GROUP 5 (PLANT FORM AND FUNCTION and TRANSPORT
SYSTEM IN PLANTS)
Overview:
There are more than 350 thousand species of known plants and more is to be discovered
and named in the next years. Their fascinating morphology and their ability to regulate and maintain
homeostasis is studied by botanists. In this chapter, you will learn the different plants systems that
function together to maintain the plant’s internal conditions.
Let’s Learn
What do plants need to sustain growth? During the earlier years of your education, you were
taught that plants grow from uptake of water and nutrients from the soil, supplied with the heat energy
from the sun, and aided with carbon dioxide. What is interesting about plants is that they obtain all of
these nutrients as inorganic substances and convert them into organic form. As you read along, you
will have a closer look at the mechanisms by which plants grow, develop, and survive.
Plants Growth and Development
Plant growth, from seed germination to maturity, involves a combination of cellular responses
and molecular interaction. For instance, when you break the stem of kangkong to prepare it for
sinigang, the kangkong makes a snapping sound due to the turgidity of the plant’s cell from water
uptake.
Tonicity
Describes a solution’s concentration relative to its surrounding. Tonicity is also the ability of a
solution to cause a cell either to take in more water or takeout water. Only solutes that cannot cross
the membrane contribute to tonicity. It determines the direction and extent to which water moves by
osmosis.
Solutions may be loosely categorized as
hypertonic, hypotonic or isotonic according to
their relative osmolarity. It simply means that the
water goes to whichever solution (either of the
intracellular or extracellular fluid) has a greater
solute concentration).
a) Solutions with a relatively higher osmolarity
are categorized as hypertonic (high solute
concentration ⇒ gains water).
b) Solutions with a relatively lower osmolarity are
categorized as hypotonic (low solute
concentration ⇒ loses water).
c) Solutions that have the same osmolarity are
categorized as isotonic (same solute
concentration ⇒ no net water flow). It means that
solute concentration is the same as that inside
the cell.
a) A hypertonic solution will have higher concentration of dissolved solutes than the solution inside
the cell. Therefore, a hypertonic solution has a lower concentration of water than the solution within
the cell. As a result, a hypotonic solution will force water out the cell (there is a net movement of
water out the cell).
b) A hypotonic solution will have a lower concentration of dissolved solutes than the solution inside
the cell. Therefore, a hypotonic solution has a higher concentration of water than the solution within
the cell. As a result, a hypotonic solution will force water into the cell (there is a net movement of
water into the cell).
c) An isotonic solution will have an equal concentration of solutes to the solution inside the cell.
Therefore, an isotonic solution has an equal concentration of water to the solution within the cell. As a
result, water moves in and out of the cell at an equal rate. There is no net movement of water.
In some plant species, the shoot and root system have developed a specialized function of adapt to
certain environmental condition. Ginger, locally known as luya, is a specialized stem known as
rhizome. Rhizomes serve as storage of starch and protein, which permits perennial growth. The
colorful specialized leaves of bougainvillea may be seen as white, pink, or yellow shade to attract
pollinators to the small flower at the center of this bracts. Prop roots are also specialized plant parts
that we see in mangrove or bakawan. These prop roots function to anchor and support the mangrove
on the regularly water-logged soil.
TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN PLANTS
Plants vary in size. Some may be a few inches in length while others could be towering in
height. In all instances, there is a need to transport materials from the source to where it is needed.
This transport of substances between organs of the plant is facilitated by its vascular tissues, xylem
and phloem.
Xylem conduct water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.
Phloem transports food from the leaves to the roots, as well as to growing buds, flowers, and fruits.
The dual transport system has enabled plants to have specialized organs that are efficient in
performing their specific functions such as absorption of water by roots, collection of solar energy by
leaves, and reproduction by flowers.
Transport in Xylem
Xylem sap, comprised of water and mineral nutrients, flows upward in xylem elements at rates of 15
meters per hour or faster. Each xylem element branches all the way to the leaves where they lie close
to cells. The efficient supply of water is essential to the photosynthetic function of the leaves.
There are two pathways of xylem sap transport in the shoot system:
1. Guttation
During the night, root cells are continuously spending energy to pump minerals ions into the
xylem. The mineral ions are accumulated into the stele, as the endodermis prevents backflow going
out of the vascular cylinder. The upward push of xylem sap is called root pressure. This root pressure
causes the release of water droplets in the edges of leaves, a phenomenon termed guttation. Excess
water is forced through specialized structures called hydathodes that function as escape valves.
