Grade 8 Mathematics Textbook Overview
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Jon DanaleGrade 8 Mathematics Textbook Overview
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Jon DanaleMATHEMATICS
GRADE 8
Student Textbook
Writers
Misganaw Mintesnot (MSc)
Getenet Zerihun (MSc)
Editors
Adamu Ayele (MSc)
Birilew Belayneh (PhD)
Tilahun Abebaw (PhD)
Illustrator:
Bekalu Tarekegn (PhD)
Team Leader:
Berie Getie (MSc)
በአማራ ብሔራዊ ክልላዊ መንግሥት ትምህርት ቢሮ
The textbook is prepared by Amhara National Regional State Education Bureau and
the Scholars Council with budget allocated by the Amhara National Regional State
Government.
©2015 Amhara National Regional State Education Bureau. All rights reserved.
The Scholars Council
Rationales for the Curriculum Reform
Curriculum relevance and its appropriateness to develop higher order thinking skills
have been a subject of discussion in Ethiopia for many years. Various studies have
been conducted to identify and propose reform ideas to the general education
quality and efficiency problems. The main and most comprehensive ones are
the Education Roadmap study and the Cambridge Education study. These studies
indicated that the general education curriculum is staffed with many subjects; some
textbooks are overloaded with factual content; school contents are not adequately
related with students’ lives; and indigenous knowledge and real world problems
are not integrated in the school curriculum. The studies also showed that the
curriculum does not integrate ICT and has gaps to meet the needs of children with
special educational needs. In addition, the studies demonstrated that curriculum
materials do not thoroughly cultivate 21st Century skills and competencies such as
lifelong learning, critical thinking, problem solving, creative and innovative thinking,
communication and cooperative skills, leadership and decision making skills,
technological skills, cultural identity and international citizenship. Consequently,
these studies recommended the need to reform the curriculum.
Based on the recommendations, extended discussions and consultative meetings
were conducted at national and regional levels with relevant stakeholders, teachers,
parents, and educational leaders. Following these consultations, a new national
curriculum framework, content flow chart, learning competencies, and syllabus
have been prepared national level. Based on such documents, student textbooks
and teacher guides of different subjects are prepared. The mathematics textbooks
intend to engage students in the formulation and construction of mathematics
knowledge and skill based on their day to day experiences and previous knowledge.
Learners are expected to actively take part in drawing their prior knowledge and
experience in the learning process.
How to Use the Book
The book is prepared to enable student learn in active and participatory manner using
their prior learning and experiences from the immediate environment. Students
and teachers carry out activities and solve problems using their experiences and
knowledge. In this process, students not only learn mathematical concepts and
ideas but also develop the necessary learning to learn skills. Such practice also helps
students to deeply understand the contents. To this end, teachers are expected to
teach using the proposed learning and teaching strategies and learning processes. It
is essential that students and teachers appreciate the processes involved in learning
the contents and not merely focus on memorization of concepts and mathematical
procedures. Hence, teachers are expected to employ the proposed techniques
and implement all activities as they are designed by considering the objectives and
contents of the textbook. In addition, teacher can select and use other methods
and approaches based on students’ capacity and needs.
I
Dear Students!
You have to use the textbook with care. Learning largely determines the future of a
generation. Learning is a base for any social, human, and economic development. The
textbook contents and activities are designed to promote your active participation
in class. By carrying out and studying all the activities, contents and questions
provided in the textbook, you are required to develop deep understandings and
skills. Effort, exercise, and perseverance are important to succeed in your academic
career. You will enjoy and find learning mathematics to be fun! Make sure that you
bring your textbook to class and use it during the teaching and learning process.
Dear Parents!
Textbooks have significant roles to facilitate student learning. Thus, you are required
to help and advice students to handle and use textbooks with care. Moreover,
you are expected to motivate students to take textbooks to school and direct
and support them to work the activities given by teachers. You should also visit
your child’s school to discuss with teachers about learning and behavioral change,
identify gaps, and correct them through follow up and advising.
II
Content
Unit 1 RATIONAL NUMBERS 1
1.1 The Concept of Rational Numbers 2
1.2 Decimal and Fraction forms of Rational Numbers 6
1.3 Representation of Rational Numbers on the Number Line 10
1.4 Comparing and Ordering Rational Numbers 14
1.5 Absolute Values of Rational Numbers 19
1.6 Operations and their Properties on Rational Numbers 22
1.7 Applications of Rational Numbers in Calculating Interest and Loans 28
Unit 2 SQUARES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBES AND CUBE ROOTS 37
2.1 Squares and Square Roots 38
2.2 Approximation of Square Roots of Rational Number 48
2.3 Cubes and Cube Roots 52
Unit 3 LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 61
3.1 Solving Linear Equations 62
3.2 Solving Linear Inequalities 71
3.3 Graph of Linear Equations and Linear Inequalities 83
Unit 4 SIMILARITY OF FIGURES 91
4.1 Similar Plane Figures 92
4.2 Tests for Similarity of Triangles 100
4.3 Perimeter and Area of similar Triangles 106
III
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Unit 5 THEOREMS ON TRIANGLES 113
5.4 Theorems of Triangles 114
5.5 Exterior Angles of a Triangle 123
5.6 Theorems on Right-Angled Triangles 126
Unit 6 LINES AND ANGLES IN A CIRCLE 135
6.1 Circles and Lines 136
6.2 Central Angles and Inscribed Angles of circles 142
6.3 Angles Formed by Two Intersecting Chords in a Circle 147
Unit 7 SOLID FIGURES AND MEASUREMENTS 157
7.1 Solid Figures 158
7.2 Surface Area of Solid Figures 165
7.3 Volume of Solid Figures 175
Unit 8 INTRODUCTION TO PROBABILITY 183
8.1 The Concept of Probability 184
8.2 Probability of Simple Event 193
IV
Unit 1
RATIONAL NUMBERS
Learning outcomes:
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
ª identify the relationships among the numbers systems: natural numbers
(ℕ), whole numbers (𝕎), intergers (ℤ) and rational numbers (ℚ);
ª define rational numbers;
ª represent rational numbers on a number line;
ª compare and order rational numbers;
ª define absolute value of rational numbers;
ª compute basic operations on rational numbers;
ª appreciate application of rational numbers in real life problems.
Key terms
rational number compound interest
comparing rational numbers opposite rational number
operations on rational numbers ordering rational numbers
terminating decimals absolute value
simple interest repeating decimals
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Introduction
As human experience, needs and knowledge developed, the set of integers were not
sufficient to describe the day-to-day activities and thus a new set of numbers, the set of
rational numbers were developed. In your previous grades, you have learned about the
sets of natural numbers, the set of whole numbers, the set of integers and fractions. In this
unit, you will learn about the set of rational numbers, the four fundamental operations on
rational numbers and some applications of rational numbers.
1.1 The Concept of Rational Numbers
In your previous grades you have learned about different number systems; the set of
natural numbers, the set of whole numbers and the set of integers.
Natural Numbers
Natural numbers, which are also called “counting numbers”, are numbers that start
with the number 1 and they do not involve negatives, fractions or decimals. You have
started counting in your early ages with this set of numbers.
The set of natural numbers is denoted by and it is given by: ℕ={ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, }.
Whole Numbers
As the set of natural numbers was not enough to express the whole idea of
counting, the idea of “zero” was developed. The set of natural numbers and zero
“0” form a new class of numbers called the set of whole numbers, denoted by .
That is, 𝕎 = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, } and observe that Í .
Integers
Whole numbers were not sufficient in order to represent situations like ‘profit
and loss’, ‘temperatures below 0oC, 'altitudes below sea level' etc. Thus, it was
obvious, to extend the set of whole numbers by including negative numbers like
, 4, 3, 2, 1 and the set of integers, denoted by , was formed by combining
the whole numbers and negative numbers. That is, = , 3, 2, 1, 0,1, 2, 3,
Observe that, you have the following relationships between the three given sets of
numbers: Í Í .
Fractions
In our daily life there are quantities that cannot be expressed by the set of numbers that
are mentioned above. For example, if you divide a bread into three equal parts, then
each part cannot be expressed using integers. Thus, it was needed to introduce
fractions. Fractions are numbers which can be written in the form ba , where a and b
2
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
a
are whole numbers and b is not equal to zero ( b ¹ 0) . In the fraction , a is called
b
the numerator and b is called the denominator.
Operations on Fractions
c
Given two fractions a and , where a, b, c and d are natural numbers and b ¹ 0
b d
and d ¹ 0 :
a c (a × d ) + (b × c)
1 + = (Sum of fractions)
b d b×d
a × d b × c
=
a c
2 (Difference of fractions)
b d b×d
a c a×c
3 × = (Product of fractions)
b d b×d
a c a d a×d
4 ÷ = × = (Division of fractions and c ¹ 0 )
b d b c b×c
Rational Numbers
Definition 1.1
a
A number that can be written in the form , where a and b are integers and b ¹ 0 is
b
called a rational number. The set of rational numbers, denoted by ℚ, is defined by:
a
a, b and b 0 .
b
Example 1.1
Show that each one of the following numbers is a rational number.
1 3 5
, , , 0, 1, 5 , 0.3
2 2 6
Solution
1 a
i. is a rational number as it can writen in the form where a = 1 and b = 2.
2 b
3 a
ii. is a rational number as it can be written in the form , where a = 3 and b = 2.
2 b
a
iii. 5 is a rational number as it can be written in the form , where a = −5 and b = 6.
6 b
0 a
iv. 0= , it is written in the form of , where a = 0 and b = 1 are integers; so it is
1 b
a rational number;
3
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
-15 a
v. -1.5 = , it is written in the form of , where a = ˗15 and b = 10; so it is
10 b
a rational number;
3 a where a = 3 and b = 10; so it is a
vi. 0.3 = , it is written in the form of ,
10 b
rational number;
Note:
a
The rational number when b ¹ 0, is called a fraction, a is called the numerator and b
b
is called the denominator.
Relationships between Integers and Rational Numbers
In your previous grades, you have learned the following relationships: Í Í ,
where is the set of natural numbers, is the set of whole numbers and is the set
of integers.
a
If a is an integer, then a = a and is a rational number.
1 1
This implies, every integer is a rational and hence the set of rational numbers includes the
set of integers, that is, Í .
Thus, we have the following relationships between the set of natural numbers, the set of
whole numbers, the set of integers and the set of rational numbers: NÍÍÍ.These
relationships are given in the following Venn diagram.
ℚ
ℤ
Figure 1.1. Relationships of ℕ, 𝕎, ℤ and ℚ
4
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
Equality of Rational Numbers
Activity 1.1
Find the values of the variables that make the following fractions equal.
1 2 b c 3 e 8 12 g 36
a = = = = b = = = =
4 a 16 64 d 7 16 f 56 h
a c
From your responses in Activity 1.1, observe that two fractions = , where a, b, c
b d
a c
and d natural numbers, are equal written as = , if a × d = b × c .
b d
The same method can be used to define the equality of two rational numbers.
Definition 1.2
a c
Two rational numbers and , where a, b, c and d are integers and b ≠ 0, d ≠ 0 are
b d
a c
said to be equal, written as = , if a d = b c.
b d
Example 1.2
3 9
Show that the rational numbers and are equal.
4 12
Solution
3 × 12 = 36 and 4 × 9 = 36 .
3 9
This implies 3 × 12 = 4 × 9 and hence = .
4 12
Example 1.3
a 3
Find the value of a so that rational numbers and are equal.
3 18
Solution
a 6
If = , then a × 9 = 3 × 6 .
3 9
9a = 18
18
Therefore, a = = 2.
9
5
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Note:
a a a×c
Given a rational number , if c is a nonzero integer, then = .
b b b×c
Example 1.4
3
Find another three different forms of the rational number .
4
Solution
3 3×2 6 3 3×3 9 3 3 × 4 12
= = = = = =
4 4×2 8 4 4 × 3 12 4 4 × 4 16
6 9
Therefore, , and 12 are three different forms of 3 .
8 12 16 4
Exercise 1.1
x
1 For any two integers x and y, is always a rational number? Why?
y
3 x
2 If = , then what is the value of x?
8 24
5
3 Give at least three different rational numbers which are equal to 6 .
4 Give five rational numbers which are not integers.
5 In a class, 47 students sat for mathematics final examination, 15 of them failed in
the examination and the rest passed the examination. Write the ratio of the number
students who failed in the examination to the number of students who passed in the
examination.
6 Express the number of female students out of total number of students in your class
as a rational number.
1.2 Decimal and Fraction forms of Rational Numbers
Activity 1.2
1 Convert each of the following fractions to decimal form.
2 13 c 2
a b
8 6
6
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
2 Convert each of the following decimals to fraction form.
a 4.53 b 0.26 c 0.3
From your responses in Activity 1.2, observe that you can convert a number in fraction
form into a decimal form and any number in decimal form into fraction.
When a given number in fraction form is changed to decimal form, there are two
possibilities:
5
a the digits after the decimal point terminate; for example, = 1.25
4
b the digits after the decimal point do not terminate, but some of the digits
2
repeat themselves, for example, = 0.6666
3
Definition 1.3
A number in decimal form with only finite number of digits after the decimal point is
called a terminating decimal.
A number in decimal form with some digits are repeating themselves after the decimal
point is called a repeating decimal.
Example 1.5
a 0.375, 2.25 and 0.8 are examples of terminating decimal numbers.
b 0.666… , 1.252525… and 3.2444… are examples of repeating decimals.
Notation
Repeating decimals can be denoted by putting:
i. a dot at the top of the repeating digit, if there is only one repeating digit, for example,
0 .666… = 0.6 and 3.2444…=3.24 ; etc.
ii. a bar at the top of the repeating digits, if there are two or more repeating digits, for
example, 1.252525… = 1.25 and 35.132132132 = 35.132 ; etc.
Note
To convert fractions to decimals, divide the numerator by the denominator.
Converting Decimal to Fraction
I. To convert a terminating decimal to fraction form, if there are k digits after the decimal
10k
point, then multiply the number by and you will get a number in fraction form.
10k
7
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 1.6
Convert each of the following decimals to fraction from.
a 0.03 b 1.2 c 13.205
Solution
0.03 102
a 0.03 = (there are two digits after the decimal point)
102
3
=
100
1.2 10
b 1.2 = (there is one digit after the decimal point)
10
12
=
10
13.205 103
c 13.205 = (there are three digits after the decimal point)
103
= 13205
1000
II. Steps to convert repeating decimals to fractions.
a Represent the repeating decimal number by a variable, say x;
b If there are only k repeating digits but no nonrepeating digits after the decimal
point, then multiply both sides by 10k.
c Subtract the first equation from the second and then solve for the variable, the
result is a fraction form of the number;
d If there are n non-repeating decimals and k repeating decimals after the decimal
point, first multiply x by 10n and then by 10n+k, subtract the second expression
from the first expression and solve for x.
Example 1.7
Convert the number 0.7 to fraction form.
Solution
Let x = 0.777 (1)
Since it has only one repeating digit after the decimal point, multiply both sides
by 10
10 x = 7.777 (2)
Subtract the first equation from the second equation:
8
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
10 x x = (7.777 ) 0.777 7.777
9x = 7 0.777
7 7.0
x=
9
7
Therefore, 0.77777…. = 0.7=
9
Example 1.8
Convert the number 4.325 to fraction form.
Solution
Let x = 4.325 = 4.3252525… (1)
There are one non-repeating and two repeating digits after the decimal point.
Multiply both sides of equation (1) first by 10 and then by 103 = 1000.
10 x = 43.252525… (2)
1000x = 4325.252525…. (3)
Subtract the second equation from the third equation
1000x − 10x = (4325.252525….) − (43.252525…)
990 x = 4282
4325.252525
4282 43.252525
x=
990 4282
4282 2141
Therefore, 4.3252525… = 4.325 = =
990 495
Exercise 1.2
1 Convert each of the following fraction to decimal form.
1 7 c 119
a b
3 6 20
2 Convert each of the following decimals to fraction form.
a 0. 5 c 6. 345 e 1.35
b 1.5 d 2.3 12 f 35.729
9
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
3 Show that 2.9 = 3
3
4 Are 0. 3 and equal? Why?
10
1.3 Representation of Rational Numbers on the Number Line
Activity 1.3
Represent each of the following integers on a number line.
a −5 b 0 c 7
To locate an integer m on a number line, first determine the sign of the number
(negative or positive).
a if m is a positive integer, then m is located at m units to the right of the point
represented by 0, the origin, on the number line.
b if m is a negative integer, then m is located at − m units to the left of point
represented by 0, the origin, on the number line.
Example 1.9
Locate -6 and 3 on a number line.
Solution
First draw a number line with an appropriate units and locate point represent by
zero.
Then, move 6 units to the left of 0 to locate − 6 and move 3 units to right of 0 to
locate 3 as shown in Figure 1.2
Figure 1.2. A number line
Locating a Rational number
a
Consider a rational number , where a and b are integers and b ¹ 0 .
b
a
Case 1: is a proper fraction, that is, a is closer to 0 than b on the number line.
b
a a
There are two subcases to consider: > 0 and < 0 .
b b
10
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
a
Subcase 1: Suppose > 0.
b
Divide the line segment with end points represented by 0 and 1 on the number line
a
into b equal parts. The ath point from 0 to 1 is represented by .
b
Example 1.10
Locate 4 on the number line.
5
Solution
4 4
is a proper fraction and > 0 .
5 5
Step 1: Draw a number line and locate the integers 0 and 1 on the number line.
Step 2: Divide the line segment with end points 0 and 1 into 5 equal parts.
4
Step 3: The 4th point from 0 to 1 is the point represented by as in the Figure 1.3.
5
Figure 1.3. Locating rational numbers on the number line
a
Subcase 2: Suppose < 0 , where a < 0 and b > 0.
b
Divide the line segment with end points represented by −1and 0 on the number line
a
into b equal parts. The (− a)th point from 0 to −1 to the left is represented by .
b
Example 1.11
3
Locate 4 on the number line.
Solution
3 3
4 is a proper fraction with 4
<0
Step 1: Draw a number line and locate the integers −1 and 0 on the number line.
11
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Step 2: Divide the line segment with end points −1 and 0 into 4 equal parts.
Step 3: Staring from 0, move 3 units to the left to −1 and the third point is represented
3 as shown in Figure 1.4.
