the plates is

qenc σA' σ
EA' = = ⇒ E = (5.2.1) ε0 ε0 ε0

The same result has also been obtained in Section 4.8.1 using superposition principle.

Figure 5.2.2 Gaussian surface for calculating the electric field between the plates.

The potential difference between the plates is

Ed (5.2.2)

where we have taken the path of integration to be a straight line from the positive plate to
the negative plate following the field lines (Figure 5.2.2). Since the electric field lines are

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always directed from higher potential to lower potential, V− < V+ . However, in computing
the capacitance C, the relevant quantity is the magnitude of the potential difference:

|∆V |= Ed (5.2.3)

and its sign is immaterial. From the definition of capacitance, we have

Q εA (5.2.4)
C= = 0
(parallelplate)
|∆V | d
Note that C depends only on the geometric factors A
and d. The capacitance C increases linearly with the area A since for a given potential
difference ∆V , a bigger plate can hold more charge. On the other hand, C is inversely
proportional to d, the distance of separation because the smaller the value of d, the
smaller the potential difference | ∆V | for a fixed Q.

Interactive Simulation 5.1: Parallel-Plate Capacitor

This simulation shown in Figure 5.2.3 illustrates the interaction of charged particles
inside the two plates of a capacitor.

Figure 5.2.3 Charged particles interacting inside the two plates of a capacitor.

Each plate contains twelve charges interacting via Coulomb force, where one plate
contains positive charges and the other contains negative charges. Because of their mutual
repulsion, the particles in each plate are compelled to maximize the distance between one
another, and thus spread themselves evenly around the outer edge of their enclosure.
However, the particles in one plate are attracted to the particles in the other, so they
attempt to minimize the distance between themselves and their oppositely charged
correspondents. Thus, they distribute themselves along the surface of their bounding box
closest to the other plate.

Example 5.2: Cylindrical Capacitor

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Consider next a solid cylindrical conductor of radius a surrounded by a coaxial
cylindrical shell of inner radius b, as shown in Figure 5.2.4. The length of both cylinders
is L and we take this length to be much larger than b− a, the separation of the cylinders,
so that edge effects can be neglected. The capacitor is charged so that the inner cylinder
has charge +Q while the outer shell has a charge –Q. What is the capacitance?

(a) (b)

Figure 5.2.4 (a) A cylindrical capacitor. (b) End view of the capacitor. The electric field
is non-vanishing only in the region a < r < b.

Solution:

To calculate the capacitance, we first compute the electric field everywhere. Due to the
cylindrical symmetry of the system, we choose our Gaussian surface to be a coaxial
cylinder with length A < L and radius r where a r b< < . Using Gauss’s law, we have

∫∫
wJG JG λA ⇒
λ
E = (5.2.5) S E⋅d A = EA E= (
=
2πrA) ε0 2πε0r

where λ= Q L/ is the charge per unit length. Notice that the electric field is nonvanishing
only in the region a r< < b . For r < a , the enclosed charge is qenc = 0 since any net
charge in a conductor must reside on its surface. Similarly, for r b> , the enclosed charge
is qenc =λA −λA = 0 since the Gaussian surface encloses equal but opposite charges from
both conductors.

The potential difference is given by

b λ b dr λ ⎛b⎞

∆V V V= b − a = −∫a E drr = − 2πε0 ∫a r = − 2πε0 ⎝⎜ a ⎠⎟

ln
(5.2.6)

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where we have chosen the integration path to be along the direction of the electric field
lines. As expected, the outer conductor with negative charge has a lower potential. This
gives

Q λL 2πε L (5.2.7)
C= = = 0

| ∆V | λln( / )/2b a πε0 ln( / )b a

Once again, we see that the capacitance C
depends only on the geometrical factors, L, a and b.

Example 5.3: Spherical Capacitor

As a third example, let’s consider a spherical capacitor which consists of two concentric
spherical shells of radii a and b, as shown in Figure 5.2.5. The inner shell has a charge
+Q uniformly distributed over its surface, and the outer shell an equal but opposite charge
–Q. What is the capacitance of this configuration?

Figure 5.2.5 (a) spherical capacitor with two concentric spherical shells of radii a and b.
(b) Gaussian surface for calculating the electric field.

