TOEFL: STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION

General Strategies

• Be familiar with the directions.

• Begin with questions 1-15 (Structure). Questions 1-5 are easier and 11-15 are harder.

• Continue with questions 16-40 (Written Expression). Questions 16-20 are easier and 36-40 are
harder.

• Do not take too much time with each item. If you have time left you can go back and check 11-
15 and 36-40.

• Do not leave any blank answers on the answer sheet.

Strategies for Structure Questions

• First, study the sentence.
• Then study each answer choice based on how well it completes the sentence.
• Do not try to eliminate incorrect options by looking only at the answers.
• Be aware that in this section most of the items will require you to identify the subject or
the verb (or both) in the correct order of subject + verb (except on items with inverted
structure).
• Do not spend too much time on this section. Leave enough time for the Written
Expression Section.
Characteristics of a Sentence
• A sentence can be formed by one or more clauses.

• Clauses can be independent and dependent/subordinate clauses. All sentences must have subject and
verb.

• Sentences can be: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.

• A simple sentence is formed by only one independent clause.

Exmpl. I went to the movies yesterday afternoon (Independent clause)

• A compound sentence is formed by two or more independent clauses connected by coordinate

conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so: FANBOYS).

I went to the movies last night, and I had a great time.

Independent clause conjunction + Ind. clause

• A complex sentence is formed by one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

I went to the movies after I had finished my homework.

Independent Clause connector + Dependent Clause

• A compound-complex sentence is formed by more than one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause.

I went to the movies, and I had a great time because the movie.

Indep. Clause conj. + Indep. Clause + connector + Dep. Cl. was terrific.

Characteristics of a Clause
• Every clause must have a subject and a verb. A complement is optional.

• There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent (or subordinated).

• Independent clauses have a complete idea and can stand alone in a sentence.

• Dependent clauses complement the independent clause, but do not have a complete idea and cannot
stand alone in a sentence.

• There are three types of dependent clauses:

• Noun clauses: function as a noun, so they can be subjects, objects of a verb, or objects of a
preposition. I understand how you feel.

• Adjective clauses: function as an adjective and describe a noun or pronoun from the main clause.

I know the man who works in that office.

• Adverb clauses: function as an adverb and give additional information about the verb (how, when,
where, and why)

I know that man because he works with my father.

Skills 1-5 Simple Sentences: one subject + one verb

SKILL 1: BE SURE THE SENTENCE HAS A SUBJECT AND A VERB:

Engineers are needed for work.

The boy will be going to the movies.

SKILL 2: BE CAREFUL OF OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS:

In the past a woman in politics wasn´t common.

For the fever he took aspirine tablets.

SKILL 3: BE CAREFUL OF APPOSITIVES

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase which describes another noun or pronoun. It is normally set off
by commas.

Tom, a good mechanic, is fixing a car.

A good mechanic, Tom is fixing a car.

A good mechanic, Tom, is fixing a car.

IT AND THERE

“Strategy Some sentences or clauses begin with it or there. Be aware of the constructions that
follow these subjects. In the Structure section, parts of a sentence including it and there may be
omitted.”

A sentence or clause may begin with the words it or there:

1) It is used in three ways:

• It is used as subject followed by the verb to be: It was in 1761 that she came to Boston. (It + to be
+ that)
• It is used as subject when the information is related to an adjective: It was important to be free. (It
+ to be + adjective + infinitive)
• It is used as a subject when it is used with a time phrase: It took her a few years to learn English.
(It + take + time phrase + infinitive)

