Math Refresher
Introduction to Calculus
Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
Define differential calculus
Explain the concepts of calculus
Examine the limits, continuity, and derivatives of a function
Define integral calculus
List the differential and integral formulas
Basics of Calculus
What Is Calculus?
Calculus is the branch of mathematics that studies change. It analyzes rates,
slopes, areas, volumes, and optimization. Calculus consists of differential
calculus, which deals with instantaneous change, and integral calculus, which
focuses on accumulation and areas.
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What Is Calculus?
• Calculus is a fundamental area of mathematics that focuses on continuous change.
• It is based on two key concepts: derivatives and integrals.
• Calculus is also referred to as infinitesimal calculus or the calculus of infinitesimals.
• Infinitesimal numbers are quantities that are nearly zero but not exactly zero.
• Traditional calculus primarily revolves around studying continuous changes in
functions.
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Derivatives vs. Integrals
Derivatives Integrals
• It is a study of the rate at which quantities • They deal with finding the accumulation or
change. total value of quantities over an interval.
• They involve concepts like derivatives and • Involve concepts like integrals and
differentiability. integration.
• Derivatives represent the instant rate of • Integrals represent the area under the
change of a function at a specific point. curve and summation of infinitesimal
quantities.
• They are used to analyze motion, calculate
slopes, find maximum and minimum • They are used to calculate areas, volumes,
values, and study rates of change in various and average values, and solve problems
fields. involving accumulation or continuous
change.
Differential Calculus
Differential Calculus
Differential calculus is a branch of calculus that focuses on studying the rates
at which quantities change.
• Consider a scenario where x and y are real numbers, and y is a function of x, represented as y = f(x).
• If f(x) corresponds to a linear equation, it can be expressed as y = mx + c, where m represents the
slope.
• The value of the slope, denoted by m, can be determined using the slope equation.
(x2, y2)
Slope equation
Change in 𝑦 Δ𝑦
m = =
Change in 𝑥 Δ𝑥
(x1, y1)
Differential Calculus
It is a branch of calculus that focuses on studying the rates at which quantities
change.
• Δy/Δx, also represented as dy/dx, represents the derivative
of y with respect to x. It measures the rate of change of y
(x2, y2) per unit change in x.
(x1, y1) • The slope of the tangent line at a specific point on the curve
represents the rate of change at that point.
Limits
Limits are mathematical concepts that explain how a function behaves as the
input values approach a particular value.
The limit equation is expressed as follows:
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐴
𝑥→𝑐
This equation is read as the limit of f of x as x approaches c equals A.
The Derivative: Instantaneous Rate of Change
The derivative of a function at a specific point represents the instantaneous
rate of change.
It is denoted as f′(a), df/dx|a, or dy/dx|a.
It provides valuable insights into how the function behaves at a precise
location.
Derivatives
Derivatives represent the rate at which a function changes with respect to its
independent variable.
The derivative of a function is expressed as follows:
f′(x) = lim 𝑓 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑓 𝑥 Τℎ = 𝐴
𝑥→ℎ
Derivatives measure how variables change in response to
changes in other variables.
Calculating Derivatives: Fundamental Techniques
There are several rules and techniques available for calculating derivatives,
including:
Power Rule: Quotient Rule:
Differentiate power functions of the form Differentiate the quotient of two
f(x) = xn, where n is a constant. functions.
Trigonometric and Exponential Rules: Chain Rule:
Differentiate trigonometric and Differentiate composite functions.
exponential functions.
Product Rule:
Differentiate the product of two
functions
Continuity
A function f(x) is considered continuous at a specific point x = a, if and only if it
satisfies three conditions.
The three conditions of continuity are as follows:
• 𝑓(𝑎) is defined.
• lim 𝑓 𝑥 exists
𝑥→𝑎
• lim 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑎 exists
-
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
Differential Formulas
Differential Formulas
Differentiation formulas apply to algebraic, trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, and
exponential functions.
Differential formula examples
ⅆ 𝑛 ⅆ 𝑥 ⅆ ⅆ
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑥 log 𝑎 cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥 sⅇc 𝑥 = sⅇc 𝑥 tan 𝑥
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ ⅆ 1 ⅆ ⅆ
Constant = 0 log 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 = sⅇc 2 𝑥 cosⅇc 𝑥 = − cosⅇc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥
ⅆ 𝑥 ⅆ ⅆ
ⅇ = ⅇ𝑥 sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 cot 𝑥 = − cosⅇc 2 𝑥
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥
Applications of Differentiation
To calculate rate of change in physics, engineering, and
Rate of change
economics
Tangent lines and To analyze motion and determine curve shape in physics and
curvature engineering
To find maximum or minimum values for profit, cost, and
Optimization
design parameters
To solve problems involving changing variables with respect to
Related rates
time
Applications of Differentiation
To model exponential growth or decay in population dynamics
Growth and decay
and finance
To determine critical points, inflection points, and concavity of
Curve sketching
functions
Linear To approximate complex functions with simpler linear
approximations approximations
To model dynamic behavior and develop control strategies in
Control systems
various fields
Integral Calculus
Integral Calculus
Integral calculus assigns numerical values to functions in order to describe
concepts such as displacement, area, volume, and other phenomena that
result from the combination of infinitesimal data.
y
• Consider a function f that depends on a real variable x
and an interval [a, b] on the real line.