Solution:

The electric field is non-vanishing only in the region a r< < b . Using Gauss’s law, we
obtain

w JG JG 2
Q

∫∫ E⋅dA = E A E
S r = r ( 4πr ) = ε 0

(5.2.8)
or

1 Q (5.2.9)
Er = 2

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 4πεo r

Therefore, the potential difference between the two conducting shells is:

b Q b dr Q⎛1 1⎞ Q ⎛ b a− ⎞ (5.2.10)

∆V V V= b − a = −∫a E drr= − 4πε0 ∫a r2 = − 4πε0 ⎜ a b−⎟ = − 4πε0 ⎜ ab ⎟⎠

⎝ ⎠ ⎝

which yields

(5.2.11)

Again, the capacitance C depends only on the physical dimensions, a and b.

An “isolated” conductor (with the second conductor placed at infinity) also has a
⎛ ab ⎞ a limb→∞ C = limb→∞ 4πε0 (5.2.12)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ b −a ⎠ = limb→∞ 4πε0 ⎛1− a ⎞ = 4πε0a
capacitance. In the limit whereb → ∞ , the above
Q ⎛ ab ⎞
equation becomes
C= = 4πε0 ⎜ ⎟
| ∆V | ⎝ b−a ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ b⎠

Thus, for a single isolated spherical conductor of radius R, the capacitance is

C = 4πε0R (5.2.13)

The above expression can also be obtained by noting that a conducting sphere of radius R
with a charge Q uniformly distributed over its surface has V = Q/4πε0R , using infinity as
the reference point having zero potential,V(∞) = 0 . This gives

Q Q
C= = = 4πε0R (5.2.14)
| ∆V | Q/ 4πε0R

As expected, the capacitance of an isolated charged sphere only depends on its geometry,
namely, the radius R.

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5.3 Capacitors in Electric Circuits

A capacitor can be charged by connecting the plates to the terminals of a battery, which
are maintained at a potential difference ∆V called the terminal voltage.

Figure 5.3.1 Charging a capacitor.

The connection results in sharing the charges between the terminals and the plates. For
example, the plate that is connected to the (positive) negative terminal will acquire some
(positive) negative charge. The sharing causes a momentary reduction of charges on the
terminals, and a decrease in the terminal voltage. Chemical reactions are then triggered to
transfer more charge from one terminal to the other to compensate for the loss of charge
to the capacitor plates, and maintain the terminal voltage at its initial level. The battery
could thus be thought of as a charge pump that brings a charge Qfrom one plate to the
other.

5.3.1 Parallel Connection

Suppose we have two capacitors C1 with charge Q1 and C2 with charge Q2 that are
connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 5.3.2.

Figure 5.3.2 Capacitors in parallel and an equivalent capacitor.

The left plates of both capacitors C1 and C2 are connected to the positive terminal of the
battery and have the same electric potential as the positive terminal. Similarly, both right

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plates are negatively charged and have the same potential as the negative terminal. Thus,
the potential difference | ∆V | is the same across each capacitor. This gives

Q1 Q2
C1 = , C2 =
| ∆V | | ∆V | (5.3.1)

These two capacitors can be replaced by a single equivalent capacitor Ceq with a total
charge Q supplied by the battery. However, since Q is shared by the two capacitors, we
must have

Q Q Q= 1 + 2 = C1 | ∆V | +C2 | ∆V |= (C C1 + 2 )| ∆V |
(5.3.2)

The equivalent capacitance is then seen to be given by

Q
Ceq = = C1 +C2 (5.3.3)
| ∆V |

Thus, capacitors that are connected in parallel add. The generalization to any number of
capacitors is

N
" (5.3.4)
Ceq = C1 +C2 +C3 ++CN = ∑Ci (parallel)
i=1

5.3.2 Series Connection

Suppose two initially uncharged capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in series, as shown in
Figure 5.3.3. A potential difference | ∆V | is then applied across both capacitors. The left
plate of capacitor 1 is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and becomes
positively charged with a charge +Q, while the right plate of capacitor 2 is connected to
the negative terminal and becomes negatively charged with charge –Q as electrons flow
in. What about the inner plates? They were initially uncharged; now the outside plates
each attract an equal and opposite charge. So the right plate of capacitor 1 will acquire a
charge –Q and the left plate of capacitor +Q.