4
1 3 2 1 0
4 4 4
Figure 1.4. Locating rational numbers on the number line
a
Case 2: is an improper fraction, that is, b is closer to 0 than a on the number line.
b
a r
Then write = p + , where p and r are integers with r is closer to 0 than b on the
b b
number line.
a a
In this case also there are two subcases to consider: b > 0 and b < 0 .
a a r
=p+
Subcase 1: Suppose b > 0 and b b.
Step 1: Draw a number line and locate the points by the numbers p and p+1.
Step 2: Divide the line segment on the number line with end points represented by p
a
and p +1 into b equal parts. Then the r th point from p to p + 1 is represented by .
b
Example 1.12
4
Locate on the number line.
3
Solution:
4 1
First write =1+ .
3 3
Then divide the line segment with end points 1 and 2 on the number line into 3
equal parts.
4
Then the first point from 1 to 2 is the point represented by . as shown below.
3
0 1 4
3
2
a a r
Subcase 2: Suppose < 0 and = p + with p < 0, r < 0 and b > 0.
b b b
12
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
Step 1: Draw a number line and locate the points represented by p ˗ 1 and p on the
number line.
Step 2: Divide the line segment on the number line with end points represented by
a
p -1 and p into b equal parts. Then the (−r)th point from p to p 1 is represented by .
b
Example 1.13
7
Locate 4 on the number line.
Solution
7 3
First write = 1 .
4 4
Then divide the line segment with end points −2 and −1 on the number line into 4
equal parts.
7
Then the third point from −1 and −2 is the point represented by .
4
-2 -74 -1 0
Definition 1.4
Opposite rational numbers are located on the number line in opposite directions
from 0 at equal distance. That is, opposite rational numbers are numbers that have
the same magnitude, but they are different in signs.
Example 1.14
Determine the opposites of each of the following rational numbers.
a
5 b 0.333…
-
2
Solution
5 5 5
a Since - is located to the left of 0 at a distance of from 0 and is
2 2 5 2
located to the right of 0 at equal distance, we conclude that is the opposite
5 2
of - or vice versa.
2
Figure 1.5. Opposite Rational Numbers on the Number Line
13
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
1 1
b = 0.333… is located to the right of 0 and = 0.333… is located to the left
3 3
of 0 at equal distance. Thus, the opposite of 0. 333… is 0.333….
Exercise 1.3
1 Insert at least three rational numbers between the following pairs of numbers.
a 1 and 1 d
3
and 2
2
1 4 1
b and e and 0
3 5 2
1 1
c and f 0.2 and 0.3
3 5
2 Locate the following rational numbers on the number line.
14 5
a 3.9 c 3 e
5 6
b 2.5 7
d 17 f
3 8
3 How many integers are located between 0. 3 and 1.5 on the number line? Why?
4 How many rational numbers are located between 0. 3 and 1.5 on the number line?
Why?
1.4 Comparing and Ordering Rational Numbers
1.4.1 Comparing Rational Numbers
Activity 1.4
1 Compare the following pairs of fractions.
1 2 b 2 2
a and and
4 4 5 7
2 Compare the following pairs of decimals.
a 0.122 and 0.112 b 1.321 and 2.321
If the two rational numbers are in fraction form you can compare them in two ways:
i. transform the two fractions to decimal forms and compare the decimal forms or
ii. transform the two fractions to fraction forms with the same denominators and
compare the numerators.
14
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
Comparison Methods for Rational Numbers
a c
Given two rational numbers and
b d
i. if the rational numbers have the same denominator (that is if b = d) and b > 0, then
a c
< if a < c;
b b
ii. if the rational numbers have different denominators, then convert them to rational
numbers having the same denominator and compare the numerators. That is, if b > 0
a c ad cb
< .
and d > 0, then b < d whenever b d d b
Note Any negative rational number is less than any positive rational numbers and any
negative rational numbers is less than zero.
Example 1.15
Compare each of the following pairs of rational numbers.
a 3 and 5 7 5
5 1
c and 3 e 3 and 2
2 2 9
3 1 d
1
and 0
b and
4 2 3
Solution
3 5
a The rational numbers and have the same denominator. Since 3<5 , we
2 2
have 3 < 5
2 2
3 1
b The rational numbers and have different denominators. To compare
4 2
them, first convert each of them to fractions with the same denominator. Since
1 1× 2 2 3 2 3 1
2
=
2×2
=
4
and 3 > 2 , we have > . Therefore, 4 > 2
4 4
c Since every negative rational number is less than every positive rational
5 7
number <
3 9
1
d Since any negative rational number is less than 0, we have
3
<0
15
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
5 1
e The rational numbers 3 and 2 have different denominators. To compare
5 5 × 2 10
them, first convert to fractions with the same denominator. = =
3 3×2 6
1 1× 3 3
and = =
2 2×3 6
Since 10 < 3 , we have 10 < 3 Therefore, 5 < 1
6 6 3 2
The other way of comparing rational numbers is using place values, after converting
a c
the rational numbers to decimal form. To compare two rational numbers b and d
where a, b, c and d are integers and b ¹ 0, d ¹ 0
Step 1: First convert the rational numbers to decimal form by dividing the numerator to
the denominator.
Step 2: Compare numbers before the decimal point of the two rational numbers.
Step 3: If they are equal compare tenth place digit of the first number with tenth place
digit of the second number, hundredth place digit with hundredth place digit and so on.
Example 1.16
3 7
Compare and by converting them to decimal form.
4 8
Solution
First convert each rational number to decimals by using long division.
3 7
That is = 0.750 and = 0.875
4 8
Since they have equal one’s place digit, comparing their tenths’ digit, we have 7 < 8
Therefore, 0.750 < 0.875
3 7
Hence, <
4 8
Example 1.17
Compare 31.2168 and 31.2159
Solution
The digits before the decimal point are equal in numbers and the first two digits
after the decimal point are the same.
16
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
But the thousands` place digit of the first is 6 and the thousands` place digit of the
second number is 5, and also 5 < 6.
Therefore, 31.2159 < 31.2168.
Exercise 1.4
1 Compare each of the following pairs of rational numbers.
1 1 4 4 4 16
a and b and c and
4 3 3 5 3 20
2 Compare each of the following pairs of decimals.
a 10.13 and 11.13 c 13.5746 and 13.5748
b 0.012 and 0.014
3 Compare each of the following pairs of rational numbers by converting them to
decimal forms.
2 1 1 3
a 3
and
4
c and
5 20
4 1 7
b and d 0.85 and
5 5 8
4 Compare each of the following pairs of rational numbers.
2 2 4
a and 0.56 b 0.6 and c 1.25 and
3 3 3
1.4.2 Ordering Rational Numbers
Activity 1.5
1 Locate each of the following fractions on a number line.
1 3 2 5
, , ,
2 2 3 6
2 Arrange the numbers in (1) in increasing order.
In order to arrange rational numbers in increasing or decreasing you can use comparison
methods. Increasing is also called ascending and decreasing is also called descending.
Increasing order means from smaller to larger and descending order means from larger
to smaller.
17
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 1.18
3 1 5 7
a Arrange the rational numbers , , , in increasing/or ascending order.
6 6 6 6
3 5 7 13
b Arrange the rational numbers , , , in decreasing/or descending
2 4 6 12
order
Solution
a Since all the numbers have the same denominator, you can compare the
numerators.
That is 7 < 1 < 3 < 5
Therefore, 7 < 1 < 3 < 5 (in increasing order)
6 6 6 6
b Since the numbers have different denominators, first convert to fractions with
the same denominator and compare the numerators of the resulting fractions.
That is
3 3 × 6 18 5 5 × 3 15 7 7 × 2 14
= = , = = , = = and
2 2 × 6 12 4 4×3 12 6 6 × 2 12
18 > 14 > 13 > 15
So, 18 > 14 > 13 > 15
12 12 12 12
3 7 13 5
Therefore, > > > (in decreasing order)
2 6 12 4
Exercise 1.5
1 Arrange each of the following rational sets of numbers in increasing/or ascending
order.
1 1 6 4 7 2
a , , , , ,
2 3 13 5 18 19
1 3 1
b , , 0.5, 2, 5,
3 4 3
2 Arrange the following rational numbers in decreasing/or descending order.
3 , 0.7 , 4 , 2 , − 22 , 3.14
8 5 7 7
18
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
1.5 Absolute Values of Rational Numbers
From your knowledge in the previous grades, recall that the distance between two points
on the number line is the length of the straight path connecting them.
Activity 1.6
1 a How far is the point represented by 12 from 0 on a number line?
b How far is the point represented by ˗12 from 0 on a number line?
2 What do you observe from the questions 1(a ) and 1(b)?
From your responses in Activity 1.6 observe that the distances from the origin to
each of the points represented by 12 and ˗12 are equal and this distance is called the
absolute of the numbers.
Definition 1.5
The absolute value of a rational number x, denoted by x , is defined by:
x, if x 0
x 0, if x 0
x, if x
0
Example 1.19
Find the absolute value each of the following numbers.
a −28 d 0
b 7
3
c 5
Solution:
a 28 < 0 implies 28 = 28 = 28
b 7 > 0 implies 7 = 7
3 3 3 3
c < 0 implies = = .
5 5 5 5
d 0 = 0, by definition of absolute value.
19
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Note:
For any rational number a, a is the distance from the origion to the point represented by
a. Thus, a 0.
Exercise 1.6
1 Evaluate each of the following.
a 13 + 13 c 0 e 9 4 5
3
b 10 6 + 4 d 12 12 f −
4
2 Find the distance between points represented by the following rational numbers.
2 2
a 2 and 5 b −2 and 5
3 3
Equations involving absolute values
Activity 1.7
1. How many points are located on the number line that are 4 units away from the
origin?
2. What are the corresponding number(s) represented these point(s) in (1)?
Geometrically the expression x = 3 means that the point with coordinate x is 3 units
from 0 on the number line. Obviously, the number line contains two points that are 3 units
from the origin: one on the right of the origin and the other on the left of the origin. Thus
x = 3 has two solutions x = 3 and x = −3
Definition 1.6
For any non-negative rational number a, x = a implies x = a or x = −a
Example 1.20
Solve each of the following equations.
a x =8 b 2 x 1 = 11 c x = 9
20
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
Solution
a x = 8 implies x = 8 or x = 8
b 2 x 1 = 11 implies 2 x 1 = 11 or 2 x 1= 11
2x = 12 or 2x = 10
x = 6 or x = 5
Therefore, the solutions of the equation 2 x 1 = 11 is x = −5 or x = 6.
c Since the absolute value of any number is non-negative, the equation x = 9
has no solution. That is, there is no rational number whose absolute value is −9.
Properties of Absolute values
Activity 1.8
Compare each of the following pairs of numbers.
3 3
a −3 and |−3| e and
4 4
b |3| and |−3|
f |3 + 4| and |3| + |4|
c |5| and |−5|
g |3 + (−4)| and |3| + |4|
d |3 (-4)| and |3| |−4|
Note
For any two rational numbers a and b the following relations are true.
a a≤ a a a
d = , b¹0
b b
b |a| = |−a|
c |ab| = |a||b| e |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|
Example 1.21
i 3 £ 3 because 3 = 3 and 3 £ 3
ii 3 = 3 because 3 = 3 and 3 = 3
iii 2 × 5 = 2 × 5 because 2 × 5 = 10 = 10 and 2 × 5 = 2 × 5 = 10
iv 2 × 5 = 2 × 5 because 2 5 10 10 and 2 5 2 5 10
3 3
v = because 3 = 3
4 4 4 4
21
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
vi 3 + 5 ≤ 3 + 5 because 3 + 5 = 2 and 3 + 5 = 3 + 5 = 8
Exercise 1.7
1 Evaluate each of the following expressions.
a 6 x + 2 x – 3 when x = 3
b m m + 3 when m = 1
2 x 7
c when x = 3
d x 4 5 y when x = 2 and y = 6
e x + y when x = 3 and y = 1
f y x when y = −7 and x = 3
2 Find the possible value (s) of x that make the given equations true.
a 2x = 5 4x f x = 0
d = 10
5
b x 1 = 3 g 7 x 2 = 14
e 3x = 0
c 3x 2 = 4
1.6 Operations and their Properties on Rational Numbers
In Grade 7, you have learnt about the four basic operations; addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division on integers. In this section you will learn the four basic
operations; addition, subtraction, multiplication and division on rational numbers and
their properties.
1.6.1 Addition and Subtraction of Rational Numbers
Activity 1.9
1 Find each of the following sums.
1 3 2 5
a + b +
2 2 5 3
2 Find each of the following differences.
2 3 4 2
a − b −
5 5 7 5
22
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
Adding and subtracting of rational numbers is defined in the same way as addition and
subtraction of fractions are defined.
Definition 1.7
a c
For any two rational numbers and , with b ¹ 0 and d ¹ 0 :
b d
a × d + b × c
=
a c a c a c
i the sum of and ; denoted by + is defined by +
b d b d b d b×d
a c a c
ii the difference of and ; denoted by b d is defined by
a c a × d b × c b d
=
b d b×d
Example 1.22
Compute each of the following.
3 5 3
5 13 12
a + b 8 2 c +
8 2 17 23
Solution
5 3 × 2 + 8 × 5 6 + 40
+ =
3 46
a = =
8 2 8×2 16 16
5 3 × 2 8 × 5 6 40
=
3 34
b = =
8 2 8×2 16 16
c
13 12
+
=
13 × 23 + 17 × 12 = 299 + 204 =
503
17 23 17 × 23 391 391
Example 1.23
3 1
A husband is 32 years old and his wife is 27 years old. What is the age
4 8
difference between the husband and his wife?
Solution
First change the mixed fractions to improper fractions.
3 131 1 217
32 = and 27 = .
4 4 8 8
3 1 131 217
Then 32 27 =
2 8 4 8
=
131 × 8 4 × 217
4×8
23
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
1048 868
=
4×8
45 5
= =5
8 8 5
Therefore, the age difference between the husband and his wife is 5 years.
8
Properties of Addition of Rational Numbers
Activity 1.10
Compute each of the following and compare your results.
1 3 3 1 c 1 1
a + and + + 0 and 0 +
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 5 1 2 5 1 1 1 1 1
b d
+
+ and +
+
and
5 3 2 5 3 2 2 2 2 2
From your responses in Activity 1.2, observe that the two sums in each of (a), (b), (c) and
(d) are equal and these results are true for any group of rational numbers.
a c e
Let , and , where b ¹ 0 , d ¹ 0 and f ¹ 0, be rational numbers. Then:
b d f
a c c a
i + = + (Addition on the set of rational numbers is commutative)
b d d b
a c e a c e
ii +
+ = +
d + f
(addition on the set of rational numbers is associative)
b d f b
a a a
iii +0= =0 + (0 is the additive identity in addition of rational numbers)
b b b
a a a a
is the additive inverse of a
a
iv + =0=
+ (
b b b
b b b
Exercise 1.8
1 Compute each of the following.
a
17
+
22
d 5 26 1
g 22 + 3 3
1
19 9
13 7
5 h 2.3 − 0.2
5
1 7 e 2 +
b 16 6 + 24
6
13 6 17 8
c + f 0.2 + +
21 15 8 9
24
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
3 1
2 A woman bought 3kg of rice for 57 Birr, 2kg of wheat for 45 Birr and 10kg of
4 4
1
Teff for 580 Birr. How much money did she spend in buying all the listed items?
2
1
3 Part of a 100m2 farming land is covered by lemon and orange plants. If of the
1 4
land is covered by orange, of it is covered by lemon and the rest not covered by
5
plants, then
a how much of the farm land is covered by lemon and orange?
b how much of the farm land is not covered by any plant?
a c e
4 For any three rational numbers , and , justify whether each of the following
are true or not. b d f
a c e a c e
=
d f
i b d f b
e a c e a e c
ii + =
+ +
+
+
f b d f b f d
a c e a c e
+
= +
iii b d f b
d f
1.6.2 Multiplication and Division of Rational Numbers
Activity 1.11
1 Compute each of the following products.
1 5 2 5
×
a 2 4 b 3
×
6
2 Compute each of the following divisions.
1 5 2 5
÷
a 2
÷
4 b 3 6
Multiplication and division of rational numbers are defined in the same way as
multiplications and divisions of fractions.
Definition 1.8
a c
For any two rational numbers and , where b ¹ 0, d ¹ 0;
b d
a c a c a c a×c ac
× = = .
i the product of and , denoted × , is defined by: b d b×d bd
b d b d
25
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
a c a c
ii the quotient of and , (for c ¹ 0), denoted by b ÷ d , is defined by:
b d
a c a d a×d ad
÷ = × = = .
b d b c b×c bc
Example 1.24
Compute each of the following openations.
23 1 23 −33
a − 15 × 62 c − ×
15 62
34 17 28
÷
b 5 6 d −2 ÷ 37
Solution
a − 23 × 1 =
(−23) × 31 −23
=
15 62 15 × 62 930
34 17 34 6 34 × 6 204
b � ÷ = × = =
5 6 5 17 5 × 17 85
23 −3 (−23) × (−3) 69
c �− × = =
15 62 15 × 62 930
d −2 ÷
28 −2 37 (−2) × 37 −74
= × = =
37 1 28 1 × 28 28
Properties of Multiplication on Rational Numbers:
Activity 1.12
Compute each of the following and compare your results.
1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1
a ´ and ´ c and
3 5 5 3 3 5 2 3 5 3 2
1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1
b and d and
5 3 2 5 3 2 5 2 3 5 3 2 3
From your responses in Activity 1.14, observe that the two results in each case are equal.
a c e
Let , and , where b0, d ¹ 0 and f ¹ 0, be rational numbers. Then
b d f
a c c a
i × = × (multiplication of rational numbers is commutative)
b d d b
26
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
a c e a c e
× ×
= × ×
ii b d f b d f (multiplication of rational numbers is associative)
a c e a c a e
iii iii. × + = × + × (multiplication is distributive over addition
b
d f
b d b f in the set of rational numbers)
a c e a e c e
iv + × = × + × (multiplication is distributive over
b d f b f d f
addition in the set of rational numbers)
a a a
v ×1= =1× (1 is the multiplicative identity in the set of real numbers)
b b b
Note
a a b ab ab b
If is a rational number with a ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0, × = = = 1 . Thus
b b a ba ab a
1
a a
is called the multiplicative inverse of and denoted by
1
b b
a
That is, b .
b
a
Example 1.25
Find the multiplicative inverse of each of the following numbers.