Guttation can be seen in the morning on tips of grass blades or the leaf margins of some herbaceous
dicots.
2. Transpiration
Water from the xylem sap is needed by the cells of the cells of the leaves to carry out
photosynthesis. Gases are also supplied to the leaves by virtue of the microscopic pores, stomata.
The loss of water from the leaf or any part of the shoot system of the plant is called transpiration.
Transport in Phloem
The second type of vascular tissue, the phloem, transports the organic products of photosynthesis
throughout the plant. This transport of food in the plant is called translocation. Phloem sap is
comprised of the products of photosynthesis, primarily sugar in the form of sucrose dissolved in
water. The sucrose concentration can be as much as 30% making the sap viscous and syrupy in
thickness. Phloem sap also contains minerals, amino acids, and hormones.
Plant Nutrition
When we talk about plant nutrition, we are referring to the supply and absorption of chemical
compounds for the growth and metabolism of plants. These chemical compounds for growth are
known as plant nutrients or essential elements. In order for higher plants to sustain their metabolic
processes, inorganic nutrients are obtained from the environment via soil, air, and water.
Plant Hormones, Responses, and Feedback Mechanisms
To achieve the ideal growth, plants, need to have a constant level of essential elements.
However, these nutrients are available as irregular patchy distribution in most soils.
Plant hormones also play an important role in plant defense against pathogenic
microorganisms. Not only do these plant hormones perform such function, but they also regulate the
development and signal networks in plants. Some of the known phytohormones are salicylic acid
(SA), jasmonic acid (JA), ethylene (ET), abscisic acid (ABA), auxin, gibberellic acid (GA), cytokinin
(CK), brassinosteroids (BR), and peptide hormones.
GROUP 4 (ANIMAL FORM AND FUNCTION)
ANIMAL FORM AND FUNCTION
The organs that make up the systems of higher vertebrates and the simple organ like structures used by
invertebrates enable these organisms to maintain homeostasis. It follows a feedback loop that communicates
with other organs to allow for a coordinated function. In this chapter, you will have a deeper understanding of
the morphology and physiology of animal systems and better understand how this compares and contrasts to
the plant systems.
Types of Reproduction
There are two main types of reproduction. One involves the union of sex cells, the egg and the sperm. This
is called sexual reproduction. As a result of this union, the new organism gets half its genes from one parent
and half from the other parent. The new organism resembles both parents. It does not look exactly like either
parent.
The other type of reproduction does not involve sex cells. This is called asexual reproduction. Asexual
reproduction involves only one parent. The new organism gets all its genes from the parent. Thus, it
appearance is exactly like its parent.
Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a simple and fast method of reproduction. Consider a bacterium, a single-celled
moneran.
There are a number of ways by which organisms reproduce asexually. The four most common ways are
fission, budding, spore formation, and vegetative propagation.
1. Fission – The type of asexual reproduction in which a singlecelled organism divides into two new cells, or
organisms, is called fission. This is the same as cell division. Bacteria, paramecia, and many other tiny one-
celled organisms reproduce in this way.
2. Budding – Some organisms can reproduce by forming buds that develop into complete organisms. Yeasts
and hydra can reproduce by budding. This type of sexual reproduction involves a small projection, or bud
forming on the side of the parent. The nucleus divides to form two nuclei, one of which goes into the bud. The
bud grows and may eventually break away from the parent. The bud is now a whole organism – a miniature
copy of its parents, it can function as an individual.
3. Spore Formation – Many different organisms reproduce by forming spores. A spore is a cell with a thick
protective covering which enables the spore to survive during unfavorable conditions, such as dryness,
extreme heat, or cold.
A common bread mold (amag) reproduces asexually by spore formation. Under favorable conditions, the
spores as they are disseminated geminate into new plants.
Look at the undersurface of a mature fern leaf and try to find some brown spots called sori. The sori keep the
spores intact.
4. Vegetative Propagation – Certain plants commonly reproduce by means of vegetative propagation. That is a
part of a plant can reproduce an entire new plant. In some plants roots serve as the basis for new plants. In
others, the stems or leaves may be involved.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is much more common than asexual reproduction. Most organisms, such as seed
plants, fishes, and human beings, reproduce sexually.
Sexual reproduction involves the use of the sex cells called gametes. The male gamete is the sperm
and female gamete is the egg. For sexual reproduction to occur, the egg and sperm must join together to form
one cell. The fertilized egg is called zygote which has the combination of chromosomes and genes of both
parents.