2) There shows that something or someone exists at a special time or place. In this use, the word there
follows this construction: there + to be + subject There are many books about Phyllis Wheatley today.
There was a big storm yesterday. In these clauses the verb “to be” and the subject must agree on person.
“Expletive”: • Function: noun 1 a : a syllable, word, or phrase inserted to fill a vacancy (as in a sentence
or a metrical line) without adding to the sense; especially : a word (as it in "make it clear which you
prefer") that occupies the position of the subject or object of a verb in normal English word order and
anticipates a subsequent word or phrase that supplies the needed meaningful content. Source: Merriam
Webster Online Dictionary: [Link] SKILL 4: BE CAREFUL OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES
(Adjectives): Do not confuse them with present progressive: The boy is standing in the corner. S V The
boy standing in the corner looks suspicious. S Adjective V • The present participle works as an adjective:
Tip: If it does not have a form of be, it is not a verb. SKILL 5: BE CAREFUL OF PAST PARTICIPLES Do not
confuse them with the following: 1. Simple past: She painted the picture. 2. Present/Past Perfect: She
has/had painted the picture. 3. Passive Voice: The picture was painted by Karen. • The past participle
works as an adjective: The picture painted looks wonderful. S Adjective V Tip: If it does not have a form
of be or have, it is not a verb. Skills 6-8: Sentences with Multiple clauses: 1) Compound sentences: A
compound sentence is a sentence with two or more main or independent clauses that can be connected
with coordinating conjuctions: (acronym: FANBOYS): for and nor but or yet so • These sentences
normally have a comma before the conjunction/connector. Ana laughed, but she wanted to cry. s v con. s
v The TOEFL exam will be difficult, so we must study hard. s v con. s v The weather was great, and the
sun was shining. s v con. s v 2) Complex Sentences: A complex sentence is one that has a main or
independent clause and a subordinated clause. • Adverb Clauses: These clauses give information about
the verb in the independent clause: Time: Cause after because as since as long as now that before
inasmuch as as soon as when while since until etc. Condition Contrast Manner Place If although as where
In case even though in that wherever provided though providing while unless whereas whether Teresita
went inside because it was raining. Subject verb con. Subj. verb I am going to go to the movies as soon as
I finish my TOEFL Sub. verb con. Subj. verb exercises. Although there is a lot of information to learn for
the TOEFL Con. Subj. verb exam, you can get the 600 points if you work hard. Subj. Verb con. Subj. verb
SKILLS 9-12: Noun and Adjective • Noun clauses: They are the second type of subordinated clauses. They
work as Clauses nouns, so they can be subjects, objects of a verb, or objects of a preposition. • Noun
clauses as any other clause have the normal order of Subject + Verb. Noun clauses you have used before:
Indirect/embedded/polite questions: Where is the bank? Could you tell me where the bank is? Does he
work here? Do you know if he works here? • Noun clauses answer the question “What…?” and can be
substituted by “it”. SKILL 9: USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY Noun connectors: what, when,
where, why, how, whatever, whenever, whether, if, that. •As object of the verb: What do you know? I
know what you did. S V con. S V •As object of a preposition: What are you concerned about? I am
concerned about when he will arrive. S V Prep. C S V •As subject of the sentence: What is not important?
Con. S V When he will arrive is not important. Subject V SKILL 10: USE NOUN CLAUSE
CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS CORRECTLY Who, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever: Can be
connectors and subjects of the clause at the same time. 1. As object of the verb: What do you know? I
know what happened. S V C/S V 2. As subject of the sentence: What was great? What happened was
great C /S V V 3. As subject of all the sentence: What was wrong? C S V What you did was wrong Subject
Verb •Adjective clauses: These are the third type of dependent or subordinate clause. They have the
same function as an adjective: describe a noun (person, place, thing). This is the book which I bought
yesterday. Describes the book. The man who is standing over there helped me. Describes the man
•Adjective clauses, like all other clauses, need to have at least a subject and a verb. •Adjective clauses go
immediately after the noun they are describing, so they can appear in the middle or end of the sentence.
• Adjective connectors: Who (people), whom (people/object and after prepositions), which (things), that
(people or things, but cannot be used after prepositions or when the adjective clause is between