3 b
7 c 0.25
a
5 6
Solution
3 1 5
a c 1 4
and 0.25 = = 4
1
5 3 0.25
4 1
7 1 6
b =
6 7
Exercise 1.9
1 Compute each of the following.
4 12 13 177 14 15
4 ÷ 24 4 12 2 1 12 7 14 7.5 4 5 2 1
a ×
5
÷c) × dd)×
4 8
× ×÷ 3 e) 4 ×
e)×4 f )×42÷gc) × g)h)1 2
5 7 9 63 5 37 3 33 8 9 163 2 3 3
4 12 13 13 17717 14 41515 2 1 1 1 2 27 5 5
× b c) ÷ ×
÷ e) 4 ×
24
×d) d) ÷ ÷e24 f)2f4)
4 ÷ ÷g) × h)1
h3h)1
.5 .5
÷ ÷
5 7 5 5 4 84 9 36 6 3 3 3 3 3 316 2 2
4 12 13 17 7 14 154 2 11 2 7 5
× ÷ cc) × d) × ÷ 24 e) 4 f ×f )42 ÷ g) h)1 3÷
× .5
5 7 5 4 8 9 63 3 33 3 16 2
28 4
2 If the product of two numbers is - and one of the number is - , then find the
other number. 27 9
27
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
3 Compute each of the following
7 13 17 2 1 3 5
a 16
+
5
×
20 b ×
c 1.5 ÷
2
× 0.2 0.3 + 0.7
3 2 2
4 Find the multiplicative inverse of each of the following numbers.
9 25 c 1.35 d −21.3
a b
11 29
5 Five students divided 1.45 meters long sugarcane into five equal parts. How many
meters of sugarcane does each student get?
6 A photograph measuring 8cm by 4cm is enlarged by a ratio of 11:4. What are the
dimensions of the new photo?
1.7 Applications of Rational Numbers in Calculating Interest
and Loans
There are different real life situations involving the set of rational numbers. Some of these
situations are related to shares, interests, loans, etc. In this section, you will learn some
applications of rational numbers, simple interest and compund interest.
1.7.1 Simple Interest
Amount of money that a person or a company borrows from a bank or a financial
institution to his/her needs is called a loan. Some examples of loan are home loans, car
loans, education loans, personal loans etc. A loan is required to be returned by the person
or the company that borrows it to the financial institution on time with an extra amount,
which is called the interest of the loan.
The interest could be simple interest; it is an amount that will be paid based on a certain
rate only on the principal amount borrowed from the given institution. In simple interest,
the principal amount is always the same.
Interest could also be paid for individuals for saving money in banks or financal institutions.
Activity 1.13
Suppose your father saves 1000 Birr every month with a rate of 7% per year in a certain
microfinance. If the interest is calculated only for the principal amount;
a what will be the total interest in one year?
b what will be the total amount at the end of two years?
28
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
From your responses in Activity 1.13, observe that, to determine the amount of interest
for a given principal amount, you have to multiply the given principal amount with the
interest rate and with the given amount of time.
Definition 1.9
If a principal amount P is invested with a simple interest rate R in T years, then the total
interest I after T years is given by:
I = PRT
The total amount A after T years is the principal plus the interest and it is given by:
A=I+P
Example 1.26
A textile factory takes a loan of 100,000 Birr from microfinance for a period of 2 years
with a simple interest rate of 10% per year. Find the total interest and the total amount the
factory has to pay at the end of the two years.
Solution
The principal amount is P = 100,000 Birr, the Interest Rate is R = 10% and the
number of years is T = 2 Years.
The amount of interest that has to be paid in 2 years is given by
I = PRT = 100, 000Birr × 10% per Year × 2 Years
=100, 000 × 0.1 × 2
= 20, 000 Birr
The total amount that the factory las to play to the microfinance at the end of two
years will be
A=P+I
= 100, 000 Birr + 20, 000 Birr
=120, 000 Birr.
Example 1.27
A farmer paid a total amount of 9100 Birr to the amount 7000 Birr which he borrowed
from a certain microfinance with a simple interest for 2 years. Find the rate of interest.
Solution
Given A = 9100 Birr, P = 7000 Birr and T = 2 years.
You are required to find I and R
29
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
I = A – P = 9100 Birr 7000 Birr
= 2100 Birr
And, I = PRT implies
I 2100 Birr
R= = × 100%
PT 7000 Birr × 2
2100
= × 100% = 15%
14000
Therefore, the rate of the simple interest was 15%.
Exercise 1.10
1 Find the principal which earns Birr 115.38 in 8 years at a rate 4% simple interest
per year.
2 Find the time in which Birr 1680 will earn simple interest of Birr 290 at a rate of
5% per year.
3 Find the rate per year at which Birr 380 earns simple interest of birr 128.25 in 7
years and 6 months.
4 A private limited company borrows Birr 800,000 for 2 years at a simple interest rate
of 12%. What is the total amount that must be repaid at the end of two years?
1.7.2 Compound Interest
Activity 1.14
Suppose your mother saved 3000 Birr in a bank with interest rate 7% per year.
a Calculate the simple interest after 2 years.
b If the interest is calculated for both saved amount and interest added on each year,
calculate the interest after 2 years.
From your responses in Activity 1.14, Question (b), observe that, interest is paid for the
principal amount and interest earned during the previous period; the interest paid in such
cases is called compound interest.
Definition 1.10
If P amount is invested at a rate of r% compounded annually, the compound interest at the
end of the nth year is computed by
r nt
A P 1
n
where A is the total amount, p is principal, r is interest rate, t is time and n is number of
times interest is compounded per unit time.
30
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
Example 1.28
Find the amount when Birr 2000 is invested for 3 years with an interest of 6% compounded
annually.
Solution
Since it is a compound interest, we must find the interest at the end of each year and
add it to the principal before computing the interest for the next years.
1st year interest I = PRT = 2000 × 0.06 = 120 Birr
The Amount at the end of the 1st year is 2000 Birr + 120 Birr= 2120 Birr
2nd year Interest I = PRT = 2120 Birr × 0.06 =127.20 Birr
The Amount at the end of the 2nd year is 2247.20 Birr
3rd year interest I = PRT = 2447.20 Birr × 0.06 =134.80 Birr
Therefore, the Amount at the end of the 3rd year is 2382 Birr
Using the formula for compound interest, this can be calculated as:
nt
æ rö
A = P çç1 + ÷÷÷
çè nø
1×3
6
= 2000 Birr
1 +
100 × 1
= 2000 Birr 1 + 0.06
3
= 2000 Birr 1.06 » 2382Birr
3
Example 1.29
Find the amount at the end of 5th year if 2000 Birr is borrowed at 5% interest compounded
annually.
Solution
Given P = 2000 Birr, r = 5%, t = 5 years, n = 1
Required A = ?
nt 5
r 5
A = P
1 +
= 2000 Birr
1 +
n 100
= 2000 Birr 1 + 0.05
5
31
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
=2000 Birr 1.05 =2552.56 Birr
5
Therefore, the amount at the end of 5th year is 2552.56 Birr.
Exercise 1.11
1 Find the amount of 50,000 Birr at a rate of 12% compounded annually at the end
of 3 years.
2 A company increases its capital by 10% each year. If it starts with 100,000 Birr
capital, how much Birr will the company have at the beginning of the fourth year?
3 A small scale enterprise borrows 100,000 Birr to start business. The enterprise
borrows the money at 15% interest and repays it in full after three years. How much
interest will the enterprise pay?
4 W/ro Emebet saved 1000 Birr in Commercial bank of Ethiopia at 7% interest rate
compounded annually. How much money will she get at the end of 5 years?
32
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
Unit Summary
1 Terminating and repeating decimals are rational numbers.
2 Negative rational numbers are located to left of zero on the number line, whereas
positive rational numbers are located to right of zero on the number line.
3 is closed under the operations "+", " " & "×" , but not "÷" .
4 is closed under the operations "+", " " & "×" , but not "÷" .
5 The set of nonzero rational numbers is closed under the operations "+", " " ,
"×" & "÷" .
6 x = x for all rational numbers. x Î
a c e
7 For any rational numbers , , ,
b d f
a c ad + cb a c ac
a b
+
d
=
bd c b
×
d
=
bd
a c ad cb a c a d ad
=
b b d bd d b
÷
d
=
b
×
c
=
bc
8 The sum of two opposite rational numbers is 0
a c e
9 For any rational numbers , , Î when b, d , f ¹ 0 , we have
b d f
a c c a
a + = +
b d d b
a c c a
b b
×
d
=
d
×
b
a c e a c a e
c ×
+ =
× +
×
b d f b d b f
a c e a c e
d b + d + f = b + d + f
a c e a c e
e ×
× = × ×
b d f b
d f
33
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
10 Rules of signs for Addition:
Let a and b are rational numbers, then
a a+b> 0 if either both are positive or one of the summands is greater than
opposite of the other
b a + b < 0. if either both are negative or one of the summands is less than
opposite of the other.
11 Rules of signs of multiplication:
Let a and b are rational numbers, then
a If a > 0 and b > 0 ,then ab > 0 c If a > 0 and b < 0 , then ab < 0
b If a 0 and b 0 , then ab < 0 d If a < 0 and b < 0 , then ab > 0
12 Rules of signs of division:
Let a and b b ¹ 0 are rational numbers, then
a
a If a > 0 and b > 0, then >0
b
a
b If a > 0 and b < 0, then b < 0
a
c If a < 0 and b > 0, then < 0
b
a
d If a < 0 and b < 0 then >0
b
a c
13 For any two rational numbers and
b d
a c
= if ad = bc
b d
14 The simple interest I = PRT is computed for only saved or deposited amount,
R nT
whereas the compound interest A=P is computed for both saved or
1+
n
deposited amount and interest added, where P is principal, R is interest rate, T
is time and n is number of times the interest is compounded per unit time.
34
Unit 1፡Rational numbers
Review Exercises
1 Convert each of the following decimals to fraction form.
aa) 56. 42358
a) 56. 42358
b) 6.73 c)1.3256 cc)1.3256
b) 6.73 d) (
2 ( 2 + 0.2
d)
+ 0.2
3 3
2 2
a) 56. 42358
a) 56. 42358 bb) 6.73 b) 6.73
c)1.3256 c)1.3256 d)d ( + 0.2
d) ( + 0.2
3 3
2 Locate each of the following rational numbers on the number line.
7
a c 1.2
3
2 d 1.6
b -
5
3 Arrange the following sets of rational numbers in ascending order.
2 27 5 1
aa) , , , 0,
3 9 3 2
3 23 23 17
bb)1.25, , 1.25 , ,
2 30 5 6
c 6.0, 0.6, 0.66, 0.606, −0.06, −6.6, 6.606
4 Insert at least three rational numbers between the of the following pairs of
rational numbers.
5 7 56 75 64 53 4 3
aa) and a)b) and
and c)
b) and
and c c) and
13 8 13
11 87 11
7 75 7 5
5 7 6 5 4 3
a) and b b) 11 and 7 c) and
13 8 7 5
5 Evaluate each of the following operations.
5 8
dd) +
4
0 – 5 – 4 – 812 5
aa) 4 5 36÷4c) 3 1 + 7b)1
9
4 5 36÷4
bb)10 – 5 – 4 – 8 2 e 1.4 + 0.5
1 7 1 5
c c) 3 + d) +
5 8 4 9
35
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
1 1 1 2 3 6
6 Find the simplified form of 2 + 3 × ÷
4
+ ÷
4 12
5
7 In a Physics text book, 35% of the pages are colored. If there are 98 colored
pages, how many pages are there in the whole text book?
2a 3 7
8 If 5 and are equal rational numbers, then what is the value of a ?
8
9 Suppose you want to borrow 5,000 Birr at 15% interest per year from Abay Bank
for 6 months. How much interest would you pay to the bank? How much is the
total money you pay to the bank at the end of 6 months?
10 W/ro. Abeba borrowed 6000Birr from a certain Micro-finance at the rate of 15%
compounded annually. How much will she pay at the end of the fourth year?
36
Unit 2
SQUARES, SQUARE
ROOTS, CUBES AND
CUBE ROOTS
Learning outcomes:
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
ª understand the notion of square, square root, cube and cube root.
ª determine the square and cube of rational numbers.
ª determine the square roots and cube root of rational numbers.
ª approximate square/cube roots of rational numbers by using table values
and scientific calculators.
ª apply the concept of squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots in the
real-life problems.
Key terms
square cube
perfect square perfect cube
square roots cube root
approximate value closest whole number
table value scientific calculator
radical sign base
decimal place exponent
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Introduction
In your previous grades you have been working with numbers. When working on numbers
you have seen how to multiply a number by itself, which is squaring the number; finding
a number whose square is a certain given number, finding a square root. You have also
learned also how to multiply a number by itself three times, which is called cubing the
number and finding a number whose cube is a certain given number.
In this unit you will learn squaring a number, finding square root of a number, cubing a
number and finding cube root of a given number.
Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots of numbers are commonly used in banking,
physics and geometry.
2.1 Squares and Square Roots
2.1.1 Square of a Rational Number
Activity 2.1
A farmer has planted avocado trees in a square pattern as shown in Figure 2.1 below.
Figure 2.1.
If there are 20 rows and 20 avocado trees in each row, find the total number of
avocado trees that the farmer has planted.
In Activity 2.1, to determine the total number of avocado trees that the farmer has planted,
you have to multiply the number of rows, which is 20, with the number of avocado trees
in each row, which is again 20. In the process, you have to multiply 20 by 20, multiplying
20 by itself. This process is called squaring a number.
38
Unit 2: Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
Definition 2.1
The process of multiplying a number by itself is called squaring the number. The
product of a number y and itself is called the square of the number, denoted by
y´y=y2 and read as “y squared” or “y to the power of 2”.
In the expression below, for two rational numbers a and r if is the square of a is r, then
is called the base (the number to be multiplied with itself) and 2 is called an exponent
(number of times that the number appears in the product).
Base
Exponent
r = a ´ a = a2
Standard Factor Power
numeric form form form
Example 2.1
Show that each of the following numbers is a square number: 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25.
Solution
02 = 0 × 0 =0 12 = 1 × 1=1, 22 = 2 × 2 = 4
32 = 3 × 3= 9 42 = 4 × 4 = 16 52= 5 × 5 = 25
This implies, 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 are square numbers.
Activity 2.2
Complete the following table.
y 1 3 4 5 6 7 9 12 13 16 20
y+y 2 6 8 10 12
y ´y 1 9 16 25 36
Explain the differences between y + y and y × y .
39
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
From your responses in Activity 2.2, observe that for each of the given numbers y + y and
y × y are different. When a number is multiplied by itself we get another number which
is the product of two equal numbers, for example 3 × 3=32=9. On the other hand when
a number is added onto itself, we get another number which is the sum of two equal
numbers, for example, 3 + 3=2 × 3=6.
Note
In general, for a number y, y + y =2y and y × y = y2 are different
Definition 2.2
A whole number y is called a perfect square or a square number if it is the square of
a certain whole number x, that is y and x are whole numbers and y =x2
Example 2.2
Show that the whole numbers 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, 169
are perfect squares and the whole numbers 12, 23 and 232 are not perfect squares.
Solution
02 = 0 × 0 =0, 12 = 1 × 1=1, 22 = 2 × 2 = 4 32 =3 × 3= 9,
42 = 4 × 4 = 16, 52=5 × 5=25, 62 = 6 × 6 = 36, 72 = 7 × 7= 49,
82 = 8 × 8=64 92 = 9 × 9 = 81, 102 =10 × 10 = 100, 112=11 × 11= 121,
12 =12 × 12 =144 13 = 13 × 13 = 169.
2 2
This implies the numbers 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144, 169 are perfect
squares.
i. 32 = 9, 42=16 and 9 < 10 < 16 implies there is no whole number whose square is 12.
ii. 42=16, 52 =25 and 16 < 23 < 25 implies there is no whole number whose square is 23.
iii. 152=225, 162 =256 and 225 < 232 < 256 implies there is no whole number whose
square is 232.
Therefore, the whole numbers 12, 23 and 232 are not perfect squares.
Use of Prime Factorization to Determine Perfect Squares
Activity 2.3
1 Find the prime factorization of each of the following numbers.
a 36 c 400
b 194 d 1000
2 Which of the numbers in Question 1 above can be written as a product of two
identical sets of prime factors?
40
Unit 2: Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
In your responses in Activity 2.3, observe that 36 can be written as a product of two
identical sets of prime factors and 400 also can be written as a product of two identical
sets of prime factors. The numbers 36 and 400 are both perfect squares.
You can use prime factorization of a given whole number to determine whether the given
whole number is a perfect square or not. The following steps can be used for this purpose.
Step 1: First find the prime factorization of the number;
Step 2: if possible, arrange the factors so that the number is a product of two identical
sets of prime factors;
Step 3: if Step 2 is possible, then the given number is a perfect square and if Step 2 is not
possible, then the number is not a perfect square.
Example 2.3
Use prime factorization to determine if the following numbers are perfect squares.
a 144
b 1250
c 62500
Solution
a 144 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 = (2 × 2 × 3) × (2 × 2 × 3) =12 × 12 =144. Since
the factors can be arranged so that 144 is a product of two identical set of
prime factors, (2 × 2 × 3) × (2 × 2 × 3), we conclude that 144 is a perfect
square.
b 1250 = 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 2. Since the factors cannot be arranged as a product
of two identical set of prime factors, 1250 is not a perfect square. 1250 is not
a perfect square
62500 = 5 × 5×5×2 × 5× 5×5×2 = 250×250 = 250 . Since the
2
c
factors can be arranged as a product of two identical set of prime factor,
62500 = 5 × 5×5×2 × 5× 5×5×2 the 250 is a perfect square.
2
number=62500
= 250×250
Note
1 If a given whole number is a square number, then its unit’s digit is either 0,1,4,5,6
or 9.
2 No square whole number ends with an odd number of zeros, for example 10, 1000,
and 100000 are not square numbers.