• The definite integral defines the signed area of the
b
f (x) dx region in the xy-plane that is enclosed by the graph of f.
a
x • The boundaries of this region are the x-axis, as well as
a b the vertical lines x = a and x = b.
Integral Calculus
The following is an expression for integral calculus:
න 𝑓 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥
𝑎
It is read as the integral from a to b of f(x) with respect to x.
Definite Integral
• A definite integral involves specific limits or boundaries for computing the
function.
• The upper and lower limits, also known as cutoff points, determine the range of
integration for the function.
The following is the equation of a definite integral:
න 𝑓 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑥
𝑎
Indefinite Integral
• An indefinite integral does not have specific limits (upper and lower limits).
• The result of the integration is connected to a constant value (C), which accounts for the
various possible solutions of the integral.
The following is an equation for the indefinite integral:
න𝑓 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = 𝐹 𝑥 + 𝐶
Integration Formulas
Integration Formulas
Integral formulas can be derived from differentiation formulas and serve as complements to
differentiation formulas.
Integration examples
නsin 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑛+1
1
න𝑥 𝑛 ⅆ𝑥 = +𝐶 ⅆ𝑥 = log 𝑥 + 𝐶 නsⅇc 2 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑛+1 𝑥
න1 ⅆ𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎 𝑥 නcos ⅇ𝑐 2 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝑐
න𝑎 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = +𝐶
log 𝑎
නsⅇc 𝑥 tan 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = sⅇc 𝑥 + 𝑐
නⅇ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = ⅇ𝑥 + 𝑐 නcos 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
නcosⅇc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = − cosⅇc 𝑥 + 𝑐
Applications of Integration
Area calculation
Integration is useful for calculating areas under curves, which finds uses
in physics, engineering, and geometry.
Accumulation of quantities
Integration sums quantities over intervals, which has applications in
physics and economics.
Volume and surface area
Integration determines volumes and surface areas of solids, aiding
engineering and manufacturing.
Probability and statistics
Integration calculates probabilities and cumulative distribution
functions, important in statistics.
Applications of Integration
Physical systems and dynamics
Integration analyzes physical systems, calculates momentum and
energy.
Center of mass and moments
Integration finds center of mass and moments of inertia, relevant in
physics and engineering.
Signal processing
Integration processes signals, removes noise and interference.
Cost analysis and economics
Integration helps with cost, revenue, and profit calculations in
economics.
Key Takeaways
Differential calculus is a branch of calculus that focuses on studying
the rates at which quantities change.
Integral calculus assigns numerical values to functions to describe
displacement, area, volume, and other concepts that arise from
combining infinitesimal data.
A definite integral has specific limits or boundaries that determine
the computation range for the function.
Derivatives measure the instantaneous rate of change of one
quantity with respect to another.
Knowledge Check
Knowledge
Check 𝒙𝟐−𝟏
Let 𝑓 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = , 𝐖𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)?
𝒙−𝟏
1 𝒙→𝟏
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. None of these
Knowledge
Check 𝒙𝟐−𝟏
Let 𝑓 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = , 𝐖𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)?
𝒙−𝟏
1 𝒙→𝟏
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. None of these
The correct answer is C
𝒙𝟐−𝟏 (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙+𝟏)
𝒇 𝒙 ⅆ𝒙 = = = 𝒙 + 𝟏, Now as 𝒙 → 𝟏, 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝒙 + 𝟏) = 𝟏 + 𝟏 = 𝟐
𝒙−𝟏 𝒙−𝟏 𝒙→𝟏
Knowledge
Check
What is meant by the differential?
2
A. It is a word used a lot on a popular medical television series.
B. It is a method of directly relating how changes in an independent variable affect changes in a
dependent variable.
C. It is a gearbox on the back end of your car.
D. None of these
Knowledge
Check
What is meant by the differential?
2
2
A. It is a word used a lot on a popular medical television series.
B. It is a method of directly relating how changes in an independent variable affect changes in a
dependent variable.
C. It is a gearbox on the back end of your car.
D. None of these
The correct answer is B
The differential is a method of directly relating how changes in an independent variable affect changes
in a dependent variable.
Knowledge
Check
What is the integral of sin(x) with respect to x?
3
A. නsin 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐
B. නsin 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = cosⅇc 𝑥 + 𝑐
C. නsin 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = − sⅇc 𝑥 + 𝑐
D. නsin 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = − co𝑡 𝑥 + 𝑐
Knowledge
Check
What is the integral of sin(x) with respect to x?
3
A. නsin 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝑐
B. නsin 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = cosⅇc 𝑥 + 𝑐
C. නsin 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = − sⅇc 𝑥 + 𝑐
D. නsin 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 = − co𝑡 𝑥 + 𝑐
The correct answer is A
The integral of sin(x) with respect to x is indeed -cos(x) + C, where C is the constant of integration.