commas), where (places), whose (possessive). I liked the book which you recommended. S V C S V The
man who you recommended was hired yesterday. S C S V V • Who (people), which (things) that (people
or things): Can be connector and subject of the clause at the same time. She needs a secretary who can
type fast S V C/S V A secretary who can type fast is invaluable S C/S V V Skills 13-14: Reduced Clauses 1)
Adjective Clauses: Only adjective clauses where the connector works as subject of the clause can be
reduced. • Clauses with a ‘be’ form: Omit the connector and the form of ‘be’: The girl (that is) sitting
over there is my sister. The car (which was) bought by my father is a racing car. The house (that is) on sale
is very old. • Clauses with no form of ‘be’: Omit the connector and change the main verb to ‘-ing’ form. I
don’t understand the article (which appears) in today’s paper. I don’t understand the article appearing in
today’s paper. Adjective Clauses separated by commas • If the original adjective clause was separated by
commas the reduced clause keeps the commas: The homework, which was given by the math teacher, is
due tomorrow. The homework, given by the math teacher, is due tomorrow. • We can also change the
position of the adjective clause and put it at the beginning of the sentence. The president, (who is) now
preparing to give a speech, is meeting with his advisors. Now preparing to give a speech, the president is
meeting with his advisors. 2) Adverb Clauses: Only adverb clauses that have the same subject as the
main clause can be reduced. • Clauses with a form of ‘be’ : Keep the connector and omit the subject and
the form of ‘be’ of the adverb clause. Although he is rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the
seminar. Although rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the seminar. • Clauses with no form of ‘be’:
Keep the connector, omit the subject and change the main verb to ‘- ing’ form. Although he feels rather
sick, the speaker will take part in the seminar. Although feeling rather sick, the speaker will take part in
the seminar. Some adverb clauses can only be reduced if they are in passive voice. For example, with
adverb clauses with “once” can only be reduced if the verb is in passive voice: Cannot be reduced: Once
you arrive, you can start the exam. Can be reduced: Once the exercises are answered, they are checked
by the teacher. Once answered, the exercises are checked by the teacher. • Adverb clauses of cause
cannot be reduced: as, because, inasmuch as, now that, since Skills 15-19: Subject and verb inverted 1)
In questions the normal order of subject and verb/aux. is inverted: Yes/No questions: With verb “to be”
Are you a teacher? V S With other verbs: Did you go to the beach? Aux. S V Information questions: With
verb “to be” Where are you? QW V S With other verbs: What did you do? QW A S V 2) Subject and Verb
inverted after place expressions:When we have place words or expressions at the beginning of a clause
we have to invert the normal order of subject + verb. With verb “to be”: Here is the book you lent me. V
S Around the corner is Sam’s house. V S With other verbs: Nowhere have I seen such beautiful weather.
A S V In the closet are the clothes that you need. V S • The inversion of subject + verb with place
expressions is only necessary when the expression is essential to complete the sentence. Necessary: In
the forest are many exotic birds. V S Not necessary: In the forest, I walked for many hours. S V 3) Invert
subject + verb with negatives or almost negative words: The subject and verb are also inverted after
certain negatives and related expressions: no, not, never, neither, nor, barely, hardly, only, rarely, scarcely,
seldom With verb “to be”: Rarely were they so happy. V S With other verbs: Not only did he pass, he got
a 100. A S V 4) Invert the subject with conditionals (Implied Conditionals). In certain conditional
structures, the subject and the verb may also be inverted. • When the conditional clause has: Had,
should or were Should + S + V base form: (First Conditional) If I should finish early, I’ll help you. Should I
finish early, I’ll help you. Were + S: (Second Conditional) If he were here, he would help. Were he here,
he would help. Had + S + V base form: (Third Conditional) If you had studied more, you would’ve passed.
Had you studied more, you would’ve passed. 5) The inversion with comparatives is optional and it can be
used in formal writing. • All of these forms are correct: My sister spends more hours in the office than
John. My sister spends more hours in the office than John does. INVERSION: COMPARATIVE + Aux/V + S
My sister spends more hours in the office than does John. We were more prepared than the other
performers. We were more prepared than the other performers were. INVERSION: COMPARATIVE +
Aux/V + S We were more prepared than were the other performers. General Strategies for Written