Sexual and Asexual Reproduction in a Variety of Organisms
▪ Earthworm
The earthworm possesses both male and female sex organs, so it is said to be hermaphroditic or
monoecious. Although earthworms possess both sex organs, they do not carry on self-fertilization. They have
external fertilization because the eggs are fertilized outside the body of the female.
Earthworm also reproduces asexually by regeneration. This involves the growth of a whole organ from one
of its parts. This is true also of other animals, like the planarian and starfish.
▪ Frog
The frog has two separates sexes – a male or a female, so it is said to be dioecious. The male frog has two
testes that release sperms and the female has two ovaries that release eggs into the body cavities.
The male frog attaches itself to the back of the female when they mate, the female releases the eggs into
the water, and the male frog discharges sperms over them. External fertilization takes place outside the body
of the female, in the water. Tadpoles emerge from the eggs in the water. Thus, the development of the embryo
is external.
▪ Bird
The bird is either male or female. During mating, sperms move to oviduct of the female where the egg is
fertilized by a sperm. The egg of the bird is fertilized inside the female body. This is called internal fertilization.
The embro develops outside the body of the female bird.
▪ Cat
Cats and other mammals exhibit both internal fertilization and internal development of the embro. The
female cat has a pair of ovaries. Close to each ovary is the funnel-shaped opening of the oviduct.
Animal Reproductive Development
The nature of development is related to the reproductive strategy of a particular species.
Indirect development – involves one or more intermediate larval forms before the adult form is attained.
Among animals that shows indirect development, fertilization follows the random release of gametes in the
environment.
Direct development – in which the offspring hatch or are born in miniature adult form. These are typically
those where females produce smaller numbers of large yolky eggs containing sufficient food reserves for
elavorate development. Mammals, such as elephants, primates, and bats to name a few, also show direct
development.
Gemetogenesis is a long sequence of events that take place in the production of sperm and egg.
Spermatogenesis and oogenesis specifically refer to the male and female gamete production, respectively.
Animal Development
In spite of the differences in a embryonic development across animals species, cleavage formation,
gastrulation and organogenesis appear to be virtually identical in all animal groups.
Cleave starts when the zygote undergoes rapid cell division resulting in cells called blastomeres.
GROUP 3 (ANIMAL NUTRITION)
ANIMAL NUTRITION
In the course of evolution, animals have formed ways to obtain, process, and digest food as
heterotrophs. Some were able to establish symbiosis with other organisms to perform this function.
Generally, animals need carbohydrates, lipids, and protein as basic organic compounds and
supply of vitamins, minerals, and water as additional nutrient requirements. Carbohydrates and lipids
serve as energy stores in which the energy. To form adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy
currency of the cells, is derived. Essential fatty acids and amino acids are obtained either from gut
symbionts or direct food sources. Vitamins, similar in plants, are organic compounds that are only
needed in minute amounts but essential for metabolic functions. Water-soluble vitamins are regularly
consumed whereas fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K) are readily stored in the body.
Minerals are also needed for ion exchange, body component, and ATP production. Most minerals are
utilized as enzyme cofactor or as part of a transport system.
Diversity of Digestive Enzymes
The most common form of digestion adapted by both unicellular and multicellular animals is called
phagocytosis.
This involves an intracellular digestion by fusion of food vacuole and lysosome. The lysosome
contains digestive enzymes that are produced by the rough ER. However, most animals use
extracellular digestion, which involves secretion of the enzyme where chemical breakdown occurs
outside of a cell. Corals, anemones, and jellyfish secrete enzymes into a sac-like gut.
In some stages of evolution, other organisms develop a two-way opening as seen in
nematodes. The mouth is located at one end and the anus at the other end. In such case, the body
movement and force of food entering the gut compensate the absence of muscular wall of the gut.
This structure also permits independent elimination of waste ingestion of food particles.
Annelids, mollusks, echinoderms, and chordates develop a coelom. Peristalsis from the
muscular gut allows food to move independently due to the body movement. Ingestion also allows
storage of food energy, which permits a discontinuous need to find new sources of food.
Circulation and Gas Exchange
Oxygen availability to animals depends on the external respiratory medium and environmental
factors such as temperature, salinity (aquatic life), altitude (terrestrial life), and distance from air
interference. Terrestrial organisms directly take in oxygen from the atmosphere whereas aquatic
organisms obtain the supply as dissolved oxygen, which occurs in minute amounts. Thus, it is more
challenging and energy intensive for aquatic organisms to perform gas exchange.