41
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
The Square of a Rational Number in Fraction Form
a
In Unit 1, you have learned that, rational numbers can be written in the form , where a
a b
and b are integers and b ¹ 0. Therefore, squaring the rational number is:
b
a 2 a a a×a a 2
= × = = 2 .
b
b b b×b b
Example 2.4
Find the square of each of the following rational numbers.
1 6 10 20
a b - c d
3 5 11 19
Solution
1 2 12 1 10 2 102 100
a = 2 = c
= 2=
3 3 9 11 11 121
6 2 -6 36
2
20 2 202 400
b - = = d = 2 =
19 19 361
5 52 25
The Square of a Rational Number in Decimal Form
If a rational number is written in decimal form you can find the square of the number by
multiplying the number by itself.
Example 2.5
Find
3.24 23.7
2 2
a b
Solution
a 3.24 b 23.7
× 3.24 × 23.7
1296 1659
648 711
972 474
10.4976 561.69
Therefore, 3.24 =10.4976 and 23.7 =561.69 .
2 2
42
Unit 2: Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
Exercise 2.1
1 Find the square of each of the following numbers.
a 17 c 0.9
b -8 1
d
6
2 Express the following numbers in power form and identify the base and exponent.
a 36 c 0.49
b 64 1
d
100
3 Which of the following numbers are perfect squares?
a 0.09 e 0.25 i 0.3
b 0.9 f -4 j 0.04
c 0.81 g 2
d 8 h 81
4 Find two whole numbers whose squares have a sum of 45.
5 List all square numbers less than 100.
6 Show that the difference between the 7th square whole number and the 4th square
whole number is a multiple of 3.
7 Show that the difference between any two consecutive square natural numbers is an
odd natural number.
Use of Table of Squares
In the previous discussion, you have seen that the square of a rational number is a
nonnegative rational number and you can determine the square of a rational number by
applying the usual procedure of multiplication.
Applying the usual procedure of multiplication to find the square of a rational number is
sometimes tedious and time consuming. For this reason, tables of squares of numbers are
prepared. In such Tables of squares find the page with the formula y = x2. The first column
is headed by “x”, which lists the numbers from 1.0 to 9.9 and the first row contains
numbers from 0 to 9.
Now if you want to determine the square of a number from the Tables of squares, the
procedures are illustrated with the following example.
43
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 2.6
Find 3.85 from the Table of squares.
2
Solution
Step 1: In the first column which starts with x find the row which starts with 3.8;
Step 2: In the first row, which starts with x, find the column which starts with 5;
Step 3: Read the number in the intersection of the row which starts with 3.8 and the
column which starts with 5, that is 14.82, hence 3.85 14.82 .
2
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9
1.0
.
.
.
3.8 14.82
.
.
.
9.9
Figure 2.2. Table of Squares
Note
1 The steps 1 to 3 can be shortened by “3.8 under 5;
2 The values you get from table of squares are mostly approximates.
3 In the Table of squares, only the squares of numbers from 1.00 to 9.99 are given.
As you have learned in Unit 1, a rational number can be written as a number between
1 and 10 and powers of 10, for example 2345 = 2.345 × 1000. To find the square of a
number that is not in this range by using Table of squares first write the number as product
of a number between 1 and 10 and a power of 10.
44
Unit 2: Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
Example 2.7
Complete each of the following using Table of squares.
32.4 567
2 2
a b
Solution
a 32.4 =3.24 ´10 and from the Table of squares 3.24 » 10.50 .
2
Therefore, 32.4 = 3.24 ×102 » 10.50×100=1050.
2 2
567 = 5.67 ×100 and from Table of squares, 5.67 » 32.149 .
2 2 2
b 2
Therefore, 567 = 5.67 ×100 » 32.149×10000=321490 .
2 2 2
Use of Scientific Calculators
You can use scientific calculators to find squares of numbers. Consider
a scientific calculator as shown in Figure 2.3.
Steps on how to use a scientific calculator to determine square of a
given number:
Step 1: Write the number on a scientific calculator, by pressing the
digits on the calculator;
Step 2: Press the square sign x2 on the calculator; Figure 2.3. Scientific Calculator
Step 3: Round the result to the desired decimal places to approximate the given
square number whenever necessary.
Example 2.8
Approximate each the following numbers to two decimal places using scientific
calculators.
2 2
a 3.15 c 3.132
2 2
b
3
Solution
Using your scientific calculator, first press the digits of the given number and then
the square sign (x2) gives the required result and finally approximate the given
number to the nearest two decimal places.
3.15
2
a =9.9225 » 9.92
2 2
b First, change to decimal form: =0.666….
3 3
Then 0.666… =0.444…» 0.44
2
c 3.132
2
=9.809424 » 9.81
45
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Exercise 2.2
1 Find each of the following numbers using Table of squares.
a (8.54)2 c (0.151)2
b (35.42)2
2 Approximate each of the following numbers using a scientific calculator.
a (3.58)2 c (9230)2
b (14.68)2
2.1.2 Square Root of a Rational Number
Activity 2.4
1 A woman wants her square bedroom to have a room area of 36 square meters. Find
the length of each side of the bedroom.
2 Find a number whose square is:
4
a 1 c 36 e
9
b 9 d 0.01 f 64
In your responses in Activity 2.4, you need to find a number whose square is the given
number. Finding the number whose square is given is known as finding the square root
of the number.
Definition 2.3
Let y ³0 and x ³0 be rational numbers. If y is the square of the number x, that
is, y=x2, then x is called the square root of y. This can be written symbolically as
x= y .
In the notation, the symbol Ö is called the radical sign, y is called radical.
Example 2.9
a 0 = 0 , because 02 = 0,
b 9=3 , because 32 = 9
c 0.36 = 0.6 , because (0.6)2 = 0.36.
d 49=7 , because 72 = 49
46
Unit 2: Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
Square Roots of Perfect Squares
You can use prime factorization to find the square roots of perfect square of natural
numbers.
Step 1: Write the given number as a product of two identical products of prime
factors;
Step 2: one of the two identical products of prime factors is the square root of the
given number.
Example 2.10
Use prime factorization to determine each of the following numbers.
a 169 b 400 c 625
Solution
a The prime factorization of 169 is 169=13´13 and the two identical prime
factors are 13 and 13. Therefore, 169=13.
b The prime factorization of 400 is 400=24 ×52 = 22 ×5 × 22 ×5 and the two
identical products of prime factors are 22´5 and 22´5. Therefore,
400=22 ×5=20.
c The prime factorization of 625 is 625=52´52 and the two identical products
of prime factors are 5´5 and 5´5. Therefore, 625=5×5=25.
Exercise 2.3
1 Complete the following table.
a2 4 9 16 25 36 49 0.04 0.09 0.16
a 2
2 Which the following numbers are perfect squares?
a 100 e 8
b 144 f 3
1 g 6
c
16 16
9
d h 0.9
25
3 List the square of all prime numbers less than 30.
47
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
4 Compute the following square roots.
a 1 9
d
b 49 16
e 0.64
c 9
5 Find the square roots of each of the following numbers.
a 100 d 10000
b 900 e 729
c 121 f 841
6 A checkerboard is a large square that is made up of 32 small white squares and 32
small black squares. How many small squares are along one side of the checkerboard?
7 121 grade eight students need to be seated in square form for sport festival ceremony.
How many students should be in each row?
2.2 Approximation of Square Roots of Rational Number
In the previous discussion, we have seen how to determine square roots of perfect squares.
But most of practical problems involve numbers that are not perfect squares. In such
cases, we approximate square roots of numbers. There are different ways to approximate
square roots. The most common ones are using Table of squares and scientific calculator.
Use of Scientific Calculators to Approximate Square Roots
You can use scientific calculators to find square roots of numbers. Consider a scientific
calculator as shown in Figure 2.4.
Steps on how to use a scientific calculator to determine square root of a given number:
Step 1: Write the number on a scientific calculator;
Step 2: Press the square root sign Ö on the calculator;
Step 3: Round the result to the desired decimal places to
approximate the given square root.
Figure 2.4. Scientific Calculator
48
Unit 2: Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
Example 2.11
Approximate each of the following to two decimal points using scientific calculators.
a 2.6 b 28 c 62
Solution
Press the number first and then the square root sign on the scientific calculator,
which gives you the result. Next, by rounding to two decimal places, we obtain:
a 2.6=1.612451…. » 1.61
b 28=5.291502…» 5.29
c 62=7.874007…» 7.87
Exercise 2.4
1 Approximate the following squares to three decimal places using scientific
calculators.
4.25 4.3
2 2
a c
5 2
b
3
2 Approximate the following square roots to three decimal places using scientific
calculators.
a 3.65 b 17 c 8.32
3 If the area of a square is 98 sq. units, then approximate the length of the side of the
square to the nearest two decimal places. Compare your approximate values by
using a scientific calculator.
Use of Table of squares to Approximate Square Roots
In the previous section, you have seen how to find the square of a number from the Table
of squares. Now let us see how to do the reverse process, that is, extracting a square root
from a Table of squares and it is illustrated by using the following example.
Example 2.12
Find 22.94 from the Table of squares.
Solution
Step 1: From the body of the Table of squares, find 22.94.
49
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Step 2: On the row containing the number 22.940, move horizontally to the left
and read the number in the first column, which is 4.7, in this case.
Step 3: In the column containing 22.94 move vertically up ward and read the
number in the first row, that is 9, in this case.
Step 4: Therefore, 22.94 » 4.79
x 0 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9
1.0
.
.
.
4.7 22.940
.
.
.
9.9
Figure 2.5. Table of squares
Example 2.13
Using the Table of squares, approximate square root 14.516 .
Solution
Step 1: Find the number 14.516 on the body of the square table.
Step 2: On the row containing 14.516, move horizontally to the left and read the
number on first column, which reads 3.8, in this case;
Step 3: On the column contacting 14.516 move vertically upward to first row and
read the number, which reads 1 in this case;
Finally, the approximate value of 14.516 is 3.81
Figure 2.6. Table of squares
50
Unit 2: Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
Note
Sometimes you may not get the number that you want to find its square root in the
given Table of squares. In such cases, take the square root of the number which is
nearest to the given number.
Example 2.14
Find 56.90 from the Table of squares.
Solution
The number 56.90 is not on the Table of squares, but it is between 56.85 and 57.00.
The nearest of the two numbers to 56.90 is 56.85 and 56.85 » 7.54 and hence
56.90 » 7.54 .
Note
Table of squares are used to find the square roots of numbers whose square roots
are from 1.00 to 9.99. The method to find the square root of numbers whose square
roots are greater than 10.0 is illustrated below by using the following example.
Example 2.15
Find 2841 .
Solution
First express 2841 as 2841=28.41 ´ 100.
Then 2841= 28.41×100= 28.41× 100= 28.41×10, as 100 =10.
Then from the Table of squares, 28.41 » 5.33 .
Therefore, 2841 » 5.33×10=53.30.
Note:
Note that values obtained from Table of squares are approximates.
Exercise 2.5
1 Approximate the following squares using Table of squares.
2.32 9.2 7.01 0.32
2 2 2
a b c d
2
51
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
2 Approximate the following square roots using Table of squares.
a 3.27 b 6 c 30.030 d 78.5
3 Write true or false for each of the following.
a 0.9 > (0.3) 2 c 0.01 < 0.1
b 0.04 > 0.4 d 0.04 > 0.4
4 Find each square root.
a 9 d 0.361
b 2.25 e 121
225
c 441
1 1 , 3,
5 Arrange the following numbers in an increasing order: , 0.01 , 7 , 10 .
2 2
6 List all whole numbers whose squares are between 1 and 100.
7 If 69 tiles are arranged in a maximum square, how many tiles are left over?
8 Explain why −16 has no square root.
9 Using prime factorization find the square roots of the following products.
a 16 ´6 b 25 ´49 ´9 c 12 ´35 ´63
10 Find the square roots of the following numbers using the numerical table.
a 234 c 0.099
b 12321 d 4.356
11 Determine the lengths of sides of a square whose area is 4.63cm2. (You may use
Table of squares)
2.3 Cubes and Cube Roots
In the previous section, you have learned squaring a number and determining a number
whose square is a given number, extracting a square root. In this section, you will learn
how to multiply a number with itself three times, which is called cubing a number and
also finding a number whose cube is given, extracting a cube root.
2.3.1 Cube of Rational Number
Activity 2.5
1 Find the volume of a cube of edge 4 cm.
52
Unit 2: Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
2 How many cubes of edge 1 cm will make a cube of the following edge?
a 6 cm b 7cm
3 Complete the following table.
y −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
y×y×y −27
In your responses in Activity 2.5, observe that, you can multiply a number with itself
three times and obtain another number and the process is called cubing the cumber. The
number obtained is called the cube of the given number.
Definition 2.4
The process of multiplying a number by itself three times is called cubing the
number. The product of y by itself three times is called the cube of y, denoted by
y3=y ´ y ´ y and read as “y cubed” or “y to the power of 3”.
The cube of a number is the value of the number to the power of 3. That is, if number r is
the cube of number p, then we write this relation as:
Base
Exponent
r = p ´ p ´ p = p3
Standard Factor Power
numeric form form form
Example 2.16
Evaluate the following cubes of numbers.
a 73 b 93 c 103
Solution
By definition of a cube of a number, we have
a 73 =7×7×7=7 2 ×7=49×7=343 .
b 93 =9×9×9=92 ×9=81×9=729 .
c 103 =10×10×10=102 ×10=100×10=1000 .
53
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Definition 2.5
A rational number y is said to be a perfect cube if y=x3, for some rational number x.
Example 2.17
Show that each of the following numbers are perfect cubes.
8
a 64 c
27
b 125
d 0.001
Solution
3
8 2
a 64=4 3
c =
27 3
b 125=53 d 0.001=(0.1)3
8
Therefore, 64,125, and 0.001 are all perfect cubes.
27
Example 2.18
Show that 9 is not a perfect cube.
Solution
9 = 3 × 3 and there is no whole number which is multiplied with itself three times
and gives you 9.
Therefore, 9 is not a perfect cube.
Note
You can use prime factorization to determine whether a given whole number is a
perfect cube or not.
In the prime factorization of any number, if each factor appears three times, then the
number is a perfect cube, otherwise the number is not a perfect cube.
Example 2.19
Which of the following numbers are perfect cubes?
a 729 b 500 c 8000
Solution
a 729 = 3×3×3×3× 3×3 , that is, factors can be grouped in triples.
Therefore, 729 is a perfect cube and 729= 3×3 =93.
3
54
Unit 2: Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
b 500 = (2 × 2) × (5 × 5 × 5). There are three 5’s in the product, but only two
2’s. Therefore, 500 is not a perfect cube.
c 8000 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2 × 2) × (5 × 5 × 5). There are two three 2’s and
one three 5’s in the product. Therefore, 8000 is a perfect cube and
8000= 2×2×5 =203
3
Exercise 2.6
1 Find the cube of each of the following numbers.
1 4 7
a b 0.3 c - d
2 5 3
2 Which of the following numbers are perfect cubes? Justify your answer.
a 343 d 9000 g 2025
b 400 e 15625 h 512000
c 3375 f 6859
3 Which of the following numbers in decimal form are perfect cubes? Justify your
answer.
a 0.09 c 0.81 e 0.125
b 0.9 d 0.001
2.3.2 Cube Roots of Rational Numbers
In the previous discussion, you have seen how to find the cube of a number. In this part,
you will see the reverse process of cubing a number, which is, finding a number whose
cube is a given number.
Activity 2.6
1 If the volume of a cube is 125 cm3, then find the length of its edge.
2 For each of the following numbers, find a number whose cube is the given number.
a 0 c 27 e 1000
b 1 d 64
In your responses in Activity 2.6, you have been finding a number whose cube is a given
number. It is reversing of cubing a number. The reverse process of finding the cube of a
number is called extracting a cube root.
55
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Definition 2.6
If y is the cube of a number x, that is y = x3, then x is called the cube root of y. This
can be written symbolically as x = 3 yx== 3 x3
In the symbol 3 y , 3 is called the index, is the radical sign and y is the radicand.
Example 2.20
Evaluate the following cube roots.
a 3
-512 c 3
0.001
1
b 3
27
Solution
a Since -512 is a perfect cube as it can be expressed as -8 =(-8)×(-8)×(-8)=-512
3
then the cube root of -512 is -8. That is 3 -512=-8
1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
b = × × = . Then the cube root of is , i.e 3 = .
3 3 3 3 27 27 3 27 3
0.1
3
c =0.1×0.1×0.1=0.001 . Thus the cube root of 0.001 is 0.1, i.e 3 0.001=0.1.
Exercise 2.7
1 Evaluate the following cube roots.
a 3
0.125 c 3
27, 000
1
b 3
-1 d 3
64
2 If 3 n =5 , then find the possible value(s) of n.
3 When is the number r=2 ´ 2 ´ 2 ´ 2 ´ 2 ´... ´ 2 a perfect cube? What can you
say about number of 2's?
4 Students in a class were asked to write “the cube root of sixty-four squared” in
2
64
2
radical form. One student wrote 3
64 and another student wrote 3
.
a Simplify each expression.
b Who is correct? What can you say about the two expressions?
5 If the volume of a cubic box is 729 cubic units, then find the length of the edge of the
box.
56
Unit 2: Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
2.3.3 Approximations of Cubes and Cube Roots
As in the case of square and square roots, you can approximate cube and cube roots of
numbers using scientific calculators and Tables of cubes. The methods are illustrated in
the following examples.
Example 2.21
Approximate the cube of 2.16 by using
a a scientific calculator
b a Tables of cubes
Solution
a Type 2.16 on your scientific calculator and then press the sign x3 . Then it will
give you 10.077696 and rounding this number to three decimal point gives
you 10.078.
Therefore, 2.16 » 10.078.
3
b Consider a Table Cubes as in Figure 2.6;
Step 1: Find the row which starts with 2.1 under the column headed by x;
Step 2: move to the right until you get the column headed by 6 on the column
of the table, as in Figure 2.7;
Step 3: Read the number at the intersection of the row in Step 1 and the
column in Step 2, which is 10.078.
Therefore, 2.16 » 10.078 .
3
Figure 2.7. Table of Cubes
57
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 2.22
Approximate 3 19.683 by using
a a scientific calculator
b a Tables of cubes
Solution
a Type 19.683 on your scientific calculator
and then press the sign 3 x and it gives
you 2.7.