Expression • First, look at the underlined word or groups of words to see if you can identify an incorrect
form or structure. • Then, read all the sentence to verify the correct form and structure of the four
answer choices. Some underlined options are incorrect because of something in another part of the
sentence. • Never leave any answers blank. Skills 20-23 Subject-Verb Agreement 1) Be careful with:
prepositional phrases • If the subject is singular the verb is singular: The key to the doors IS in the
drawer. [Link]. • If the Subject is plural the verb is plural: The keys to the doorsARE in the drawer.
[Link]. . 2) Make verbs agree after expressions of quantity: all/most/some/half of the. Singular count
noun: All of the book was interesting Plural count noun All of the books were interesting Non-count
nouns All of the information was interesting. 3) When we have structures where we have to invert the
normal order of subject + verb we have to be careful to make the verb agree with the subject.
Remember this inversion is applied in questions, after expressions of place, after negative or almost
negative words, in conditional clauses without “if”, and after comparisons. After these structures the
order is: With verb “to be”:verb + subject With other verbs: aux. + subject + verb Never is she late to
class. Should Mary eat candy, she must brush her teeth. In the first drawer is the book you are looking
for. How many times have your parents warned you to be careful? 4) After indefinite pronouns:
everybody, nothing, somewhere, etc., the verb or auxiliary are used in singular form: Everybody was
ready for the exam. Does someone know the answer? Skills 24-26: Parallel Structure Parallel Structure
means to make the language as even and balanced as possible. Example: (not balanced: wrong) I like to
sing and dancing. (balanced, correct) I like to sing and dance. or I like singing and dancing. 1) Parallel
Structure with coordinate conjuctions: and, but, and or. They are not interested in what you say or what
you do. clause + clause You can decide whether to go hiking or kayaking gerund + gerund I like to go
home early, but my friends prefer to stay late. Independent clause + Independent clause 2) With paired
Conjuctions both…and: I know both where you went and what you did. either…or: The report you are
looking for could be either in the file or on the desk. neither…nor:The tickets are neither in my pocket
nor in my purse. Not only…. but also He is not only an excellent student but also a great athlete. •
Parallel structures with comparisons more…..than less….than -er….. than as….as the same as similar to
My school is farther than yours. To be rich is better than not to be. What is spoken is more easily
understood than what is written. Their car is as big as yours. This book costs about the same as the other
book. The work that I did is similiar to yours. English is less difficult than Spanish. Some helpful hints on
how to revise sentences for parallel structure: * 1) Figure out what parts of the sentence are being
compared. 2) Decide whether they are parallel, i.e. arranged or constructed in the same way. 3) If they
are not, make them parallel by making the grammatical construction the same in each part. * Source:
[Link] Skill 27-29: Form
Comparatives and Superlatives Correctly • Comparative: We compare two persons or things. 1) Add –er
to one syllable words: harder, darker, faster. 2) Double the consonant and add –er to one syllable words
with v+c: bigger, hotter. 3) Change ‘y’ to ‘i’ and add –er to words with two syllables that end in ‘y’:
happier, easier. 4) Use more/less before words with two or more syllables: more beautiful, more
intelligent. 5) Add than after the comparative if you specify the second person or object you are
comparing: Peter is taller than Joe. • Superlative: We compare more than two persons or things. (add
‘the’ before the adjective) 1) Add –est to one syllable words: the hardest, the darkest, the fastest. 2)
Double the consonant and add –est to one syllable words with v+c: the biggest, the hottest. 3) Change ‘y’
to ‘i’ and add –est to words with two syllables that end in ‘y’: the happiest, the easiest. 4) Use the
most/least before words with two or more syllables: the most beautiful, the most intelligent. 5) We can
also use the words ‘in’, ‘of’ and ‘that after the superlative forms: You’re the most beautiful girl in the
world. Your’re the most beautiful of all the girls in the group. You’re the most beautiful girl that I have
ever seen. • Use Comparatives and Superlatives Correctly. Wrong: It is the better sports car that I´ve
seen. Right: It is the best sports car that I’ve seen. • Use the Irregular –er, -er Structure Correctly: Two
parrallel comparatives introduced by ‘the’: The more you read, the more you learn. The harder you try,