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 Figure 5.3.3 Capacitors in series and an equivalent capacitor

The potential differences across capacitorsC1 and C2 are

Q Q
|∆V |1 = , |∆V |2 = (5.3.5) C1
C2

respectively. From Figure 5.3.3, we see that the total potential difference is simply the
sum of the two individual potential differences:

|∆V | = |∆V |1 + ∆| V |2 (5.3.6)

In fact, the total potential difference across any number of capacitors in series connection
is equal to the sum of potential differences across the individual capacitors. These two
capacitors can be replaced by a single equivalent capacitor Ceq = Q/ | ∆V |. Using the fact
that the potentials add in series,

Q Q Q
= +
Ceq C1 C2

and so the equivalent capacitance for two capacitors in series becomes

1 1 1
= + (5.3.7)
Ceq C1 C2

The generalization to any number of capacitors connected in series is

1 1 1 1 N 1
(5.3.8)
Ceq = + +"+ =∑ (series)
C1 C2 CN
C
i=1 i

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Example 5.4: Equivalent Capacitance

Find the equivalent capacitance for the combination of capacitors shown in Figure 5.3.4(a)

Figure 5.3.4 (a) Capacitors connected in series and in parallel

Solution:

Since C1 and C2 are connected in parallel, their equivalent capacitance C12 is given by

C12 = C1 +C2

Figure 5.3.4 (b) and (c) Equivalent circuits.

Now capacitor C12 is in series with C3, as seen from Figure 5.3.4(b). So, the equivalent
capacitance C123 is given by

1 1 1
= +
C123 C12 C3

or

CC (C +C )C
C
123 = 12 3 = 1 2
3

C12 +C3 C1 +C2 +C3

5.4 Storing Energy in a Capacitor

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As discussed in the introduction, capacitors can be used to stored electrical energy. The
amount of energy stored is equal to the work done to charge it. During the charging
process, the battery does work to remove charges from one plate and deposit them onto
the other.

Figure 5.4.1 Work is done by an external agent in bringing +dq from the negative plate and
depositing the charge on the positive plate.

Let the capacitor be initially uncharged. In each plate of the capacitor, there are many
negative and positive charges, but the number of negative charges balances the number of
positive charges, so that there is no net charge, and therefore no electric field between the
plates. We have a magic bucket and a set of stairs from the bottom plate to the top plate
(Figure 5.4.1).

We start out at the bottom plate, fill our magic bucket with a charge +dq , carry the
bucket up the stairs and dump the contents of the bucket on the top plate, charging it up
positive to charge +dq. However, in doing so, the bottom plate is now charged to −dq .
Having emptied the bucket of charge, we now descend the stairs, get another bucketful of
charge +dq, go back up the stairs and dump that charge on the top plate. We then repeat
this process over and over. In this way we build up charge on the capacitor, and create
electric field where there was none initially.

Suppose the amount of charge on the top plate at some instant is +q, and the potential
difference between the two plates is | ∆V |= q C/ . To dump another bucket of charge +dq
on the top plate, the amount of work done to overcome electrical repulsion is dW = ∆| V |
dq. If at the end of the charging process, the charge on the top plate is +Q,
then the total amount of work done in this process is

Q Q q 1 Q2 (5.4.1)

W = ∫0 dq | ∆V |= ∫0
dq
C=2C

This is equal to the electrical potential energy UE of the system:

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 1 Q2
1 1
(5.4.2)
UE = = Q | ∆V |= C | ∆V |2
2 C 2 2
5.4.1 Energy Density of the Electric Field

One can think of the energy stored in the capacitor as being stored in the electric field
itself. In the case of a parallel-plate capacitor, with C =ε0 A/d and | ∆V |= Ed , we have

1
1 2
1 ε0 A 2 2

UE = C | ∆V | = ( Ed ) = ε0E ( Ad ) (5.4.3)
2 2 d 2

Since the quantity Ad represents the volume between the plates, we can define the electric
energy density as

