Write a note on basic structure and function of skin.

Epidermis:

 It is the outermost covering of stratified squamous epithelial tissue, lacking blood

vessels. The major portion of epidermis is made up of keratinocytes (cells).
 These keratinocytes synthesise a protein called keratin. These keratinocytes constantly
move towards the periphery of the skin. Thickness of epidermis varies from 0.05 mm (at
eyelids) to 0,8-1.5mm (on soles of feet and palms of hands).
 The epidermis is further differentiated into four distinct layers made up of keratin and is
distinguished by the various maturation stages.
 Starting from the lowest lying layer and moving towards the superficial layer, the layers
of the epidermis are as follows:

I) Stratum Basale: It is the deepest layer of epidermis present just above the dermis, and
consists of dividing and non-dividing keratinocytes.

ii) Stratum Spinosum: As the cells from stratum basale mature, they move upwards to form the
next layer, which is stratum spinosum.
iii) Stratum Granulosum: The cells now move upwards to reach stratum granulosum where
they become flat and anucleated. The cytoplasm of the cells appears granular.

iv) Stratum Corneum: The stratum comeum is composed of several layers of hexagonal shaped
non-viable, cornified cells called corneocytes. These corneocytes are keratinocytes that are in
their last phase of maturation. The corneocytes form around 10-30 layers in almost every part of
the skin; but, the thickest layers are found in the palms and soles.

2) Dermoepidermal Junction/Basement Membrane: The dermal -epidermal junction

represents the acellular zone present between the dermis and the epidermis. It is also referred to
as the cutaneous basement membrane. The epidermis gets its nutrition by diffusion and the waste
is also discarded by the process of diffusion at these junctions. As age increases, the
dermoepidermal junction gets flattened, which is a visible sign of ageing.

3) Dermis: Thickness of dermis varies in different parts of the body , for example, on the
eyelids, it is up to 0.6mm and on the back, palms and soles it is up to 3mm. Dermis lies below
the epidermis and is made up of a hard , supportive cellular matrix.

It consists of the following two layers: i ) A thin papillary layer, and ii ) A thicker reticular layer.
4) Subcutaneous Tissue

Functions

Skin plays numerous vital roles in the physiology of the body:

1) Sensation: For the detection of stimuli of temperature, touch, pressure, and pain there are
numerous receptors and nerve endings present on the skin.

2) Protection: The skin acts as a physical barrier which helps in protecting the deep-seated
organs and tissues from microbial invasion, dehydration, UV radiation, and physical absorption.

3) Thermoregulation: An increase in body temperature results in sweating and when this sweat
gets evaporated from the skin surface, it cools the body (lowers the body temperature). On the
other hand, in case of decreased body temperature sweat production gets reduced which helps in
the conservation of heat in the body.
4) Immunity: It provides immunologic information obtained during antigen processing to the
appropriate effector cells in the lymphatic tissues.

5) Excretion: The sweat released from skin excretes out the toxic substances, ions, and several
other compounds.

6) Blood Reservoir: The dermis is highly vascularised. In resting stage, the blood vessels in the
skin of an adult carry about 8-10% of the total blood volume. At the time of vigorous activity,
the rate of blood flow increases, thus leading to dissipation of extra body heat.

7) Drug Delivery Route: Skin acts a route for delivery of drugs ( transdermal patches). The
transdermal drug delivery system involves the absorption of drug through systemic circulation
by transdermal patches. The lipid soluble drugs and substances with low molecular weight easily
permeate through the skin, e.g., nitroglycerin, hormones, scopolamine, nicotine, etc.

8) Endocrine Function: Skin helps in biosynthesis of Vitamin D. Ultraviolet light is essential

for the first stage of Vitamin D formation.
Explain formulation and building blocks of hair conditioner