the more you’ll accomplish. • Sometimes a verb is not necessary: The greater the experience, the higher
the salary. • The rules to form the comparative of adverbs are similar to adjectives except with two
syllable adverbs that end in –y. The comparative is formed with more/less, the most/least: more easily. •
The comparative of nouns is formed only adding: more/less, the most/least: more work, the most work.
Skills 30-32: Problems with the Form of the Verb • Base form: No person, tense, or number. play work
sing come • Present form: With tense, person and number. play(s) work(s) sing(s) come(s) • Present
participle: Verb + -ing. Use in prog. tenses. playing working singing coming • Past form: Used with the
Simple Past played worked sang came • Past Participle: Used with Perfect tenses and Passive Voice.
played worked sung come Always check what comes: • After any form of have: have, has, had, having we
should use the past participle form of the verb: Peter has worked a lot this week. My parents have
bought a new car. I had finished my homework by 10 p.m. Having finished my homework, I went out. You
should have studied a little more. • After any form of be: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being the verb
can be in: Present participle: for progressive tenses: I am playing. He is playing. I was playing. We were
playing. I have been playing. I had been playing. Tip: The subject does the action. 2) Past participle: for
the passive voice: I am checked by the doctor every year. The water is bought every day. The mail has
been delivered on time. The movie will be filmed in Mexico. Tip: The subject receives the action. • After
modals or modal like expressions use the base form of the verb: can, could, shall, should, will, would,
must, ought to, be able to, be supposed to, have to, had better. You can work with us. He should study a
lot more. They must finish the project. I would help you, If I had time. SKILL 33: KNOW WHEN TO USE
THE PAST WITH THE PRESENT • If you see a sentence with one verb in the past and one verb in the
present, the sentence is probably incorrect because it doesn´t make any sense: I tell him the truth when
he asked me the question. • However, it is possible for a correct sentence to have both past and present
together and be correct because the meaning is logical. I understand that you were angry SKILL 34: USE
HAVE AND HAD CORRECTLY TENSE FORM MEANING USE EXAMPLE Present perfect Have + Past Participle
Past up to now Not with a past tense ** Sue has lived in L.A. for 10 years. Past perfect Had + Past
Participle Before past up to past Not with a present tense Sue had lived in L.A. for 10 years when she
moved to San Diego **Except when the time expression since is part of the sentence, see skill 35. SKILL
35: USE THE CORRECT TENSE WITH TIME EXPRESSIONS PAST PERFECT SIMPLE PAST PRESENT PERFECT
Adverb clause simple past tense: when, before, until, since, etc. in 1990, ago, last year, yesterday, since
1990, for… already, lately, just, yet, recently, so far, many times, ever, never, still SKILL 36: USE THE
CORRECT TENSE WITH WILL AND WOULD VERB MEANING USE EXAMPLE Will After the present Do not
use with past I think that I will leave tomorrow Would After the past Do not use with present He knew
that she would come NOTE: When would is used to make polite requests, it is used with the present
tense: “I would like to have a cup of coffee please”. SKILL 37- 38: USE THE CORRECT FORM OF THE •
Active Voice: The subject does the [Link] The man bought the books. Subject Verb Object •
Passive Voice: The subject receives the action: The books were bought by the man. Subject verb Agent
The passive voice is formed by: Be (takes the tense) + Verb in past participle Present: am/is/are bought
[Link]. am/is/are being bought [Link]. have/has been bought Past. was/were bought Past Prog.
was/were being bought Past Perf. had been bought Future will be bought Future Perf. will have been
bought SKILL 39: USE THE CORRECT SINGULAR OR PLURAL NOUN KEY WORDS FOR SINGULAR AND
PLURAL NOUNS For singular nouns Each every single one a For plural nouns Both two many several
various A singular noun is used where a plural noun is needed. On the table there were many dish. A
plural noun is used where a singular noun is needed. The lab assistant finished every tests. Skill 40:
Distinguish countable and uncountable nouns For countable nouns many number few fewer For
uncountable nouns much amount little less Key words for countable and uncountable nouns Some
common mistakes: He has seen much* foreign films. He didn’t have many* fun at the movies. It should
be: He has seen many foreign films. He didn’t have much fun at the movies. Skill 41: Recognize Irregular
Plurals of Nouns Many nouns in English have irregular plurals; the irregular forms that are the most
problematic are plural forms that do not end in S. Different Criteria was* used to evaluate the