U 1
(5.4.4)
uE = E = ε0E2
Volume 2
Note that uE is proportional to the square of the electric field.
Alternatively, one may obtain the energy stored in the capacitor from the point of view of
external work. Since the plates are oppositely charged, force must be applied to maintain
a constant separation between them. From Eq. (4.4.7), we see that a small patch of charge
∆ =q σ(∆A) experiences an attractive force ∆F =σ2(∆A)/ 2ε0 . If the total area of the
plate is A, then an external agent must exert a force Fext =σ2 A/2ε0 to pull the two plates
apart. Since the electric field strength in the region between the plates is given by E =σ/ε0
, the external force can be rewritten as

Fext = E2 A (5.4.5)

Note that Fext is independent of d . The total amount of work done externally to separate
the plates by a distance d is then

G G 2

⎛ ε0E A ⎞

Wext = ∫ Fext ⋅ds = F dext= ⎜⎝ 2⎟⎠ d (5.4.6)

consistent with Eq. (5.4.3). Since the potential energy of the system is equal to the work
done by the external agent, we haveuE =Wext / Ad =ε0E2 /2. In addition, we note that the

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expression for uE is identical to Eq. (4.4.8) in Chapter 4. Therefore, the electric energy
density uE can also be interpreted as electrostatic pressure P.

Interactive Simulation 5.2: Charge Placed between Capacitor Plates

This applet shown in Figure 5.4.2 is a simulation of an experiment in which an aluminum

sphere sitting on the bottom plate of a capacitor is lifted to the top plate by the
electrostatic force generated as the capacitor is charged. We have placed a nonconducting
barrier just below the upper plate to prevent the sphere from touching it and discharging.

Figure 5.4.2 Electrostatic force experienced by an aluminum sphere placed between the
plates of a parallel-plate capacitor.

While the sphere is in contact with the bottom plate, the charge density of the bottom of
the sphere is the same as that of the lower plate. Thus, as the capacitor is charged, the
charge density on the sphere increases proportional to the potential difference between the
plates. In addition, energy flows in to the region between the plates as the electric field
builds up. This can be seen in the motion of the electric field lines as they move from the
edge to the center of the capacitor.

As the potential difference between the plates increases, the sphere feels an increasing
attraction towards the top plate, indicated by the increasing tension in the field as more
field lines "attach" to it. Eventually this tension is enough to overcome the downward
force of gravity, and the sphere is lifted. Once separated from the lower plate, the sphere
charge density no longer increases, and it feels both an attractive force towards the upper
plate (whose charge is roughly opposite that of the sphere) and a repulsive force from the
lower one (whose charge is roughly equal to that of the sphere). The result is a net force
upwards.

Example 5.5: Electric Energy Density of Dry Air

The breakdown field strength at which dry air loses its insulating ability and allows a
discharge to pass through is Eb = 3 10× 6 V/m. At this field strength, the electric energy
density is:

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 2 uE E2 ( .

12 2 2 )( 106V/m) = 40 J/m3 (5.4.7)

Example 5.6: Energy Stored in a Spherical Shell

Find the energy stored in a metallic spherical shell of radius a and charge Q.

Solution:

The electric field associated of a spherical shell of radius a is (Example 4.3)

⎧ Q

⎪
EJG = ⎨ 4πε0r2 rˆ, r > a (5.4.8)

⎪
⎩0G, r<a

The corresponding energy density is

1 2 Q2
u
E = ε0E = 2 4

(5.4.9)
2 32πε0r

outside the sphere, and zero inside. Since the electric field is non-vanishing outside the
spherical shell, we must integrate over the entire region of space from r = a to r = ∞ . In
spherical coordinates, withdV = 4πr2dr , we have

∞ ⎛ Q2 ⎞ 2 Q2 ∞ dr Q2 1

UE = ∫a ⎜⎝ 32π2ε0r4 ⎠⎟4πr dr = 8πε0 ∫ r = 8πε a = 2QV

a 2 0 (5.4.10)

where V = Q/ 4πε0a is the electric potential on the surface of the shell, with V(∞ =) 0.
We can readily verify that the energy of the system is equal to the work done in charging
the sphere. To show this, suppose at some instant the sphere has charge q and is at a

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potential V = q/ 4πε0a . The work required to add an additional charge dq to the system is
dW =Vdq . Thus, the total work is

Q ⎛ q ⎞ Q2

W = ∫dW = ∫Vdq = ∫0 dq⎜⎝ 4πε0a ⎠⎟ = 8πε0a (5.4.11)

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