1) Surfactants
 Cetyltrimethylammonium like chloride cationic surfactant are used.
 Longer chain alkyl compounds have the best conditioning properties.
 In small amounts, quaternary ammonium derivatives are used because it
 improves manageability, prevent fly away by neutralisation negative charges in the scalp.
 A wide variety of others cationic surfactants have been proposed and introduced into
conditioners.
2) Partially or Totally Hydrolysed Proteins
 They are mainly used to protect, enrich or repair hair fibers.
 They are hydrolysates of collagen, keratin ichthyocolla and milk casein.
 A cream rinse formulation containing 5% hydrolysed animal protein has been shown to
repair 50% of split ends verses 25% for the same rinse without protein.
  Combinations of elastin and collagen hydrolysates have been found to impart volume
and softness to hair.
3) Oily Materials
 It is used to improve hair condition.
 They are used to provide lubrication and lustre.
 They help to reduce fibre friction and the abrasive effects of handling and they improve
the condition of hair.
 Silicon oil is often used.
 Lanolin derivatives are highly praised and used for emollient qualities -hydroxylated and
acetylated lanolin and lanolin ester, add lustre and a pleasant feel.
4) Glossers
 They are light reflecting chemicals which bind to the hair surface.
 They are generally found to be polymers, silicones. For example, Dimethicone or
cyclomethicone.
5) Sun Screening Agents
 They provide protection against protein degradation and colour loss.
 Benzophenone-4 ethylhexyl methoxy-cinnamate are the two agents that are used in hair
products.
 The common sunscreen used in skin cosmetics are rarely used for hair products because
of their texture and weight effect.
6) Humectants
 A variety of humectant are used i.e., polyols, sod. Pyrrolidone carboxylate.
 Some others humectants are glycerin, P.G.
 The natural humectants used are jojoba oil.
7) Thickeners
 Cellulose derivatives are used as thickener agent.
 As carbomers are incompatible with most cations therefore they are rarely encountered.
 Example of thickeners is sodium chloride.
8) Bodying Agents
  Generally, by using quite high levels of fatty alcohols along with waxy esters in shampoo
and conditioners, they are found to be more effective.
 By incorporating this agent, it gives improvement in wet hair condition, as it becomes
soft and easy to comb without breaking hair.
9) Perfumes
 It is added in conditioner in low level of perfume.
 Conditioners are fairly easy to perfume, but the stability of the perfume in the often quite
strongly acidic environment of hair conditioners must be check.

Write a note on Hair Oils.

Hair oils are the hair care preparations used for the prevention and treatment of baldness and
other ailments. They are mainly intended to cool the scalp and for luxurious growth of hair in
women. Hair oil containing herbal drugs are used as hair tonic.
Preparation of Herbal Hair Tonic
The coconut oil is termed as hair tonic when it is blended with various drugs having medicinal
activity. It can be prepared by the following processes:
1) Cloth Method: In this method, the dried drug was weighed and tied in a muslin cloth. This
cloth should be hanged in coconut oil base, that is continuously boiling. Continuously stir the
mixture and then the oil should be filtered.
2) Paste Method: This method was used where fresh fruit or pulp or the desired part of the
plants were converted into paste with very little amount of water and is kept overnight. After
drying, the wetted drug should be mixed in coconut oil base. The mixture is then boiled with
continuous stirring at a constant temperature till the water droplets in oil stop knocking and the
drug has completely extracted in the oil. The oil was then filtered through a muslin cloth.
3) Direct Boiling Method: In this method, the crude drugs should be powdered, weighed and
directly boiled in coconut oil with continuous stirring and heating till the drug is completely
extracted in the base oil.
Preparation of Polyherbal Hair Tonic
1) Preparation coconut oil base
2) Boiling of crude drug powders in coconut oil base to form enriched hair tonic.
Evaluation of Ayurvedic Herbal Oil
  Acid Value
 Saponification Value
 pH
 Viscosity
 Specific Gravity
 Sensitivity Test
 Skin Irritation Test
Discuss on hair growth cycle.