performers In this example the plural criteria looks singular because it does not end in S. However,
criteria is a plural noun, so the singular verb was used is incorrect. The verb should be in the plural form
were used. IRREGULAR PLURALS Vowel Change Man / Men Foot / Feet Goose / Geese Woman / Women
Tooth / Teeth Mouse / Mice Add – EN Child / Children Ox / Oxen Same as Singular Deer / Deer Salmon /
Salmon Trout / Trout Fish / Fish Sheep / Sheep -IS  -ES Analysis / Analyses Diagnosis / Diagnoses
Synthesis/Syntheses Axis / Axes Hypothesis / Hypotheses Thesis / Theses Crisis / Crises Parenthesis /
Parentheses Ends in –A Bacterium / Bacteria Datum / Data Criterion / Criteria Curriculum / Curricula
Phenomenon / Phenomena -US  -I Alumnus / Alumni Fungus / Fungi Stimulus / Stimuli Bacillus / Bacilli
Nucleus / Nuclei Syllabus / Syllabi Cactus / Cacti Radius / Radii Skill 42: Distinguish The Person From The
Thing Nouns in English can refer to persons or things; sometimes in the written expression the person is
used in place of the thing, or the thing is used in place of the person. Ralph Nader is an authorization* in
the field of consumer affairs There are many job oppotunities in accountant* In the first example,
autorization is incorrect because authorization is a thing and Ralph Nader is a person; it should be
authority. In the second example, accountant is incorrect because accountant is a person; it should be
accounting. SUBJECT OBJECT I You He She It We They Me You Him Her It Us Them Sally gave the book to
John. She gave it to him. A subject pronoun is used as the subject of the verb An object pronoun can be
used as the object of a verb or the object of a preposition Skill 43: DISTINGUISH SUBJECT AND OBJECT
PRONOUNS SKILL 44: DISTINGUISH POSSESIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS • Possessive adjectives and
pronouns both show who or what ¨owns¨ a noun. • Adjectives and possessive pronouns do not have the
same function. • A possessive adjective describes a noun, it must be accompanied by a noun • A
possessive pronoun takes the place of a noun, it can’t be accompanied by a noun They lent me their
book. They lent me theirs. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS My Your His Her Its Our
Their Mine Yours His Hers - Ours Theirs Must be accompanied by noun Cannot be accompanied by a
noun The following chart outlines the possessives and their uses: Skill 45: CHECK PRONOUN REFERENCE
FOR AGREEMENT After we check that the subject and object pronouns and the possessives are used
correctly, we should also check each of these pronouns and possessives for agreement. The boy will
cause trouble if you let him. Everyone must give his/her* name. PRONOUN AGREEMENT 1. Be sure that
every pronoun and possessive agrees with the noun it refers to. 2. You generally check back in the
sentence for agreement *In informal speaking we can use their/them SKILL 46: USE BASIC ADJECTIVES
AND ADVERBS CORRECTLY Adjectives are used in place of adverbs, or adverbs are used in place of
adjectives. Adjectives and adverbs have very different uses. Adjectives have only one job: they describe
nouns or pronouns. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. She is a beautiful woman. She
is beautiful. ADJ. NOUN PRO. ADJ. She sings beautifully. VERB ADV. She is a beautifully dressed woman.
ADV. ADJ. NOUN She is a truly beautifully dressed woman. ADV. ADV. ADJ. NOUN • Generally an adverb
rather than an adjective will come directly Skill 47: Use Adjectives after Linking Verbs after a verb
because the adverb is describing the verb. She spoke nicely. VERB ADV. This adverb (nicely) describes the
verb spoke. • You must be careful if the verb is a linking verb. A linking verb is followed by an adjective
rather than an adverb. A linking verb is a non-action (describes a state) verb that needs a complement.
Examples: She looks nice. SUB. ADJ. LINKING VERBS: appear feel seem be look smell become prove taste
SKILL 48. POSITION ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS CORRECTLY Adjectives and adverbs can appear in
incorrect positions in the Written Expression Section. The two common errors are: - The position of
adjectives with the nouns they describe. - The position of adverbs with objects. In English it is correct to
place a one-word adjective in front of the noun it describes. The information important is on the first
page. Here the adjective “important” should come before the noun information, this is because
important describes information. The important information is on the first page. THE POSITION OF
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS ADJECTIVES ADVERBS A one-word adjective comes before the noun it
describes, it does not come directly after. An adverb can appear in many positions. It cannot be used
between a verb and its object. • You should be aware of the position of adverbs with objects of verbs.
when a verb has an object, an adverb describing the verb should not come between the verb and its