Therefore, 3 19.683 » 2.70.
b Consider a Table of Cubes, as in Figure
2.8:
Step 1: Find the number 19.683 in the
body of the Table of cubes;
Step 2: From the number move
horizontally to the left on the row
containing the number and read the
number in the first column headed by x,
the number is 2.1 in this case;
Step 3: From the number move vertically
upward and read the number in the first
row, which is 0, in this case. Figure 2.1. Table of Cubes
Therefore, 3 19.683 » 2.70
Exercise 2.8
1 Find the cube of the following numbers by using scientific calculators.
a 6.09 b 4.87 c 9.85 d 4.40
2 Find the cube of the following numbers by using Table of Cubes.
a 1.34 b 6 c 9.90 d 9.99
3 Find the cube root of the following numbers by using scientific calculators.
a 6.09 b 19.46 c 40.35 d 502.46
4 Find the cube roots of the following numbers by using Table of Cubes.
a 7.07 b 37.93 c 170.03 d 868.25
58
Unit 2: Squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
Unit Summary
1 The square and cube of a natural number is also a natural number.
2 The square of an integer is also a whole number.
3 The square and cube of a rational number is also rational number.
4 A number with units digit in 2, 3, 7 and 8 is not a square number.
5 A number ending in an odd number of zeros is not square number.
6 The product of any number by itself gives a square number.
7 The process of finding squares of numbers and square roots are inverse process.
That is, b=a2 is equivalent to b = a, b ³ 0 and a > 0.
8 The process of finding cubes of numbers and cube roots are inverse process. That
is, b=a3 is equivalent to 3 b = a .
Review Exercises
1 Give an example of
a A perfect square which is between 7 and 10.
b A perfect square between 0 and 1.
c A perfect cube between 0 and 1.
d Two distinct perfect square numbers whose sum is not a perfect square.
e Two distinct perfect square numbers whose sum is also perfect square.
2 Find the square and cube of each of the following numbers using table value.
a 8.45 c 8.99
b 2.03 d 0.76
3 Give an example to show that the sum of two perfect squares need not be a perfect
square.
4 Show that the sum of the first 10 odd whole numbers 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + 19 is a perfect
square.
59
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
5 Find the square roots and cube roots of the following numbers using Table of
squares and Table of cubes.
a 11.24 c 413.5
b 94.82 d 909.9
6 Compute and compare the values of the following pairs of numbers.
a 4 × 25 and 4×25
b 3
8 × 3 64 and 3
8 64
7 Are both 5 and -5 cube roots of 3 125 ? Why?
8 What is the value of - 3 125 ? What about 3 -125 ?
9 Arrange the following rational numbers from smallest to largest.
a 15 , 3 17 , 2, 103 , 3
124
b 3
29 , 5, 19 , 3
108 , 105
212 , 101 , 101
3
c 27 , 6, 3
d 12 , 4.5 , 41 , 6.4, 55 , 7
10 Given the following pattern of square numbers.
12 =1=1
22 =4=1+3
32 =9=1+3+5
42 =16=1+3+5+7
..
.
What can you conclude about 1 + 3 + 5 +... + (2n - 1) for a natural number n?
60
Unit 3
LINEAR EQUATIONS
AND INEQUALITIES
Learning outcomes:
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
ª solve linear equations;
ª solve linear inequalities;
ª draw the graphs of linear equations;
ª draw the graphs of linear inequalities;
ª apply the concepts of linear equations and inequalities to solve real life
problems.
Key terms
linear equations equivalent inequalities
linear inequalities properties of equality
solution of linear equations properties of inequality
solutions of linear inequalities graph of equations
equivalent equations graphs of inequalities
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Introduction
Linear equations and linear inequalities in one variable are commonly used in our daily
activities. For example, supposeyour mother buys 100 Kg of teff by 4000 Birr and you
want to determine the price of 1kg of teff. Let the price of 1kg of teff be t and you will
have an equation 100 × t = 4000 . When you solve for t, you will have the price of 1kg of
teff. The expression 100 × t = 4000 is an example of a linear equation.
Suppose you have 2000 Birr and you want to buy reference books with a price of 120 Birr
each, Let b be the number of books that you can buy with 2000 Birr. Then to determine
the maximum number of books that you can buy with 2000 Birr, you need to solve the
inequality 120 × b £ 2000 and this is an example of a linear inequality.
In this unit, you will learn how to solve linear equations and linear inequalities, You will
also learn how to draw linear equations and linear inequalities in the Cartesian Coordinate
Plane and some applications of linear equations and line inequalities in real-life.
3.1 Solving Linear Equations
Activity 3.1
1 If the sum of three consecutive integers is 18, then find the numbers.
2 A man’s age is 5 times the age of his daughter and the sum of the ages of the man
and his daughter is 48. Find the ages of both the man and his daughter.
In your responses in Activity 3.1, observe that, in the process of the solutions, linear
equations are involved.
Definition 3.1
Any expression that can be reduced to the form ax = b, where a and b are numbers
and a ≠ 0, is called a linear equation in one variable, x
Example 3.1
Which one of the following are linear equations in one variable?
a 3x = 2 c 5x – 3 = 7 – 2x e x +2=5
b 2x + 5 = 12 1 x y =1
d 3 = 0 f
x
Solution
a 3 x = 2 is a linear equation in one variable x.
b 2x + 5 = 12 implies 2x + 5 − 5 = 12 −5.
Thus, 2x =7, a linear equation in one variable x.
Therefore, 2x + 5 = 12 is a linear equation in one variable x.
62
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
c 5x – 3 = 7 – 2x implies 5x – 3 = 7 – 2x Þ7x=10 is a linear equation in one variable x
So, 5x – 3 = 7 – 2x is a linear equation in one variable
1 1
d 3 = 0 is not a linear equation, since it involves .
x x
e x + 2 = 5 is not a linear equation, because it involves x.
f x y = 1 is not a linear equation in one variable, since it involves two
variables x and y.
Solutions of Linear Equations
Given a linear equation ax = b :
i a number c such that a ´ c = b is called a solution to the given equation;
ii the set of all numbers that are solutions of the given linear equation is called
the solution set of the equation;
iii solving a linear equation means, finding all the numbers that satisfy the given
equation.
Example 3.2
Which of the following numbers is a solution to the linear equation 3x =12?
a 1 b 2 c 3 d 4
Solution
a 3 x 1 = 12 c 3 x 3 = 12
4 = 12 (False) 9 = 12 (False)
So, 1 is not a solution So, 3 is not a solution
b 3 x 2 = 12 d 3 x 4 = 12
6 = 12 (False) 12 = 12
Therefore, 2 is not a solution Therefore, 4 is a solution
In solving linear equations, the following rules of addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division of numbers are important and used very frequently.
Rules of Equalities
Let a, b and c be rational numbers.
Rule I(Addition Rule): Adding the same number on both sides of an equation does
not change the solution of the equation. That is, if a = b , then a + c = b + c .
Rule II (Subtraction Rule): Subtracting the same number from both sides of
an equation does not change the solution of the equation. That is, if a = b, then
a c =b c.
63
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Rule III (Multiplication Rule): Multiplying both sides of an equation by the same
nonzero number does not change the solution of the equation. That is, if a = b, then
a ´ c=b ´ c.
Rule IV (Division Rule): Dividing both sides of an equation by the same nonzero
number does not change the solution of the equation. That is, if a = b and c ¹ 0, then
a b
= .
c c
Commutative properties of both addition and multiplication, associative properties of
addition and multiplication and distributive properies of multiplication over additionare
frequently used in solving linear equations.
Let a, b and c be rational numbers. Then
i a + b = b + a (Commutative property of addition)
ii ab = ba (Commutative property of multiplication)
iii a +b+ c = a + b+ c (Associative property of addition)
iv ab c a bc (Associative property of multiplication)
v a b+ c = ab+ ac (Distributive of multiplication over addition)
vi a +b c = ac +bc (Distributive of multiplication over addition)
vii a b c = ab ac (Distributive of multiplication over subtraction)
viii a b c = ac bc (Distributive of multiplication over subtraction)
Example 3.3
Solve each of the following linear equations.
a 2x = 10 c 4 x 1 + 3 x + 2 = 5 x 4
b 3x − 5 = 4 1 1 1
d x + 1 x 3 + x = 10
3 6 4
Solution
a 2x=10
2 x 10
= (divided both sides by 2)
2 2
x=5
Check: 2(5) = 10
10 = 10
So, x = 5 is the solution of the given equation
64
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
b 3x − 5 = 4
3x − 5 + 5 = 4 + 5 (add 5 on both sides)
3x = 9
3x 9
= (divided both sides by 3)
3 3
x=3
Check: 3(3) − 5 = 4
9−5=4
4 = 4 True
Thus, x = 3 is the solution of the given equation
c 4 x 1 + 3 x + 2 = 5 x 4
4 x 4 + 3 x + 6 = 5 x 20 (Distributive property)
7 x + 2 = 5 x 20 (Commutative property and adding like terms)
7 x + 2 2 = 5 x 20 2
7x = 5x − 22
7x − 5x = 5x − 5x − 22 (Subtracting 2 from both sides)
2 x = 22
2x 22
= (Dividing both sides by 2 )
2 2
x = 11
Check: 4 11 1 + 3 11 + 2 = 5 11 4 .
4 12 + 3 9 = 5 15
48 27 = 75
75 = 75 (True)
Therefore, x = 11 is the solution of the given equation.
1 1 1
d x + 1 x 3 + x = 10
3 6 4
12 12 12
x + 1 x 3 + x = 10 × 12 (Multiply both sides by 12)
3 6 4
65
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
4 x + 1 2 x 3 + 3 x = 120
4 x + 4 2 x + 6 + 3 x = 120 (Distributive property)
5 x = 110 (Collecting like terms)
5 x 110
= (Dividing both sides by 5)
5 5
Hence, x = 22
1 1 1
Check: 22 + 1 22 3 + 22 = 10
3 6 4
23 19 22
+ = 10
3 6 4
4 23 2 19 + 3 22
= 10
12
92 38 + 66
= 10
12
120
= 10
12
10 = 10 (True)
Therefore, x = 22 is the solution of the given equation.
Solving Word Problems using Linear Equations
To solve a word problem involving linear equations, first the problem has to be experessed
as a mathematical equation and then solve the mathematical equation.
The following are steps recommended to solve word problems.
Step 1: Read the word problem carefully and identify the unknowns whose values are
needed in the answer of the question.
Step 2: Represent each of the unknowns by letters (variables).
Step 3: Using the information given in the word problem, express the verbal statements
by appropriate mathematical expressions or equations in terms of the corresponding
variables.
If more than one variable are involved, look for additional information that can help you
to form additional equations that represent the relation between the variables. Using
these equations and appropriate substitutions, form equation that contains only one
variable.
Step 4: Solve the equation.
66
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
Example 3.4
If the sum of two consecutive even integers is 206, then find the numbers.
Solution
The unknowns in this questions are two consecutive even integers.
Let one of the integers be x. Then the next even integer is x + 2.
x + x + 2 = 206 (the equation representing the given information)
2 x = 204 (adding like terms)
2x 204
= (divided both sides by 2)
2 2
x = 102 is the first number.
The second number is x + 2 = 102 + 2 = 104 . Therefore the two consecutive even
integers whos sum is 206 are 102 and 104.
Example 3.5
If the sum of three consecutive natural numbers is increased by 2, the result is 50.
Find the numbers.
Solution
The unknowns in this problem are three consecutive natural numbers.
Let us represent the numbers by variables. Let
x = the first (smallest) of the three numbers;
y = The second (next to x) number; and
z = The third (largest) number (next to y).
Then, expression ‘the sum of the three numbers’ is expressed mathematicaly as x + y
+ z; and ‘this sum is increased by 2’ is expressed mathematically as: (x + y + z ) + 2.
Then the given statement is x + y + z + 2 = 50.
This equation contains three variables and change the equation into an equation
with only one variable.
The numbers are consecutive, that is: y = x + 1 and z = y + 1 = x + 1 + 1 = x + 2.
Now substitute these in the equation x + y + z + 2 = 50.
That is, x + x + 1 + x + 2 + 2 = 50 .
3 x + 5 = 50 (adding like variables)
3 x + 5 5 = 50 5 (subtracting 5 from both sides)
3 x = 45
67
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
3x 45
= (dividing both sides by 3)
3 3
x = 15 .
Then solving the three variables: x = 15, y = x + 1 = 15 + 1 = 16 and
z = y + 1 = 16 + 1 =17 .
Therefore, the required three consecutive numbers are 15, 16 and 17.
Equivalent Equations
Activity 3.2
Solve each of the following pairs of equations
a 2x − 5 = 11 and 3x = 24
b x + 4 = 5 and 3 − x = −2
From your response in Activity 3.2, observe that the pair of equation in (a) have
the same solution. Such equations are called equivalent equation
Definition 3.2
Two linear equations are said to be equivalent equations, if they have the same
solution set.
Example 3.6
1
Show that the linear equations 3x + 4 = 10 and 2 3x 2 = 2 are equivalent.
Solution
First solve the two equations.
3 x + 4 = 10 1
3x 2 = 2
2
3 x + 4 4 = 10 4 1
2 × 3 x 2 = 2 × 2
2
3x = 6 3x 2 = 4
3x 2 + 2 = 4 + 2
1 6
3x = 3x = 6
3 2
1 6
3x =
x=2 3 2
x=2
Therefore, x = 2 is the solution.
Therefore, x = 2 is the solution.
The two equations have the same solution, x = 2 and hence they are equivalent equations.
68
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
Example 3.7
Determine whether the following equations are equivalent to 3x + 15 = 0 or not.
a 2x + 3 = 7 c 3 x + 1 = 14
b 2 x 1 = 18
Solution
First find the solution set of the given equation.
3x + 15 − 15 = 0 − 15 (subtracting 15 from both sides of the given equation)
3x = −15
3x 15
= (dividing both sides of the given equation by 3)
3 3
Therefore, x = 5 is the solution of the given equation.
Now, find the solutions of the equations in (a), (b) and (c) and compare each
solution with x = 5 .
a 2x + 3 = 7 b 2 x 1 = 18 c 3 x + 1 = 14
2 x + 3 3 = 7 3 2 x 2 = 18 3 x + 1 1 = 14 1
2 x = 10 2 x 2 + 2 = 18 + 2 3 x = 15
2 x = 16 3x 15
2x 10 =
= 3 3
2 2
2x 16
= x = −5
x = −5 2 2
This implies, x = −5 is
This implies, x = −5 is x = −8
the solution of the given
the solution of the given
equation. So, x = −8 is the equation.
solution of the
given equation
Thus, x = −5 is the solution for the equations in (a) and (c), which is the same as the
solution of the equation 3 x + 15 = 0 .
Thus, the equations in (a) and (c) are equivalent to the given equation 3 x + 15 = 0 .
The equation in (b) is not equivalent to the equation 3 x + 15 = 0, because their
solutions are not the same.
69
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Remark:
1 An equation may be satisfied by every rational number and then the solution set of
the given equation is the set of all rational numbers .
2 There are some equations which cannot be satisfied by any rational number. The
solution set of such equations is empty set, written as {} or ∅.
Example 3.8
Solve the equation 2x + 3 x 5 + 4 = 5x 11.
Solution
2x + 3 x 5 + 4 = 5x 11 (The given equation)
2 x + 3 x 15 + 4 = 5 x 11 (by distributive property of multiplication over subtraction)
5 x 11 = 5 x 11 (Combining like terms)
11 = 11 (Subtracting x from both sides)
The last statement is always true whatever the value of x you take.
Thus, the solution set is the set of all numbers in the specified value of x, set of all
rational numbers in this case.
Example 3.9
Solve the equation 3+x = x.
Solution
3+x = x
3+x - x = x - x (Subtracting x from both sides of the equation)
3 = 0 (which is false)
This implies, there is no rational number that satisfies the given equation.
Hence, the solution set of the given equation is empty set ({} or ∅).
Exercise 3.1
1 Solve each of the following linear equations.
a 3 + 2 2x + 1 = 11 3 1 4
x = x+
5
e 7 4 7 4
b 5 x + 3 2 2x + 5 = 5 2 2
0.45 x = x 0.5
f 13 3
c x + 2 3 x 2 = 4 2x 1
5 2 1 5
x + = x
d 6 5 6 3
70
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
2 If the sum of two consecutive odd integers is 300, then find the numbers.
3 The perimeter of a rectangular garden is 144m. If the length of the garden is 14m
more than its width, then find the dimensions of the rectangle.
4 Suppose the current temperature is 54°F and it is expected to rise 0.2°F in every
hour for the next several hours. In how many hours will the temperature be 78°F?
5 Hana’s father is 4 times as old as Hana and Hana’s mother is 7 years younger than
her father. If their three ages are add up to 101 years, how old is Hana?
1
6 Which of the following equations are equivalent to the equation
2
3x 2 = 5?
a 3 x 2 = 10 b 2x + 1 = 7 c 3 x 12 = 0 d x 8 = 0
7 What is the solution set of equation 3 2x 1 + 2 3x + 4 = 11 in the set of
rational numbers?
8 Find the solution set of the equation 2 3x 5 = 3 2x + 4 in the set of rational
numbers.
3.2 Solving Linear Inequalities
In the previous section, you have learnt how to solve linear equations. In this section, you
will learn how to solve linear inequalities and applications of linear inequalities in solving
real-life problems.
Activity 3.3
A farmer wants to fence his farm land with fencing materials of length as shown in
Figure 3.1.
a Find the value of x for which the fencing material is exactly 370m.
b Find two possible values of x for which the fencing material is less than 370m.
c Find two possible values of x for which the fencing material is greater than
370m.
d Express the above statements mathematically and discuss their differences.
What make (b) and (c) differ from (a)?
Figure 3.1
71
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
From your responses in Activity 3.3, observe that the perimeter of the fence is the sum of
the lengths of the four sides of the figure and the sum of the lengths of the four sides may
be less than or greater than the fencing material that the former has.
Definition 3.3
Let a and b are numbers such that a ≠ 0. An inequality in one variable, say x, that
can be reduced to any one of the form ax + b < 0 or ax + b ≤ 0 or ax + b > 0 or
ax + b ≥ 0 is called a linear inequality.