The hair growth happens in a cyclical process in hair follicles. The cycle consists
of four phases:
1) Anagen (hair growth)
3) Telogen (rest)
2) Catagen (transition)
4) Exogen (hair shedding)
Anagen (Hair Growth) Phase
The anagen or growing phase is the first part of the hair growth cycle. During this phase, cells of
the bulb divide rapidly, resulting in new hair growth. 80-90% of hair follicles are in the anagen
phase at any given time. The anagen phase lasts for 2-7 years. The length of the anagen phase
determines the maximum hair length. For example, people with very long hair have a very long
anagen phase. Eyelashes, eyebrows, and body hair have shorter growth phases than for the hair
on head, which is why they are much shorter than scalp hair. There are many factors that
influence the length of the anagen phase, including genetics, nutrition, age and overall health.
Catagen (Transition) Phase
The catagen or transition phase follows the anagen phase. This short, transitional phase lasts for
only 2-3 weeks. During the catagen phase, the hair stops growing and detaches itself from the
blood supply. The hair becomes club hair.
Telogen (Resting) Phase
The telogen or resting phase follows the catagen phase. During the telogen phase, the club hair
rests while a new hair begins to grow beneath it. This new hair eventually takes the place of the
club hair. The telogen phase lasts for 3 months, and 10-15% of all hair are in this phase at any
one time.
Exogen (Hair Shedding) Phase
The exogen or shedding phase is the last part of the hair cycle. During the exogen phase, the
resting club hair detaches and falls out. Every hair eventually sheds, and it’s completely normal
to lose 50 to 100 hair each day. After the exogen phase, the follicle then returns to the anagen
phase and the cycle repeats.

Explain cosmetics as quasi and OTC drugs.

Cosmetics as Quasi Drugs

 Quasi drugs are one of the prime set of beauty products in South Korea, other than
cosmetics.
 Quasi drugs can be considered as a fine line between drugs and cosmetics, for not being
suitable as drugs.
 South Korea’s Health Authority (HA) and the Ministry of Food and Drugs Safety
(MFDS) have grouped them under skincare products, like for acne or skin dullness.

Categorisation of Quasi Drugs

Group 1: This includes:

1) Commodities utilised for sanitary purpose, like sanitary napkins, tampons, and menstrual
pads.
2) Textiles utilised for producing masks, like dust and surgical masks.

3) Moist wipes for oral sanitation.

4) Sanitary items utilised for prevention, preservation, and curing of harmed areas that include
variety of bandages, plastic bandages.

Group 2: This includes:

1) Odour inhibitors like toothpastes, antiperspirants, and bath commodities.

2) Hair care items for external use only.

3) Nicotine-free products dor those who smoke.

4) Ointments and anti-inflammatories for superficial use.

Registration Process for Quasi Drugs

1) Submission: The product information should be given to the HA for product acceptance.
Thereafter, the information should be passed on to the Cosmetics Evaluation Division (CED)
and National Institute of Food and Drugs Safety Evaluations (NIFDSE) for analysing the safety
and efficiency of the product. Next, it should be passed on to the Medical Product Safety
Division Regional Food and Drugs Safety.

2) Review: The HA will review the safety and efficacy analysis report. Simultaneously, the HA
will also examine the manufacturing sites to evaluate the product condition and quality.

3) Approval/Notification: The HA will provide approval as well as notification if the product

certifies in the Korean Pharmacopoeia and other pharmaceutical compendia recognised by the
MFDS.

Cosmetics as OTC Drugs

The medications sold directly to the patients without prescription from medical professionals are
OTC drugs. These drugs are generally regulated by the Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API).
Government gives the manufacturers the liberty to put together ingredients by balancing the API
rather than the drug formulation. Likewise, cosmetics can be regarded as OTCs. Certain items
fall in the definition of both cosmetics and drugs. Some declarations may subject a product to be
regarded as a drug, even being marked as a cosmetic. OTC products compliant with the OTC
drugs monograph may be presented with no prior FDA [Link] example, antidandruff
shampoo and sunscreens are regarded as OTCs in the United States. OTCs should be produced
and controlled according to the cGMPdemands for pharmaceuticals for human consumption.

Merits of OTC Drugs

1 ) More satisfactory and less threats.

2) Less chances of misuse and abuse.

3) Customer can easily self-diagnose, self -treat , and self -manage.

4) Appropriately labelled and no need of health professional .

Demerits of OTC Drugs

1 ) Less chances to know about the possible lifestyle therapies.

2) Low compliance.

3) Misdiagnosed patients are prone to its threats, and will not be benefitted.

4 ) Tough to examine drug effects.

Explain in brief common problem associated with teeth and gums.