object. He has taken recently an English course. Verb Adv. Object • There are many possible corrections
for this sentence. Recently he has taken an English course He has recently taken an English course He has
taken an English course recently. -LY ADJECTIVES costly likely daily quarterly northerly early lively hourly
weekly easterly friendly lonely monthly yearly southerly kindly manly nightly lovely westerly SKILL 49: Do
not confuse –lyAdjectives with Adverbs ending in –ly SKILL 50: USE PREDICATE ADJECTIVES AFTER
LINKING VERBS The snake on the rock was alive. CORRECT The alive* snake was lying on the rock.
INCORRECT • In the first example, the predicate adjective alive is used correctly after the liking verb was
to describe the subject snake. In the second example, the predicate adjective alive is used incorrectly in
front of the noun snake. In this position, the adjective live should be used. SKILL 50: USE PREDICATE
ADJECTIVES CORRECTLY Predicate adjectives Forms used in front of noun alike like, similar alive live,
living alone lone afraid frightened asleep sleeping A predicate adjective appears after a linking verb such
as be. It cannot appear directly in front of the noun that it describes. SKILL 51: USE –EDAND -
INGADJECTIVES CORRECTLY The woman cleans the car. VERB The cleaning woman worked on the car.
ADJECTIVE The woman put the cleaned car back in the garage. ADJECTIVE •In the first example, cleans is
the verb of the sentence. In the second example, cleaning is a verbal adjective describing woman. In the
third example, cleaned is a verbal adjective describing car. The cleaning* car… is not correct because a
car cannot do the action of cleaning. (active) The cleaned* woman… is not correct because a woman
cannot receive the action of the verb clean. (passive) SKILL 51: USE –EDAND -INGADJECTIVES CORRECTLY
-ED AND -ING ADJECTIVES TYPE MEANING USE EXAMPLE -ING Active It does the action of the verb. … the
happily playing children…. (The children play.) -ED Passive It receives the action of the verb. … the
frequently played record… (Someone plays the record.) Skills: 52-54: PROBLEMS WITH ARTICLES: Articles
Countable Singular Nouns Contable Plural Nouns Uncontable Nouns Indefinite (General) a dollar an
apple ---- dollars ---- apples ----money ----juice Definite (Specific) the dollar the apple the dollars the
apples the money the juice SKILL 52: Use Articles with Singular Nouns A singular noun must have an
article (a/an, the) or some other determiner such as my or each. A plural noun or an uncountable noun
may or may not have an article. I have money. (Uncountable--- no article needed) I have books.
(Countable plural--- no article needed) I have a book. (Countable singular--- article needed) SKILL 53:
Distinguish A/An A university A hand A one- way street A euphemism A xerox machine An unhappy man
An hour An omen An event An x-ray machine A A is used in front of a singular noun with a consonant
sound. AN AN is used in front of a singular noun with a vowel sound. Be careful of words beginning with
letters such as u, o, e, x or h. They may begin with either a vowel or a consonant sound. Skill 54: Make
Articles agree with Nouns • The definite article “the” is for both singular and plural nouns • The
indefinite article “a/an” is used only with singular nouns. • One very common agreement error is to use
the singular indefinite “a/an” with a plural noun. He saw a new movies. (incorrect) He saw a new movie.
(singular) He saw new movies (plural) Skill 55: Distinguish Specific and General Ideas • With countable
singular nouns, it is possible to use either the definite or the indefinite article. BUT THEY HAVE
DIFFERENT MEANINGS. ¨A or An (versus) THE¨ • A or An: [Link] it when there are many, and you don´t
know which one it is. [Link] it when there are many, and you don´t care which one it is. Tom will bring a
book tomorow. (any book) • THE: 1. Use it when it is the only one. 2. Use it when there are many, and
you and your listener know which one it is. Tom will bring the book tomorow. (a specific book.) Skills 56-
57: Problems with Prepositions Prepositions Literal way Idiomatic way Means exactly what you expect
It’s very far from the real meaning Example The boy ran up the mountain. v/s I call up my friend. Literal /
Idiomatic meaning Prepositions Prepositions are not only used to show time, place, and agent, but are
also used in combination with verbs, adjectives, nouns, and in many common set expressions. We
cannot list all prepositions, but some important groups are: 1. Verb + Preposition depend on lead to 2.
Adjective/Participle + Preposition surprised at famous for 3. Noun + Preposition example of possibility of
4. Other Combinations with Prepositions as a result of in addition to 5. Prepositions of Time and Place on
May 16 in Washington 6. Prepositions in Common Expressions at present in general VERB +