Example 3.10
Which of the following are linear inequalities in one variable?
a 2 x < 10 d 2 x + 23 = 11 3 4
x £ 0
g 4 7
2
b 3x + 6 > 8 e x = 13
5
h 2.5 x 19 = 0
c 12 x + 9 ³ 4 2
f 3
x 23 = 32
Solution
The expressions in a, b, c and g are linear inequalities and the expressions in d, e, f
and h are not linear inequalities, but they are linear equations.
Definition 3.4
The solution set for an inequality is the set of all numbers that satisfy the inequality,
that is, the set of all the numbers that make the statement of the inequality true.
Notation
Given a rational number c:
1 {x: x < c} or {x | x < c} read as “ the set of x in the set of rational numbers such
that x is less than c. This notation represents the set (collection) of all rational
numbers each of which is less than c.
2 x : x £ c or {x |x £ c} read as “ the set of x in the set of rational numbers such
that x is less than or equal to c. This notation represents the set (collection) of all
rational numbers each of which is less than or equal to c
3 {x : x > c} or {x |x > c} read as “ the set of x in the set of rational numbers such
that x is greater than c. This notation represents the set (collection) of all rational
numbers each of which is greater than c.
4 x : x c
or {x |x c} read as “ the set of x in the set of rational numbers such
that x is greater than or equal to c. This notation represents the set (collection) of
all rational numbers each of which is greater than or equal to c.
72
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
The following Rules of inequality are very important to solve linear inequalities.
Rules of inequalities
Let a, b and c be rational numbers.
Rule 1: If the same number is added or subtracted from both sides of an inequality, then
the direction of the inequality sign is unchanged. That is
If a < b, then a + c < b + c , and
If a < b, then a c < b c
Rule 2: If both sides of an inequality are multiplied or divided by the same positive
number, then the direction of the inequality sign is unchanged. That is
If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc , and
a b
If a < b and c > 0, then <
c c
Rule 3: If both sides of an inequality are multiplied or divided by the same negative
number, then the direction of the inequality sign is reversed. That is
If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc , and
a b
If a < b and c < 0, then >
c c
The above rules hold true if "<" is replaced by ">" or " £ " or " ³ ”.
Example 3.11
1 5
Simplify the inequality 2x + 3 £ x to one of the forms x ≤ a or x ≥ a
2 4
Solution
1 5
2x + 3 £ x
2 4
2 2x + 3 £ 5x (Multiply both sides by 4)
4 x + 6 £ 5x (Distributive property of multiplication over addition)
x + 6 £ 0 (Subtract 5x from each side)
-x £ 6 (Subtract 6 from each side)
x ³ 6 (Divide both sides by −1)
73
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Exercise 3.2
1 Write a mathematical equation or inequality for each of the following statements
and identify the statements that represent linear inequalities.
a A number exceeds its double.
b The sum of two numbers is at least 10.
c The sum of a number and its successor is even.
d The difference of two integers is non-negative.
e A student scored above average in mathematics examination.
2 Simplify the following inequalities in one of the forms x > a or x < a or x £ a
or x ³ a
a 2 x 13 > 43 c 4 x + 41 < 1
2 7 9 11
b x x £ 0 d x ³
9 6 2 5
Definition 3.5
The set of all the value(s) of the variable in a specified set of numbers that satisfy
the given inequality is called solution set or truth set of the inequality.
For rational numbers a and b, consider the linear inequality ax + b >0.
There are two cases to consider to solve the given linear inequality.
Case 1: If a > 0, then you can solve the inequality ax + b > 0 as follows.
ax + b > 0 (Given inequality)
ax + b b > 0 b (Subtract b from both sides )
ax > b
a b
x> (Divide both sides by a )
a a
b
x>
a
Therefore, the solution set of the inequality ax + b > 0 , when a > 0 is all rational
b b
numbers greater than . This set is given by x Î x
a a
74
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
Case 2: If a < 0, then you can solve the inequality ax + b > 0 as follows
ax + b > 0
ax + b b > 0 b (subtract b from both sides)
ax > b
ax b (divide both sides by a negative rational number a and the inequality
<
a a sign is reversed)
b
x<
a
Therefore, the solution set of the inequality ax + b > 0, when a < 0 is the set all rational
b
numbers less than . This can also be expressed as: x Î | x < b .
a a
Note
The above rules hold true for "<" , " £ " and " ³ ” also.
1 The solution set of the inequality ax + b ³ 0 is:
b
i x Î | x ³ if a > 0 ;
a
b
ii x Î | x £ if a < 0 ;
a
2 The solution set of the inequality ax + b < 0 is:
b
i x Î | x < a > 0;
a if
b
ii x Î x if a < 0 ;
a
3 The solution set of the inequality ax + b £ 0 is:
b
i x Î | x £ if a > 0 ;
a
b
ii x Î | x ³ if a < 0 ;
a
75
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 3.12
Solve each of the following linear inequalities.
a 2 x < 10 1
c 4x 6 <
2
28 2x
b 7 x + 15 £ 4 x 9 1 5
d 2x + 3 £ x
2 4
Solution
a 2 x < 10 (the given inequality)
2 x 10
< (dividing both sides by 2)
2 2
x<5
Therefore, the solution set of the given inequality is x Î | x < 5 .
b 7 x + 15 £ 4 x – 9 (the given inequality)
7 x + 15 + 9 £ 4 x 9 + 9 (add 9 on both sides)
7 x + 24 4 x £ 4 x – 4 x (subtract 4x on both sides)
3 x + 24 £ 0
3 x £ 24 (subtracting 24 from both sides)
3x 24
£
3 3 (divide both sides by 3)
x £ 8
Therefore, the solution set of the given inequality is x Î | x £ 8
1
c 4x 6 <
2
28 2x (the given inequality)
4 x 6 < 14 x (by distributive property of multiplication over addition)
4 x < 14 x + 6 (add 6 on both sides)
4 x + x < 14 + 6 (add x from both sides)
3 x < 20
3 x 20
> (divide both sides by-3 reverse the sign of the inequality).
3 3
20
x>
3
20
Therefore, the solution set of the given inequality is x Î x .
3
76
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
1 5
d 2x + 3 £ x (the given inequality)
2 4
2 2x + 3 £ 5x (multiply both sides by 4 )
4 x + 6 £ 5x (by distributive property of multiplication over addition)
x + 6 £ 0 (by subtracting 5x from both sides)
x £ 6 (by subtracting 6 from both sides)
x ³ 6 (multiplying both sides by -1 reverse the inequality sign)
Therefore, the solution set of the given inequality is x Î | x ³ 6 .
Example 3.13
In Figure 3.2, find all possible values of x
for which the perimeter of the polygon is not
greater than 62km.
Solution
Let P be the perimeter of the polygon
ABCDE . Then its perimeter is given by:
P = AB + BC + CD + DE + EA Figure 3.2
P = 23 – x + 2x + 7 + x + 11 + x + 2x + 1
P = 23 – x + 2 x + 7 + x + 11 + x + 2 x + 1
P = 42 + 5 x
But the perimeter of the polygon is not greater than 62km.
That is P £ 62 km
42 + 5 x £ 62
42 – 42 + 5 x £ 62 42 (subtracting 42 from both sides)
5 x £ 20
5x 20
£
5 5
x £ 4
Therefore, the value of x that makes the perimeter is not grater than 62km is greater
0 and less than or equal to 4. That is x Î : 0 < x £ 4 . Note that 0 is not solution.
77
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 3.14
A farmer wants to plant more than 400 seedlings of mango, avocado and lemon in
the coming summer. For this purpose, he prepared 176 Mango and 142 Avocado
seedlings. Find the number of lemon seedlings that the farmer has to plant to achieve
his goal.
Solution
Let x be the number of lemon seedlings that the farmer has to plant. Since the total
numbers of seedlings that the farmer wants to plant is more than 400, you have
176 + 142 + x > 400
318 + x > 400 (Adding like terms)
318 318 + x > 400 318 (Subtracting 318 from both sides)
x > 82
Therefore, the farmer has to prepare more than 82 lemon seedlings to achieve his
plan.
Exercise 3.3
1 Simplify each the following inequalities into one of the forms x > a , x < a ,
x £ a or x ³ a .
a 2 x 13 > 43 c 2 7
x x £ 0
9 6
b 4 x + 41 < 1 9 11
d x ³
2 5
2 Solve each of the following linear inequalities.
x 1 1
a +5 £ x+4 d x + 7 > x 2
4 4 3
b 8 x 5 ³ 13 x 1 1
e 9+ x ³ 4 x
3 2
c 2 x + 3 < 3 x + 1 1
f
2
2x + 3 > 0
3 A grade eight student has studied hard to score an average mark of over 96 in three
subjects Mathematics, English and Physics. She scored 93 in Mathematics and 97
in Physics. How many marks should she score in English to achieve her goal?
78
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
Equivalent Inequalities
Activity 3.4
Solve and compare the solutions of each of the following pairs of linear inequalities.
a 2 x 10 £ 0 and x £ 5 b 4 x 6 ³ 0 and 8 x ³ 12
From your responses in Activity 3.4, observe that the first pair of linear inequalities have
the same solutions. Such linear inequatities are called equivalent inequalities.
Definition 3.6
Two linear inequalities are said to be equivalent if they have the same solution set.
Example 3.15
Which of the following pairs of linear inequalities are equivalent?
a x + 15 £ 9 and x + 3 £ 21 b 3 x 11 > 7 and 2 x 2 > 6
Solution
a First let us solve both linear inequalities.
x + 15 £ 9 x + 3 £ 21
x £ 9 15 x £ 21 3
x £ 24 x £ 24
The solution set of both inequalities is x Î : x £ 24 . That is the linear
inequalities x + 12 −9 and x + 3 −21 have the same solution set. Hence the two
inequalities are equivalent.
b First let us solve both linear inequalities.
3 x 11 > 7 2x 2 > 6
3 x > 7 + 11 2x > 6 + 2
3 x 18 2x > 4
<
3 3
x < 6 x > 2
Thus, the solution of the inequality 3 x 11 > 7 is x Î : x < 6 and the
solution of the inequality 2 x 2 > 6 is x Î : x > 2 .
This implies, the two inequalities do not have the same solution set.
Therefore, 3 x 11 > 7 and 2 x 2 > 6 are not equivalent inequalities
79
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 3.16
Give at least three linear inequalities that are equivalent to the linear inequality:
4(2x − 3) > 3(2x + 4) −12
Solution
a 8x − 1 2 > 6x is equivalent to 4(2x − 3) > 3(2x + 4) −12. The linear inequality
8x − 12 > 6x is obtained by applying distributive property of multiplication
over addition and then simplification.
b 2x > 12 is equivalent to 4(2x − 3) > 3(2x + 4) −12, because 2x > 12 is obtained
by adding 12 and then subtracting 6x from both sides of the inequality
8x − 12 > 6x.
c x > 6 is equivalent to 4(2x − 3) > 3(2x + 4) −12, because x > 6 is obtained by
dividing both sides of 2x > 12 by 2.
Therefore, the inequalities 8x − 12 > 6x, 2x > 12 and x > 6 are all equivalent to the
inequality 4(2x − 3) > 3(2x + 4) − 12.
Exercise 3.4
1 Identify whether the following pairs of linear inequalities are equivalent or not.
a 2x − 13 > 43 and x > 28 9 11 76
c x ≥ and x ≤
2 5 10
2 7 3
b x x ≤ 0 and x ≤ d − 4 x + 41 < 1 and > x10
9 6 2
2 Give at least three linear inequalities which are equivalent to linear inequality
1 5
2 x x ≤ x .
4 6
3 A man planned to walk an average of 50 kilometers in a week for four consecutive
weeks. He walked 56 kilometers in the first week, 52 kilometers in the second week
and 38 kilometers in the third week.
a Formulate a mathematical expression for problem.
b How many kilometers should he walk on the fourth week to meet his plan?
c How many kilometers should he walk in the fourth week to walk more than
his plan?
80
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
Domain of a Variable
Activity 3.5
From the following set of numbers 2, 4, 3, , 5 , 8, , 0.5 , 0, 1. 6, , 3.5
4 3 11
1
5 2 3
a find the natural numbers that are less than 6;
b find the integers that are between −6 and 6
2 Given the inequality x < 6,
a find all the natural numbers that satisfy the given linear inequality;
b find some rational numbers that satisfy the given linear inequality.
From your responses in Activity 3.5, observe that, the solution set of a given inequality
may vary based on the given set in which you can choose your solutions.
Definition 3.7
The set of numbers from which the values of the variable must be chosen so that the
given inequality is meaningful is called the domain of the variable.
Example 3.17
Find the solution set of 7x 3 4 2x > 0 in the following domains.
a b c
Solution
First solve the inequality.
7x 3 4 2x > 0
7 x + 6 x 12 > 0 (by distributive property of multiplication over addition)
x 12 > 0 (by adding like terms)
x > 12 (by adding 12 on both sides)
x < 12 (by multiplying both sides by -1 and the inequality sign is reversed)
a Since there are no whole numbers less than −12, the inequality
7x 3 4 2x > 0 has no solution in the set of whole numbers.
b The integers that are less than -12 are … , 16, 15, 14, 13 . Therefore, the
solution set of the given inequality in the set of integers is: , 16, 15, 14, 13
c The solution set of the inequality in the domain is: x Î :x
< 12
81
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 3.18
3
Find the solution set of 2 x + 3 £ x 4 + 5x in the set of positive rational
4
numbers.
Solution
3
2 x + 3 £ x 4 + 5x
4
3
2x + 6 £ x 3 + 5x
4
3
3 x + 9 £ x
4
12 x + 36 £ 3 x
15 x + 36 £ 0
-15 x £ 36
12
x ³
5 3
12
Therefore, the solution set of 2 x + 3 £ x 4 + 5x in is x Î x ³
4
5
where is the set of positive rational numbers.
Exercise 3.5
1 Solve the following linear inequalities in the given domain.
a 5 x + 6 £ 3 x + 20, x Î
5
b x < 8 x 6 , x Î +
3
c 2 12 2x < 3x 24, x Î +
3 1 17
d y+ > , xÎ
4 6 10
5 3
e 4 x > x 8 , x Î
6 2
f 3 2x 3 > x 4 4x, x Î
2 If five times a whole number increased by 3 is less than 33, then find all possible
values of the number.
3 If the perimeter of a square field is less than 160 m, then find the possible dimensions
of the field.
82
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
3.3 Graph of Linear Equations and Linear Inequalities
3.3.1 Graph of Linear Equations
In the previous grades, you have learnt how to draw the graphs of linear equations in two
variables of the form y = mx and in this grade you will learn how to draw the graph of any
linear equation in two variables of the form y = mx + b.
Activity 3.6
Draw the graphs of each of the following linear equations.
a x=3 b y = −4
From your responses in Activity 3.6, observe that the graphs of equations of the form x =
a are vertical lines passing through the point (a, 0) and the graphs of equations of the form
y = b are horizontal lines passing through the point (0, b ).
The graphs of linear equations in two variables are straight lines. Straight lines can be
drawn by locating two points on the coordinate plane that satisfy the equation and drawing
a line through these points.
Definition 3.8
A linear equation in two variables x and y is an equation that can be reduced to the
form y = mx + b, where m and b are numbers.
Given a linear equation in two variables x and y: y = mx + b , where m ¹ 0 :
i m is called the slope of the line representing the given equation;
ii b is the y intercept of the line representing the given equation, that is, the line
intersects y-axis at 0, b and
b
iii is the x intercept of the line representing the given equation, that is, the
m b
line intersects x-axis at , 0 .
m
Example 3.19
Identify the slope, y - intercept and x - intercept of the lines represented by each of
the following linear equations.
a y 3x = 4 c 3y = 4
b 2 y = 3 x 10 d 2x = 5
83
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Solution
a To find the slope, y-intercept and x-intercept of the line with equation
y – 3 x = 4 , first rewrite the given equation as y = 3 x + 4 .
3
Then the slope of the line is 3, the y - intercept is 4 and x – intercept is 4
The solution for b, c and d are given the following table
Equation y = mx + b form slope y-intercept x-intercept
3 3 10
b 2y = 3x −10 y= x + (5) −5
2 2 3
4 4
c 3y = −4 y= 0 No
3 3
5
d 2x = 5 − undefined No
2
Note
Given a linear equation y = mx + b, all points in the coordinate plane satisfying the
given equation makes the line of the equation.
You can draw the line representing the given equation by plotting two points of
the line on the coordinate plane and drawing a line through the two points.
Example 3.20
Draw the graph of each of the following linear equations.
a y=x+2 b y = 2x + 1 c 2x + 3y = 2
Solution
First, construct table of values by choosing some values, say 0 and 1 determine
the corresponding values.
Next, plot the ordered pairs in the coordinate plane and then draw a line through
these points.
a y=x+2
y = x +2
x 0 1
y 2 3
(x, y) (0,2) (1,3)
Figure 3.3
84
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
b y=2x + 1
x 0 1
y 1 3
(x, y) (0,1) (1,3)
Figure 3.4
c 2x + 3y = 2
x 0 1
2
y 0
3
2
(x, y) (0, ) (1, 0)
3
Figure 3.5
Exercise 3.6
1 Draw the graph of each of the following linear equations on the coordinate plane.
a y = 3x − 4 d 2 y 0.25 x = 2
b y = 5 x 2 e - 3 y 6 y 12
1 3
c 2 y = x+3 f y 2 x = 12
2 2
x +1
2 Let the ratio of two numbers and y be 1:3. Then draw the graph of the
2
equation that shows the ratio of these two numbers.
85
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
3.3.2 Graph of Linear Inequalities
In the previous discussion, you have learnt how to draw the graph of linear equations of
the form y = mx + b . The graph of linear equations is a straight line.
In this part, you will learn how to draw the graphs of linear inequalities.
Activity 3.7
a Draw the line y = x + 2
b Find at least five points that satisfy the linear inequality y £ x + 2
c Locate these points obtained in (a) on the coordinate plane.
d Find the coordinates of at least five points that do not satisfy the inequality
e Locate the points obtained in (d) above on the coordinate plane.
f What do observe from c and e?
From your response in Activity 3.7, observe that the line y = x + 2 divided the coordinate
plan into two parts and the coordinates of the points on one side of the line are all solution
of the given inequality and the coordinates of the points on the other side of the line are
not solutions.
Steps to draw the graph of the linear inequality y ³ mx + b .