Cavities: Cavities are also called caries or tooth decay. These are areas of the tooth that have
been permanently damaged and may even have holes in them. Cavities are fairly common . They
occur when bacteria, food, and acid coat the teeth and form a plaque. The acid on teeth starts to
eat away at the enamel and then the underlying dentin, or connective tissue. Over time, this can
lead to permanent damage.
Acute Gingivitis ( Vincent 's Infection ): It is a condition of common and mild gum disease
( or periodontal disease ) in which the gingiva ( portion of gum which covers the teeth base )
becomes red , inflamed , and irritated . Accumulation of bacterial plaque between or around the
teeth is the primary reason for gingivitis. An immune response is triggered by the accumulated
plaque, resulting into gumor gingival tissue damage. This can even lead to teeth loss in severe
conditions.
Periodontitis: As periodontitis progresses, the infection can spread to the jaw and bones. It can
also cause an inflammatory response throughout the body.
Gum Recession: It is a condition in which the root ( or cementum ) of the tooth becomes
exposed as the gum line pulls away from its original attachment. This could be a result of gum
disease as the jawbone surrounding the teeth is lost. Wherever jawbone is lost, gums will follow,
and this exposes the root of the tooth. Other causes for gum recession include teeth grinding, use
of chewing tobacco, brushing too aggressively, hereditary weak gums, orthodontic treatment, or
trauma.
Cracked or Broken Teeth: A tooth can crack or break from an injury to the mouth, chewing
hard foods, or grinding the teeth at night . A cracked tooth can be very painful.
Sensitive Teeth: Tooth sensitivity is also referred to as dentin hypersensitivity. It is defined as
intense and transitory pain caused by the exposure of dentin (internal part of teeth) to the oral
environment. It also occurs when the teeth is exposed to an external stimulus, like any cold, hot,
acidic or sweet drink or food. It sometimes occurs temporarily after having a root canal or a
filling. It can also be the result of gum disease, receding gums, a cracked tooth, worn-down
fillings or crowns.
Oral Cancer: It can occur on all soft-tissue structures within the mouth. On the gums, it may
appear as a red or white patch or a sore that does not heal. Oral cancers include cancer of the
gums, tongue, lips, cheek, floor of the mouth, and hard and soft palate.

Explain cosmeceutical in detail.

The word cosmetic was derived from the Greek word “kosm tikos” meaning having the power,
arrange, skill in decorating. Generally, cosmeceutical or cosmetic substances refer to
preparations that are meant for external use. They are applied on external body structures like
skin, hair, and nails. They are used to make colouring, softening, cleansing, nourishing,
protection, setting, mollification, preservation, removal, and perming purposes.

A good cosmetic should have the following properties:

 All the raw materials used should be of highest quality and they should be standardized
for their qualities.
 All water used in cosmetics should be distilled or purified water.
  The color used should be the permitted color.
 The perfumes used should be compatible with other ingredients of the preparation.
 They should be tolerated all conditions particularly extreme of temperature and humidity
condition to which they are likely to encountered in the market.
 They should be economic.

Discuss in brief actives & mechanism of action of deodorants.