Animal Nervous System
Most animals have some type of nervous system with distinct organization of neurons (nerve
cells). In hydras, nerve nets are diffused all over the body to control the contraction and expansion of
the gastro vascular cavity. The onset of cephalization marks a more complex nervous system. A
simple central nervous system (CNS) with a small brain and longitudinal nerve cords is present. In
more complex invertebrates. CNS is composed of the brain and ventral nerve cords with clusters of
neuron called ganglia. All other nerves on the rest of the animal’s body are called as the peripheral
nervous system (PNS).
There are three stages in the interpretation of signals that reaches the brain:
1. Sensory input
2. Integration
3. Motor output
The neuron, which is the basic unit of the nervous system, is composed of a nucleus from the cell
body and two types of extensions:
▪ Dendrites – a single neuron are often numerous in number and highly branched to receive
signals from other neurons.
▪ Axon – often occurs singly to transmit signals to neurons and/or effector cells. An axon is
divided into several branches and ends in a synaptic terminal where a small gap is present called
synapse. This is also the site of communication between neurons.
Vertebrate Nervous System
All vertebrate brains contain three regions:
1. Hindbrain – junciton of the brain and spinal cord; it coordinates autonomic processes and motor
responses. The cerebellum, which is an extension of the hindbrain, assists in regulating motor
responses.
2. Midbrain – responsible for the visual processing and some motor control.
3. Forebrain – located near the anterior end; can be divided into two distinct regions:
▪ The diencephalon – which contains the thalamus and hypothalamus;
▪ The Telencephalon – for directing and appropriate response to all sensory information.
Vertebrate Brain Differences
The largest region in primitive vertebrates is the hindbrain with a relatively developed cerebellum.
Visual information is processed by a small midbrain just above the hindbrain and a small forebrain for
olfaction (sense of smell).
Sensory Mechanisms
The senses are often divided into two:
1. The general senses – that are distributed in the skin, muscles, and joints.
(Ex. Touch, pressure, pain, and temperature)
2. The special senses – incorporated in organs with complex structures.
(Ex. Senses of smell, taste, sight, hearing, and balance)
GROUP 2 (IMMUNE SYSTEM)
IMMUNE SYSTEM
Animals defend themselves from pathogenic microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, and other
pathogens in the environment. Some abnormal body cells may also form, as in the case of cancer cells, which
must be addressed by the body.
There are two major kinds of defense mechanism developed :
1. Innate Immunity – which is a nonspecific response to a broad range of microbes formed by the skin and
mucous membranes together with macrophage and other phagocytic cells that ingest and destroy pathogens
that penetrates through the external barrier;
2. Acquired Immunity – which is a highly specific response developed only after exposure to pathogens and
cells by the recognition of lymphocytes.
Innate Immunity
There are two lines of defense in innate immunity. The first line of defense is the skin and mucous
membrane that lines the digestive, respiratory, and genitourinary tract, which acts as a barrier on invading
pathogens. The skin is also acidic which kills potential pathogenic microorganisms. Sweat, tears, and saliva
also contain an enzyme called lysozyme to kill bacteria. Normally, the skin is thick enough to block pathogens;
however, a minor abrasion can easily allow access of pathogens to the body. In the inner lining of the organs
for digestion, respiration etc., mucus is produced to trap microbes and other particles. Pathogens that
successfully cross the first line of defense then face the chemical defense mechanism, which is often done
through phagocytosis. Phagocytes attach to their prey via surface receptors of pathogens then engulf it by
formng a vacuole that fuses with lysosome. Lysosomes contain chemicals and enzymes that can be degrade
and destroy the pathogen. However, some microbes have adaptations to escape these phagocytes. These
organisms can form a barrier on their polysaccharide capsule that resists digestion of the cells.
Acquired Immunity
In acquired immunity, lymphocyte provides a specific defense against pathogens. The body detects the
foreign object or pathogen by certain molecules attached on the outside of invading pathogens or by other
foreign objects. This molecule or foreign substance is called as antigen. The immune system produces
antibodies, which will attach to these antigens.
The acquired immne system utilizes two major cell types:
1. B cells – which produce the antibodies. The presence of an antigen triggers the production of numerous
types of B cells.