Step 1: Draw the graph of the equation y = mx + b , which will be a straight line
Step 2: The line divides the plane into two different regions. Choose a point on one
side of the line y = mx + b .
Step 3: If the coordinates of the chosen point satisfy the inequality y ³ mx + b , then
the region containg the point is the graph of the given inequality.
If the coordinates of the chosen point do not satisfy the inequality
y ³ mx + b, the region that does not contain the point is the graph of the
given inequality
Step 4: Shade the region which contain the solutions of the inequality y ³ mx + b .
The line y = mx + b is part of the shaded region and we draw the line with bold line as
the inequality includes the equal sign, otherwise we use broken line to indicate the line is
not part of the solution.
Similar steps can used to draw the graph of linear inequalities of the form: y £ mx + b,
y > mx + b and y < mx + b .
86
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
Note
For linear inequalities y > mx + b and y < mx + b, the line y = mx + b is not part
of the graph; to show this, the graph of the line is a broken line.
Example 3.21
Draw the graph of each of the following inequalities.
a y³2 c y £ 2x + 1
b x < 2
Solution
a Consider the inequality y ³ 2
Step 1: First draw the line y = 2. y³2
The line is a horizontal line through (0, 2) as in
Figure 3.6.
The line y = 2 divides the region into two different
regions
Step 2: Choose a point on one of the
opposite side of the line y = 2.
Take a point (0.3), which is above the
line and 3 ≥ 2 is true.
Figure 3.6
Then the region containing (0,3) is the
graph of the given linear inequality
Step 3: Shade the parts of plane that
contains (0,3).
b Consider the inequality x < −2 x < −2
Step 1: Draw the line x = − 2
The line x = −2 is a vertical line through the (−2,
0) and it divides the plane in two different region
as in Figure 3.7
Step 2: Choose a point on one of the opposite side
of the line x = −2
Let us take the point (−3, 0) to the left of the line
Figure 3.7
which satisfies x < −2
Step 3: Shade the half plane on the side of the point (− 3, 0).
The line x = −2 is not part of the solution and it is drawn using a broken line.
87
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
c y ≤ 2x + 1
Step 1: Draw line y = 2x + 1 using the points (0,1) and (1,3) as in Figure 3.9.
The line y = 2x + 1 is part of the solution and draw using solid line.
Step 2: Choose a point on either of the
opposite sides of the line y = 2 x + 1 .
Let us take a point 1, 2 to the left y ≤ 2x + 1
side of the line y = 2x + 1.
Thus, the region containing the
point (−2, 0) is not in the region that
represents the given inequality
Therefore, the region that does not
contain (-2, 0) is the graph of the
given inequality. Figure 3.8
Step 3: Shade the half plane on the
other side of the point (-2, 0).
Exercise 3.7
Draw the graph of each of the following linear inequalities.
a y≤x+3 d 3y − 6x ≤ 9
1
b y ≥ −2x + 2 e y< x+2
3
c 2y > 4x + 3 f
1 1
y> x+
1
6 3 2
88
Unit 3: Linear equations and inequalities
Unit Summary
1 An algebraic expression which involves any of the inequality signs <, >, ≤, ≥ or
≠ is called inequality.
2 Linear equations (or inequalities) may involve one or more variables.
Linear equations in one variable Linear inequalities in one variable
ax + b = 0 ax + b > 0, ax + b < 0
ax + b ³ 0, ax + b £ 0
Linear equations in two variables Linear inequalities in two variables
ax + by + c > 0, ax + by + c < 0
ax + by + c = 0
ax + by + c ³ 0, ax + by + c £ 0
3 Linear equation in one variable can have at most one solution, and linear inequality
in one variable may have one solution or no solution or infinitely many solutions in
the set of rational numbers.
4 Two linear inequalities with the same solution set are solid to be equivalent
inequalities.
5 Multiplying or dividing an inequality by negative numbers change the inequality sign.
Review Exercises
1 Solve each of the following linear equations.
a 4 2x 10 = 70 + 6x x7 x 9 5 x 4
d 12 = +
2 4 2
2x + 7 x 9 5
b = 1 3
3 2 2 e 0.78 x = x 0.5
25 5
c 2 6y18 102 = 78 18 y + 2
2 Solve each of the following inequalities.
a 14 y 6 £ 6 y e 6 8 y + 3 > 2y 5 + 13
b 4x + 2 < 6x + 8 w 1+w
f 2 £
4 3
c 8 6 x 3 > 4x + 12
g 0.703 < 0.122 x 2.472
7 4 11 7
d x+ ³ x h 3.88 1.335t ³ 5.66
6 3 6 6
89
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
3 Find the solution set of the following inequalities in the given domain.
1 2
a 4x 6x 4 , x ��
3 3
b 9 x 4 < 13 x 7, x Î
c 0.7 x + 3 < 0.4 x + 3 , x Î +
d 3 x + 2 2x 7 £ 5x 1 2 x + 6 , xÎ
e 6 8 y + 3 + 5y > 5y 2y 5 + 13, x Î
4 Draw the graph of each of the following linear equations and linear inequalities
a y=x 3 d y ³ 4x 6
b 3 y 9 x = 12 e 4 y 8 x < 12
y
c 6 y – 4x = 9 f >x 3
2
5 Find all the possible values of x for which the perimeter of a rectangular field with
length xand width x − 60 is at most 320 meters
6 A farmer planned to produce over 26,000 kg of maize, wheat and teff by the end
of the year. He already harvested 10,200 kg of maize and 7,100 kg of teff, but the
harvesting process of wheat is ongoing. How many kilograms of wheat should he
expect to achieve his yearly plan?
7 If the minimum driving speed limit and maximum driving limit of certain road are
60 kilometers per hour and 70 kilometers per hour, what is the total time a car can
take to drive 420 kilometers?
90
Unit 4
SIMILARITY OF
FIGURES
Learning outcomes:
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
ª understand the concept of similar figures and related terminologies;
ª identify the condition for which triangles are similar;
ª apply similarity theorems to check whether two given triangles are similar
or not;
ª apply the concept of similarity of triangles in solving real life problems.
Key terms
plane figures ratio of area of similar
figures
constant of proportionality
similar figures
corresponding angles
SAS-similarity theorem
corresponding sides
AA-similarity theorem
ratio of perimeter of similar
figures SSS-similarity theorem
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Introduction
If two plane figures have the same shape, we say that they are similar. The idea of
similarity focuses only on shape of the geometric figures and it is being used in our day
to day activities. In this unit, you will learn about similarity of plane figures and more
emphasis will be given on similarity of triangles.
4.1 Similar Plane Figures
Activity 4.1
1 Using the description below, identify which part have the same shape? Explain.
a A 3 cm × 4cm photo and a 30 cm × 40 cm size of the same photo.
b Two circles with different radius.
c Two squares with different side lengths.
d An object and its reflection through mirrors.
e A square and equilateral triangle with equal side length..
2 Give an example of pairs of plane figures which have:
a The same shape and the same size
b The same shape but different size
If two objects are similar, then they have exactly the same shape, but one of them is an
enlargement of the other or smaller than the other without affecting its shape. Scale drawing
shows an object exactly as it looks, but it is generally larger or smaller than the real object.
Scale drawing show us better understanding about similar figures. In geometry, most
of the time, we study similarity of plane figures like triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons,
circles and other plane figures.
Remark 4.1
1 The concept of similar figures does not consider color resemblance of the figures. It
depends only in shape and size relationship of the objects.
2 Similar geometric figures are figures which have exactly the same shape, but not
necessarily the same size.
92
Unit 4: Similarity of figures
In the figure below, square A’ B’ C’ D’ is the
image of square ABCD of side 2cm under
enlargement of scale factor 3, Then
A' B ' B 'C ' C ' D ' D ' A'
= = = =3
AB BC CD DA
A’B’ = B’C’ = C’D’ = D’ A’ = 6cm
This implies that A ' B ' C ' D ' is a square of side 6cm.
Note
Scale factor is the number or the conversion factor which is used to change the size of a
figure without changing its shape. It is used to increase or decrease the size of an object.
Scale factor can be calculated if the dimensions of the original figure and the dimension
of the changed (increased or decreased) figures are known. It is given as:
length of new figure
Scale factor =
length of original figure
Exercise 4.1
1 Suppose A’ and A” are plane figures obtained by enlarging and diminishing another
1
plane figure A by scale factor 2 and respectively,
2
a Are A’, A” and A the same in shape? Why?
b Are A’, A” and A equal in size? Why?
c What can you say about ratio of sides of these figures?
2 Which of the following geometric figures are similar in shape?
93
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
3 What is the length of the image of a 20cm long segment after enlargement with a
scale factor 2?
4 Which members of the following families of plane figure are similar in shape? Why?
a Squares e Equilateral triangles
b Rectangles f Isosceles triangles
c Parallelograms g Trapeziums
d Circles h Rhombus
4.1.1 Definition and Illustration of Similar Figures
Activity 4.2
Give at least two examples of plane figures whose:
a corresponding angles are congruent;
b corresponding sides are proportional;
c corresponding angles are congruent and corresponding sides are proportional.
From your responses in Activity 4.2, observe that two plane figures with corresponding
angles congruent and corresponding sides are proportional are similar.
Definition 4.1
Two polygons are said to be similar if the following three conditions are satisfied:
a the two polygons have the same number of sides;
b the corresponding angles of the two polygons are congruent and
c the corresponding pairs of sides of the two polygons are proportional, that
is, the ratios of the lengths of all pairs of the corresponding sides are equal
That is, the polygons A1 A 2 A n and B1 B2 Bn , with the same number of side
are similar, written as: A1 A 2 A n ~ B1 B2 Bn if
i ÐA1 A 2 A 3 @ ÐB1 B2 B3 , ÐA 2 A 3 A 4 @ ÐB2 B3 B4 , … , ÐAnA1A2
@ ÐB nB1B2 and
A1 A 2 A 2 A 3 A 3 A 4 A A B1
ii = = =… = n 1
B1 B2 B2 B3 B3 B4 Bn B1
A1 B2
A2
B3
A3 A4 B4
Figure 4.1
94
Unit 4: Similarity of figures
Example 4.1
Show that any two squares are similar.
Solution
Let ABCD and EFGH be two squares.
Then all the four angles of both squares are right angles and all the four sides of
each of the two squares have equal lengths. That is,
i ÐABC @ ÐEFG, ÐBCD @ ÐFGH, ÐCDA @ GHE and ÐDAB @ ÐHEF
(the corresponding angles of the two squares are congruent);
ii AB = BC = CD = DA = a and EF = FG = GH = HE = b ;
AB BC CD DA a
= = = =
EF FG GH HE b (the corresponding pairs of sides of the two
squares are proportional).
This implies, ABCD and EFGH are similar, that is, ABCD ~ EFGH.
Thus, any two squares are similar.
Example 4.2
Show that any two equilateral triangles are similar.
Solution
Let ∆ABC and ∆DEF be two equilateral triangles.
Each of all the three angles of each of the two triangles measure 600 and all the three
sides of each of the two triangles have equal lengths. That is,
i ÐABC @ ÐDEF, ÐBCA @ ÐFED and ÐCAB @ ÐFDE (the
corresponding angles of the two squares are congruent);
AB BC CA a
ii AB = BC = CA = a and DE = EF = FD = b ; = = = (the
DE EF FD b
corresponding pairs of sides of the two triangles are proportional).
This implies, ∆ABC and ∆DEF are similar, that is, ABC ~ DEF.
Thus, any two equilateral trinagles are similar.
95
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 4.3
Let ∆ABC and ∆DEF be two triangles such that AB= 8cm, BC=9cm and AC=
10cm and DE=4cm, EF=5cm and DF=6cm. Then determine whether the pairs of
the corresponding sides of ∆ABC and ∆DEF are proportional or not.
Solution
AB 8 AC 10 5 BC 9
From the given information, = = 2, = = and =
DE 4 DF 6 3 EF 5
This implies the corresponding pairs of sides of ∆ABC and ∆DEF are not
proportional.
Example 4.4
Suppose the hexagons ABCDEF and A’ B’ C’ D’ E’ F’ shown in Figure 4.2 are
similar. If BC = 2cm, DE = 4 cm and B C = 3cm , then find the length of D’E’ .
Figure 4.2 Hexagons
Solution
It is given that, ABCDEF ~ A’ B’ C’ D’ E’ F’ .
Then the corresponding pairs of sides of the two hexagons are proportional.
AB BC 2 CD DE EF FA
That is, = = = = = =
A'B' B'C' 3 C'D' D'E' E'F' F'A'
DE 2 3 3 × 4cm
This implies, = , and then D’E’ = DE = = 6cm
D'E' 3 2 2
Exercise 4.2
1 Which of the following plane figures are always similar?
a Any two circles.
b Any two rectangles.
c Any two quadrilaterals.
96
Unit 4: Similarity of figures
2 The sides of a quadrilateral are 2cm, 4cm, 5cm and 6cm long. Find the lengths of all
the sides of a similar quadrilateral whose longest side is 18cm long.
3 If ∆ABC ~ ∆A’B’C’ and AC = 20cm, A’C’ = 15cm, B’C’ = 12cm and A’B’ = 9cm,
then find the lengths of the remaining sides of ∆ABC.
4 The sides of a pentagon are 6cm, 9cm, 10cm, 8cm and 11cm long. The shortest side
of a similar pentagon is 12cm. Then find the lengths of the remaining sides of the
second pentagon.
5 The length and width of a rectangular football field measures 100m and 72m
respectively. A school wants to prepare a new football field similar to the old one
with length 30m. What is the width of the new football field?
4.1.2 Similar Triangles
In this section, you will learn about similar triangles and theorems on similarity of
triangles.
Note
Two triangles, △ABC and △DEF are similar if their corresponding angles are
congruent and their corresponding pairs of sides are proportional.
That is, △ABC and △DEF are similar, written as △ABC ~ △DEF if
i ∠ABC ≅ ∠DEF, ∠CAB ≅ ∠FDE, ∠BCA ≅ ∠EFD (Corresponding angles
are congruent) and
AB BC AC
ii = = (corresponding pairs of sides are proportional)
DE EF DF
Figure 4.3
97
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 4.5
In Figure 4.4 , show that ∆ABC and ∆LMN are similar.
L A
55o 55o 10
cm
m
m
4c
5c
2c
m
M 75o 50o N B 75o 50o C
3 cm 7.5 cm
Figure 4.4
Solution
i m Ð ABC = m Ð LMN = 750
m ÐBCA @ m MNL = 500
m ÐCAB = m ÐNLM = 550
Therefore, the corresponding angles of △ABC and △LMN are congruent.
AB 5cm BC 7.5cm AC 10cm
ii = = 2.5 , = = 2.5 and = = 2.5
LM 2cm MN 3cm LN 4cm
Thus, the corresponding pairs of sides are proportional with constant of
proportionality equal to 2.5. Therefore, ∆ABC ~ ∆LMN
Example 4.6
In the Figure 4.5, ABE ~ ADC , If AB = 4cm , AE = 7 cm , BE = 5cm and
DC = 20cm , then find the lengths of ED and BC
Solution
Given △ABE ~ △ADC.
By the definition of similarity of triangles, the corresponding sides are proportional.
AB BE AE
That is, = =
AD DC AC
4cm 5cm 7cm
= =
AD 20cm AC
Figure 4.5
4cm 1 7cm
= =
AE + ED 4 AB + BC
98
Unit 4: Similarity of figures
This implies
4cm 1 7cm
= =
7cm + ED 4 4cm + BC
4cm 1 1 7cm
= and =
7cm + ED 4 4 4cm + BC
Thus, we have
7cm + ED = 16cm and 4cm + BC = 28cm
Therefore, ED = 9cm and BC = 24cm
Note
Similarity of triangles is transitive relation. That is, If ABC ~ DEF and
∆DEF ~ ∆XYZ, then ABC ~ XYZ .
Exercise 4.3
1 In Figure 4.6 ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF. Find
a m(Ð EFD) b m Ð DEF c m Ð ABC d BC
Figure 4.6
2 If ABC ~ XYZ and AC = 10cm, AB = 8cm and XY = 4cm , then find XZ .
3 In Figure 4.7 below, if ABC ~ XBZ with XB = 5cm, BZ = 5cm, CX = 8cm
and AC = 7cm ., then find the length of:
a BA
b XZ
Figure 4.7
4 Suppose ∆DEF is obtained from ∆XYZ by the scale factor 6 units with
DE = 7cm, EF = 12cm and XZ = 36 cm . Then, find the lengths of XY and YZ.
99
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
5 If ∆DEF ~ ∆KLM such that
DE = 2x + 2 cm, DF = 5x – 7 cm, KL = 2cm, KM = 3cm and EF = 10cm,
then find the length of LM.
6 The sides of a triangle are 4cm, 6cm, and x cm long. The corresponding sides of a
triangle similar to the first triangle are y cm, 12 cm and 8 cm respectively. What are
the possible lengths of x and y? Are the values of x and y unique? Why?
7 In the Figure 4.8, if ∆XYZ ~ ∆WYP, express d in terms of a, b and c
Figure 4.8
4.2 Tests for Similarity of Triangles
In this section, you will learn how to determine similarity of two triangles by using less
conditions than the definition of similarity
Activity 4.3
Using ruler and protractor, construct ∆ABC and ∆XYZ so that m ÐBAC = m Ð YXZ =
300 and m(<ABC) = m Ð XYZ = 700.
a What can you say about ∠BCA and ∠YZX? Why?
b What are proportion of the pairs of the corresponding sides of the two triangles
From your responds in Activity 4.3 observe that the two triangles are similar with the
given condition.
Theorem 4.1 (Angle-Angle (AA) Similarity Theorem)
If two angles of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding two angles of another
triangle, then the triangles are similar. That is, for two triangles ABC and DEF
if Ð ABC @ Ð DEF and Ð BCA @ Ð EFD, then ABC ~ DEF
Figure 4.9
100
Unit 4: Similarity of figures
Example 4.7
In Figure 4.10, if the sum of the measures of all the angles of ∆DEF is 180o, then
show that ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF
Figure 4.10
Solution
In ABC and DEF,
a ÐABC @ ÐDEF (Given)
b m ÐDFE + 100° + 60° = 180° (Given)
c m ÐDFE = 20° (From Step (b))
d ÐACB @ ÐDFE (From Step (c))
Therefore, ABC ~ DEF (by AA-Similarity Theorem)
Example 4.8
In Figure 4.11, if A’C’ is parallel to AC, then show that ABC ~A’BC’
Figure 4.11
Solution
i ÐABC @ ÐABC' (Common angle of ABC and A’BC’)
ii ÐBAC @ ÐBA'C' (Corresponding angles are congruent).