Formulation/Actives
Antiperspirants and deodorants contain a number of ingredients to minimise
sweating and help people feel fresh, cool and smelling good.
1) Alcohol: It is an ingredient present in some roll-ons, aerosols and gels. The active ingredients
of antiperspirants and deodorants are often dissolved in alcohol because it’s quickly drying
property when applied to the skin which provides an immediate sense of coolness.
2) Aluminium Salts: They are the active ingredient in antiperspirants. They act by reducing the
flow of sweat from the sweat gland to the skin surface. Aerosol and roll-on products are likely to
contain aluminium chlorohydrate, while sticks, gels and other solid products are most likely to
contain an aluminium salt called aluminium zirconium. These salts provide a safe and
effective means of controlling sweat.
3) Antimicrobials: The skin is full of microbial flora (bacteria) that like to feed on sweat which
produce bad smells. In occluded areas, like the underarm, there are about 1 million bacteria per
square centimetre. Body odour can be reduced by decreasing the number of bacteria present on
the skin. Antimicrobials agent's acts as bacteriostatic or bactericidal to keep the body
odour-free for longer.
4) Fragrance and Skin Conditioners: Perfumes and fragrances are used in most deodorants
and antiperspirants in order to mask body odour and provide a feeling of freshness to the
individual. Almost all antiperspirant and deodorant products contain some amount of emollient
oils to soothe and soften the skin. The oils also provide a gliding feeling in roll-ons and sticks, as
it is applied.
Antiperspirant applied sweat
5) Carrier Substances: In order for antiperspirants to be effectively applied to the skin, they
need to be in the form of liquids used in aerosols or the solids used in sticks. Almost in all
antiperspirants, water is used as a carrier for other ingredients because it adds fluidity to roll-ons
and creams and helps in easy spreading on the skin. In aerosol products the active ingredients
are held in a neutral liquid form. This liquid like cyclomethicone is frequently combined with a
slightly denser mineral clay-like substance, disteardimonium hectorite which provides structure
to the antiperspirant and prevents the sinking of heavier ingredients to the bottom.
6) Parabens: They are used as preservative in many personal care products. As antiperspirants
and deodorants are generally self-preserving, therefore large quantity of antiperspirants and
deodorants do not contain parabens.
7) Propellants: Aerosol antiperspirants and deodorants are intended to act as through a thin film
which is propelled onto the skin. To create this film, products contain low, medium and high
pressure propellants which produce a strong, but comfortable, spray to reach the skin. These
propellants are commonly butane, isobutane and propane.
Mechanism of Action
  When an antiperspirant is applied to the skin surface, then its antiperspirant active
ingredients i.e., generally aluminium salts gets dissolved in the sweat or moisture present
on the skin surface of the armpit.
 The dissolved substance forms a gel creates a small temporary ‘plug' near the top of the
sweat gland, which considerably reduces the amount of sweat producing from the skin
surface. Bathing and washing will remove the antiperspirant gel therefore re-application
of antiperspirants is essential to reduce sweating and keep fresh throughout the day. As
the antiperspirants reduce underarm sweating, they do not influence the thermoregulation
of the body.

Give overview of formulation and building blocks of oral care products.

building blocks of oral care products.

1) Polishing or Abrasive Agents: These agents polish the teeth and remove food debris from
their surface. They are used in 20-50% concentration of the total formulation.
2) Foaming or Wetting Agents or Surfactants: They serve the purpose of cleansing by
reducing the surface tension at the interface of the adhered material and teeth enamel . They
facilitate the abrasive action by wetting the teeth surface. They easily diffuse into the narrow
spaces, and enhance the cleansing action.
3) Humectants: These agents prevent rapid drying of the product by preventing excessive
moisture loss. They also impart plasticity to the product. They are used in 20-40% concentration
in the formulation.

4) Ceiling or Binding Agents: These agents, e.g., Carboxy Methyl Cellulose (CMC), Sodium
CMC, hydroxyethyl cellulose, cellulose ethers, etc., hold the solid and the liquid components
together to form a smooth paste and to retain this property during storage. They prevent bleeding
from the paste and also add up to the body and viscosity of the product.

5) Sweetening Agents: These agents, e.g., saccharin sodium , chloroform, aspartame,

cyclamates and potassium acesulfame, improve the sweetening properties and mask the bitter
taste of other ingredients like surfactants, binders, etc. They promote the acceptance of the
product on oral administration.

6 ) Flavouring Agents: These agents are a mixture of edible volatile oils having spearmint and
peppermint oil as major components. Some other components like thymol, anethole, eucalyptol ,
aniseed oil, oil of winter green , etc. may also be added. Flavouring agents are used in 0.5-1.5%
concentration and constitute the most costly part of the formulation.

7 ) Colouring Agents: These agents are used in less than 0.01% concentration as permitted by
the EEC Cosmetics Directive. They can be used in combination with a portion of a white creamy
base. They influence the consumer preferences and increase the purchase intent.

8) Whitening Agents: These agents, e.g., titanium dioxide (Ti02) should be added to provide
additional whiteness and brilliance to the product .

9 ) Preservatives: These agents maintain the properties of the product during their storage and
improve the shelf -life. A mixture of methyl paraben ( 5% ) and propyl paraben (0.02% ) is most
effectively and commonly used. Sodium benzoate is not used due to its incompatibility with
other therapeutic agents of the product .
10) Therapeutic Agents: These agents provide additional beneficial effects apart from normal
cleansing properties.