PREPOSITION account for contribute to insist on plan on believe in depend on lead to rely on belong to
detach from obtain from result in confined to fight for overcome by withdraw from
ADJECTIVE/PARTICIPLE + PREPOSITION accustomed to different from necessary for responsible for afraid
of expert at opossed to successful in based on free from possible for surprised at compared to famous
for related to typical of NOUN + PREPOSITION cause of equivalent of influence on result of cost of
evidence of need for use of danger of example of possibility of solution to effect on increase in reason
for supply of OTHER COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS according to in the process of as a
consequence of in view of as a result of on account of because of on behalf of by means of on the basis
of in addition to prior to in spite of with the exception of in terms of with the purpose of PREPOSITIONS
IN COMMON EXPRESSIONS at times by land/sea/air at present by far at first/last by chance at the
moment by accident by day/night in common on fire in general on the other hand in existence on the
whole in the future/past on purpose in theory on land PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE •
Prepositions of Time at time of day (at 8 a.m.) noon, night midnight in parts of the day (in the
morning/evening/afternoon) month (in July) season (in the fall) year (in 1980) decade (in the 1980s)
century (in the nineteenth century) on days of the week (on Monday) dates (on March 20) for/since
duration of time (for three days) point in time (since March 20) from . . . to from beginning time . . . to
ending (from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.) PREPOSITIONS OF TIME AND PLACE • Prepositions of Place at address (at
200 Main Street) on street/road/avenue (on Kings Road) in building (in the drugstore) city (in Los
Angeles) state (in California) country (in Japan) continent (in Africa) from . . . to from beginning point . . .
to ending point (from Alaska to California) Skill 56-57: Problems with Prepositions • Sometimes an
incorrect preposition is given in a sentence in the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test. The game
was called on because of the rain. It must be called off – (canceled) I knew I could count in you to do a
good job. It must be count on someone • Sometimes a necessary preposition has been omitted from a
sentence in the Written Expression section of the TOEFL test. Can you wait me after the game. It should
be: wait for me. I plan attending the meeting. It should be: plan on attending. Skill 58: Distinguish Make
and Do • Make and Do can be confused in English because their meanings are so similar. • Make often
has the idea of creating or [Link] following expressions show some of the possible uses of
make: She likes to make her own clothes. Would you like to make a cake for dessert? If you make a
mistake, you should correct it. He was unable to make a response to the threat. • Do often has the idea
of completing or performing. The following expressions show some of the possible uses of do: This
morning she did all the dishes. The students are doing assignments. The janitors did the work they were
assigned. You can do your laundry at the laundromat. Many uses of make and do are idiomatic and
therefore difficult to classify. [Link] Skill 59:
Distinguish like, alike, unlike, and dislike • Like, alike, unlike and dislike sometimes are confused because
they look so similar but they have many different uses. 1) Like and alike John and Tom are alike. John and
Tom worked in a like manner. As you see like and alike are adjectives that have similar meaning. Alike is a
predicate adjective, so we can only use it after a linking verb. Like is used immediately before a noun so it
is an adjective form. 2) Like and unlike Jonh is likeTom. John is unlikeTom. Here both words have opposite
meanings, they are working as prepositions so they must be followed by objects. The prepositions like
and unlike can also be used at the beginning of a sentence. 3) Like and dislike John and Tom like the
course. John and Tom dislike the course. Here both words are written as verbs, so they are used with
subjects. SKILL 60: DINTINGUISH OTHER, ANOTHER, AND OTHERS To decide how to use other, another or
others, we must consider three things: 1.- If it is singular or plural. 2.- If it is definite (the) or indefinite
(a). 3.- If it is an adjective ( it appears with a noun) or if it is a pronoun (it appears by itself). SINGULAR
PLURAL INDEFINITE I have another book. I have another. I have other books. I have others. DEFINITE I
have the other book. I have the other. I have the other books. I have the others. Bibliography: Broukal,
Milada. In-A-Flash: Grammar for the TOEFL Test. New Jersey: Thomson Learning, Inc. 2001. Phillips,
Deborah. Longman Preparation Course for the TEFL Test. The Paper Test. New York: Pearson Education,
2003.