2. T cells – which can attack infected cells by phagocytosis or by injecting chemicals (perforins) to break down
and kill the pathogen.
There are three major types of T-cells:
a. Killer T cells inject chemicals into pathogens
b. Helper T cells attack and assist B cells in antibody production;
c. Suppressor T cells that stop the B and T cells after infection. Both the B and T cells are
produced in the bone marrow, and site of maturation dictates the fate of the cell (e.g.,
maturation in bone marrow forms B cells and maturation in lymph system forms the T cell).
Each four major blood groups – A, B, O, and AB – have its own antigen. Thus, only compatible blood
types are allowed to be transferred from one person to another. If the wrong blood type is transfused, the
antibody will attach to the foreign blood antigen, which will lead to clotting and death.
GROUP 1 (ENDOCRINE SYSTEM)
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The endocrine system consist of glands that regulate various body functions. This system
plays a major role in regulating growth, the reproductive process, and the way the body uses food. It
also helps prepare the body to deal with stress and emergencies.
The endocrine glands control body functions by producing hormones. These chemicals are
released into the blood which carries them throughout the body. The hormones act as chemical
messengers. After a hormone reaches the organ or
tissue, it affects and triggers certain actions. There are
different kinds of hormones produced by the endocrine
glands.
Specialized nerve cells known as
neurosecretory cells also release hormones into the
blood. The fight-or-flight hormone epinephrine serves
as both hormones and neurotransmitters of the
endocrine and nervous system, respectively.
There are three types of hormonal pathways:
1. Endocrine pathway
2. Neurohormone pathway
3. Neuroendocrine pathway
All of these pathways are feedback loops that
act in response to a stimulus. When the effector
response reduces the initial stimulus causing a halt in
the response, then the process is in the negative
feedback loop. When the body reinforces the stimulus
and leads to an even greater response, then a positive
feedback loop is done.
Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is one of the most important endocrine glands. It consists of two parts, the
anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe releases hormones that regulate the secretions
of other endocrine glands. The pituitary is also called the master gland.
1. Growth Hormone (GH) – promotes the growth of the skeleton and the body as a whole.
2. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) – controls the amount of thyroglobulin secreted by the throid.
3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) – stimulates the growth and secretions of the cortex (outer
layer) of the adrenal gland.
4. Gonadtropins – stimulate the gonads, which are sperm or egg producing organs.
5. Leutinizing Hormone (LH) – necessary for the attachment of an embryo within its mother’s womb.
6. Lactogenic Hormone (LH) or Prolactin – stimulates the secretion of milk
7. Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone – stimulates the melanocytes, the cells of the skin which contain
the black pigment. It is also responsible for moles, freckles and birthmarks.
8. Oxytocin – stimulates the smooth muscles of the uterus to contract during childbirth
9. Antidiuretic Hormone (Vasopression) – causes kidneys to execrete excess water and at the same
time causes arteries to contract and in this case increases blood pressure.
Thyroid Gland
The throid gland is located in the front of the neck. It has two lobes (parts), one on each side of
the trachea (windpipe). The thyroid takes iodine from the blood and uses it to make hormones.
Thyroid hormones control the body’s cell metabolism. When throid hormones are released into
the bloodstream, cells increase the rate at which they convert oxygen and nutrients into energy and
heat for the body’s use. The hormones of the thyroid glands are:
1. Thyroxin – influences the growth and development of the body, like sex organs, brain, bones and
muscles.
2. Calcitonin – produced in response to high levels of calcium in the blood, this causes the kidneys to
discharge more calcium into the urine and raises the amount of calcium stored in the bones.
Parathyroid Gland
The parathyroid glands secrete a hormone known as parathormone, which controls the
concentration of calcium (calcium ion) and phosphorus (phosphate) in the blood. Calcium and
phosphorus normally have a relationship to each other that the body keeps fairly constant.
Parathyroid hormones act to increase the excretion of phosphorus by the kidneys and to increase the
rate of resorption of calcium from bones.
Adrenal Glands
Adrenal glands are small, pyramid-shaped organs that secrete many important hormones. The
body has two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. Each adrenal gland consists of a medulla
(inner core) and a cortex (outer core).
1. Glucocorticoids – stimulate the formation and storage of glycogen in the liver, regulate the use of
digested foods and help the body adapt to stress
2. Adrenaline – the emergency hormone of the body that facilitates the utilization of glucose
3. Noradrenaline – more effective in the constriction of the blood vessels.