Therefore, ABC ~ A’BC’ by AA similarity theorem
101
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 4.9
As shown in Figure 4.12, a long tree casts a shadow of length 10m and at the same
time, a tree of height 2m casts a shadow of 5m. Then determine the height of the
longer tree.
Figure 4.12
Solution
Let h be height of the longer tree. Then we have the following diagram.
a ∠QTA≅∠RSA as the two trees are perpendicular to the ground
b ∠QAT is common angle of the two triangles.
By AA-similarity Theorem, △ASR ~ △ATQ.
Then the pairs of the corresponding sides are proportional
AS SR AR
= =
AT TQ AQ
5m 1 2m
= =
10m 2 h
Therefore, height of the longer tree is h = 4m.
102
Unit 4: Similarity of figures
Activity 4.4
Using ruler and protractor, construct ∆ABC and ∆XYZ so that m(<CAB) = m Ð ZXY =
400 and AB = 2 DE = 6cm and AC = 2 DF = 2cm . By measuring the remaining angles
and side length of the triangles, check whether the two triangles are similar or not.
From your response in Activity 4.4 observe that the two triangles are similar
Theorem 4.2 (Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Similarity Theorem)
If two pairs of corresponding sides of two triangles are proportional and the included
angles between these sides are congruent, then the two triangles are similar.
AB BC
That is, given two triangles, △ABC and △DEF, if If = and ∠ABC ≅
∠DEF, then △ABC ~ △DEF DE EF
Figure 4.13
Example 4.10
In Figure 4.14, let D and E be mid points of AC and BC respectively. Show that
△ACB ~ △DCE.
Figure 4.14
Solution
Since D and E are mid points of AC and BC respectively, we have AC = 2 DC
and BC = 2 EC .
AC BC
That is, = = 2 and ∠ACB is common angle for the two triangles.
DC EC
Therefore, △ACB ~ △DCE. by SAS similarity theorem
103
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Activity 4.5
Using ruler and protractor, construct ∆ABC and ∆XYZ with the following measures:
AB = 6cm, AC = 8cm, BC = 10cm, XY = 3cm, XZ = 4cm and YZ = 5cm. Then, by
measuring the angles of the triangles check whether the two triangles are similar or
not.
From your response in Activity 4.5 observe that the two triangles are similar.
Theorem 4.3 ( Side-Side-Side (SSS) Similarity Theorem)
If the three sides of one triangle are proportional to the corresponding three sides of
another triangle, then the two triangles are similar.
AB BC AC
That is, given ∆ABC and ∆DEF, If = = , then ABC ~ DEF
DE EF DF
Figure 4.15
Example 4.11
In Figure 4.16, if AB = 21 cm, BC = 28cm , AC = 14cm , DE = 10cm, EF = 15cm
and DF = 20cm, then show that ABC ~ EFD .
Figure 4.16
Solution
From the given information, you have
BC 28 7 BA 21 7 AC 14 7
= = , = = and = =
FD 20 5 FE 15 5 ED 10 5
This implies that the pairs of the corresponding sides of △ABC and △EFD are
proportional
△ABC ∼ △EFD by the SSS similarity theorem.
104
Unit 4: Similarity of figures
Example 4.12
In the Figure 4.17, if D, E and F are mid points of AB , BC
and AC respectively, then show that ∆ABC ~ ∆EFD.
Solution
Suppose points D, E and F are mid points of AB , BC and
AC respectively.
1 1 1
Then EF = AB, DF = BC and DE = AC
2 2 2
AB BC AC Figure 4.17
This implies = = = 2.
EF DF DE
The ratios of the pairs of corresponding three sides of the two triangles are equal.
Therefore, ∆ABC ~ ∆EFD by SSS similarity theorem.
Exercise 4.4
1 In Figures 4.18, if m Ð WAS = m Ð BVS = 450 , then show that ∆SAW ~
∆SVB.
Figure 4.18
2 In Figure 4.19, ∆ABC and ∆ADE are similar. Find the values of x and y.
E
2
+
x
C
8 cm
4 cm
A 3 cm B x D
Figure 4.19
3 In Figure 4.20, if AB DE , AC = 20cm, AB = 16cm, BC
= 24cm and D is a point on AC with CD = 15cm and E is
a point on BC with CE = 18cm, then:
a Show that ∆DEC ~ ∆ABC.
Figure 4.20
b How long is DE?
105
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
4 If the three sides of a triangle are 18cm, 14cm and 12cm long and each side of a
second triangle is twice as long as the corresponding side of the first triangle, are
the two triangles similar? Why?
5 In the figure below, if BC ∥ DE , then show that △ABC ~ △ADE
6 For any triangle ABC, if ∠BAC ≡ ∠ABC, then show that ∆ABC ~ ∆BAC
7 Show that a diagonal of a rectangle divides the rectangle into two similar triangles.
8 In the figure below, if AB is parallel to CD, AD and BC intersect at point O,
AB =11 cm, AO = 8 cm, OD = 6 cm, then find the length of CD.
9 On a leveled ground, the base of a tree is 20m far from the bottom of a 4.8m long
flagpole. At a certain time, their shadows end at the same point, which is 60m far
from the base of the flagpole. Find the height of the tree.
4.3 Perimeter and Area of similar Triangles
In the previous grade, you have learned how to find the perimeter and area of some special
plane figures such as triangles, rectangles, squares, parallelograms and trapeziums. In this
section, you will learn the proportionality of the area and perimeter of similar triangles
with their corresponding sides.
Activity 4.6
1 Let the lengths of the sides of
∆ ABC be 3cm, 4cm and 5cm and the lengths of the
sides of
∆ DEF are 6cm, 8cm and 10cm. Then,
Compare the ratios of:
a their corresponding sides to the ratio of their perimeters;
b their corresponding sides to the ratio of their areas.
2 What do you conclude from these?
Form your response in Activity 4.6, observe that if two triangles are similar, the ratio of
the perimeter of the two triangles is the same as the ratio of the sides and the ratio of their
areas is the square of the ratio of the sides.
106
Unit 4: Similarity of figures
Theorem 4.4
If the ratio of the corresponding pair of sides of two similar triangles is k, then
a the ratio of their perimeters is given by
P1 S
= 1 =k,
P2 S2
where P1 and S1 are perimeter and length of a side of the first triangle and P2 and S2
are perimeter and length of a side of the second triangle;
b the ratio of their areas is given by
A1 S 2
= 1 = k 2
A2 S2
where, A1 is area of the first triangle and A2 is area of the second triangle.
Proof
Let ∆ABC ~ ∆EFD with sides indicated in the figure below
AB BC AC
a Given = = =k
EF FD ED
implies
AB = k × EF = kd that is c = kd
BC = k × FD = ke that is a = ke
AC = k × ED = kf that is b = kf
Then perimeter (P) is
P ABC = AB + BC + AC = c a b kd ke kf k d e f , and
P EFD = EF + FD + ED = d e f
Then,
P ABC k d e f
c a b
= =k
P EFD d e f d e f
Hence, the ratio of the perimeters of the two similar triangles is k, which is equal to
the ratio of the lengths of any pair of corresponding sides.
107
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
b Let CQ be the altitude of ∆ABC from vertex C to AB and DP be the altitude
of ∆EFD from vertex D to EF. Then
∠CQB ≅ ∠DPF both are right angles
∠ABC ≅ ∠EFD corresponding angles of similar triangles
Therefore,
∆CQB ∼ ∆DPF by AA similarity theorem
CQ CB
=
DP DF by definition of similar triangles
h1 a
= =k
h2 e
This implies h1 = kh2
The areas are given by
1 1 1 2
a ABC =
2
ch1 = kd kh 2 =
2 2
k dh , and
2
1
a EFD = dh2
2
Hence,
1 2
a ABC
= 2
k dh 2
= k2
a EFD 1
dh 2
2
Therefore, the ratio of the areas of the two similar triangles is k2, which is the square
of the ratio of the lengths of any pair of corresponding sides.
Example 4.13
Find the ratio of the areas of two similar triangles,
5
a if the ratio of the corresponding sides is .
4
2
b if the ratio of their perimeters is .
5
Solution
Let A1 and A2 be the areas of the two similar triangles and P1 and P2 be the perimeters
of the two triangles and S1 and S2 be lengths of their corresponding sides. Then
108
Unit 4: Similarity of figures
A1 S 2 5 2 25
a = 1 = =
A2 S2 4 16
A1 S 2 P 2 2 2 4
b = 1 = 1 = =
A2 P
S2 2 5 25
Example 4.14
Let the areas of two similar triangles be 80 cm2 and 5cm2 respectively. If a side of
a smaller triangle is 2cm long, then find
a the length of the corresponding side of the larger triangle.
b the ratio of the perimeters of the larger triangle to the smaller triangle.
Solution
a Let A1 be the area of the larger triangle and A2 be area of the smaller triangle
and S1 and S2 be the lengths of their corresponding sides respectively. Then
A1 S 2
= 1
A2 S2
2
80 S1
=
5 2cm
80 S2
= 1
5 4
320
S12 = = 64
5
S1 = 64 = 8cm
Therefore, the corresponding side of the larger triangle is S1 = 8cm
b Let P1 and P2 be perimeters of the larger and smaller triangles respectively.
Then
P1 S 8cm
= 1 = = 4 , the ratio of the perimeters of the larger triangle to the the
P2 S2 2cm smaller triangle.
109
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Exercise 4.5
1 The sum of the perimeters of two similar triangles is 18cm and the ratio of their
corresponding sides is 4:5. Find the perimeter of each triangle.
2 Let the areas of two similar triangles be 144cm2 and 81cm2 respectively. Then
a find the ratio of their perimeters.
b find the length of a side of the second triangle if the length of the corresponding
side of the first triangle is 6 cm.
3 Two triangles are similar, where the length of a side of one is 2 units and the length
of the corresponding side of the other triangle is 5 units.
a Find the ratio of their perimeters.
b Find the ratio of their areas.
4 For two similar triangles, find the ratio of:
a their corresponding sides, if their areas are 38cm2 and 62cm2 respectively
b their perimeters, if their areas are 40cm2 and 25cm2 respectively
5 Two triangles are similar and the length of a side of one of the triangles is 6 times
that of the length of corresponding side of the other. Find the ratio of their perimeters
and the ratio of the areas of the triangles.
6 Given two triangles are similar and the length of a side of one of the triangles is 2
times that of the corresponding side of the other. If the area of the smaller triangle
is [Link], then find the area of the larger triangle.
7 The figure below represents a swimming pool surrounded by a park. The two
quadrilaterals are similar and the area of the pool is 100 m2. What is the area of the
park if the length of A’B’ is four times the length of AB?
110
Unit 4: Similarity of figures
Unit Summary
1 Two or more objects are similar, if they have exactly the same shape, but not
necessarily the same size. One is an enlargement or reduction of the other without
affecting its shape.
2 If two angles of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding two angles of
another triangle, then the two triangles are similar.
3 If two pairs of corresponding sides of the two triangles are proportional and the
included angles between these sides are congruent, then the two triangles are similar.
4 If the three sides of one triangle are proportional to the corresponding three sides of
another triangle, then the two triangles are similar.
5 The ratio of the perimeters of two similar triangles is the same as the ratio of the
lengths their corresponding sides.
6 The ratio of areas of two similar triangles is the same as the square of the ratio of the
corresponding perimeters of the triangles. The ratio of the areas of the two similar
triangles is equal to the square of the ratio of their corresponding sides.
7 If the ratio of the corresponding sides of two similar polygons is 1, then the polygons
are congruent.
Review Exercises
1 State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Justify your answer.
a If two triangles are similar, then they are congruent
b If two triangles are congruent, then they are similar.
c All equilateral triangles are similar.
d All equilateral triangles are congruent.
e Any two isosceles triangles are similar.
f All rhombuses are similar.
2 Show that
a the diagonal of a square divides the square into two similar triangles.
b the altitude of an equilateral triangle divides the triangle into two similar
right angled triangles.
111
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
3 Which of the following is equivalent to ∆ADF~∆LMN?
a DFA ~ NML c AFD ~ LMN
b FAD ~ MNL d DAF ~ MLN
4 Suppose a rectangle ABCD is similar to rectangle PQRS, and AB = 14 cm, BC = 8
cm and PQ = 21 cm. Determine the length of QR.
5 A road construction company wants to connect two towns on opposite sides of a
river with a road. Surveyors have laid out a map as shown below. The line joining
town A to town B is parallel to the line joining C to D. What is the distance between
the two towns?
6 Given that ΔABC ∼ ΔXYZ, the area of ΔABC is 45 sq. units, the area of ΔXYZ is
80 sq. units and YZ = 12 units. Find BC
7 In the figure below, △ABC ∼ △DEF and the area
Area
of ABC is 25cm2, DF = 9.5
cm and AC = 7 cm. Find the area of DEF
8 In the figure below, DEFG is a square and ∠ACB is a right angle. Show that
AD DG AD AD
DG DG AD DG
a = b)
= = bb) =
EF EB EF EB
CG CF CG CF
112
Unit 5
THEOREMS ON
TRIANGLES
Learning outcomes:
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
ª understand basic concepts about right angled triangles;
ª apply theorems on right angled triangles;
ª apply the concept of triangles in solving real-life problems.
Key terms
right angled triangle Angle Sum Theorem
Pythagoras Theorem Euclid’s Theorem
supplementary angles complementary angles
adjacent angles exterior angle
altitude midpoint
median
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Introduction
Triangles are applicable in many areas, for example in physics engineering etc.
In your previous grades, you have learnt different concepts about triangles. In this unit,
you will learn about some basic theorems on triangles such as Angle Sum Theorem of a
triangle, Euclid's Theorem and Pythagoras Theorem.
5.1 Theorems of Triangles
In this section, you will learn about concepts and theorems related with angles of triangles
and sides of triangles. A triangle is a plane figure that has three sides and three angles. A
triangle can be labeled with letters at the vertices. Thus, the triangle Figure 5.1 can be
named as △BAC or △CBA or △ACB.
The three angles of the triangle in Figure 5.1 are named as:
a ∠BAC, the angle with vertex at A and sides A
AB and AC ;
b ∠CBA, the angle with vertex at B and sides
BA and BC ; and
c ∠ACB, the angle with vertex at C and sides
C B
CA and CB .
Figure 5.1 A triangle
Note
1 The angle measure of a straight angle is 1800.
180o
This is a straight line
Figure 5.2
2 If the sum of the measures of two angles is 1800, then the two angles are called
supplementary angles.
B
A X C
D
Figure 5.3
In Figure 5.3, given that AC and BD are straight lines, m(∠AXB) + m(∠BXC) =
1800
Thus, ∠AXB and ∠BXC are supplementary angles.
114
Unit 5: Theorems on triangles
3 If the sum of the measure of two angles is 900, then the angles are called
complementary angles.
A
C
O B
Figure 5.4
In Figure 5.4 given that ∠AOB is a right angle, m(∠AOC) + m(∠COB) = 900
Therefore, ∠AOC and ∠COB are complementary angles.
4 If two angles have the same vertex and one common side with no common interior
point, then the angles are called adjacent angles. In Figure 5.3 above ∠AXB and
∠AXD are adjacent angles, but ∠AXB and ∠AXC are not adjacent angles,
because any point in ∠AXB is a common interior point for both angles.
Example 5.1
1
In Figure 5.5 below, if ∠AOD is a straight angle, x = y + z and z = 500 , then
find the values of x and y. 2
A O D
Solution z
x
y
1
It is given that z = 50o and x = y + z
2 C
B
x + y + z = 180 (measure of a straight angle)
0
Figure 5.5
1 1
2
y + 500 + y + 500 = 1800 (replacing x by
2
y + 500 and z = 500 )
3y
+ 750 = 1800
2
3y
= 1800 750 = 1050
2
2
y = (1050 )
3
y = 700
1 1
Then x =
2
y + 500 =
2
700 + 500 = 600
115
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 5.2
3
If two angles are complementary and one of themis
2 times the other, then what is
the measure of each of the two angles?
Solution
3
Let θ and δ be the two complementary angles and .
2
Then, 900 (complementary angles)
3
900 (substitution)
2
5
900 (adding like terms)
2
2 2
(900 ) =36o (multiplying both sides by )
5 5
From the relation 90 , you have 360 900.
0
900 360 540
Therefore, the measures of the two given complementary angles are 360 and 540.
Basic Concepts Related to Triangles and Classifications of Triangles
Given a triangle:
1 Base of a triangle: any one of the three sides of a triangle can be taken as the base
of the triangle.
2 Vertex angle of a triangle: an angle opposite to the base of a triangle.
3 Altitude: a line segment drawn from any vertex perpendicular to the opposite side.
4 Median of a triangle: a line segment drawn from any vertex to the midpoint of the
opposite side.
5 Angle bisector of a triangle: a line segment that divides (bisects) the vertex angle in
to two congruent angles.
6 Hypotenuse of a right triangle: the longest side of the right triangle; it is the opposite
side of the right angle.
Vertex
Hy
po
te
n
Altitude
us
ian
e
ed
M
Base
116
Unit 5: Theorems on triangles
Triangles are classified according to the lengths of their sides and measures of
their interior angles
I. According to their sides, triangles are classified as:
a Equilateral triangles: Triangles with three sides are congruent or equal in length
b Isosceles triangles: Triangles with two sides are congruent or equal in length
c Scalene triangles: Triangles with all three sides are different in length.
B F
H
AB=BC=AC DF=EF
K
GH≠GK, GH≠HK
and GK≠HK
A C D E G
Equilateral Triangle Isosceles Triangle Scalene Triangle
From the classification using sides, equilateral triangles are isosceles triangles.
II. According to their interior angles, triangles are classified as:
1 Acute angled triangle: all interior angles of a triangle measure less than 900.
2 Right angled triangle: Triangles having one right angle.
3 Obtuse angled triangle: Triangles having one angle with measure greater than 900.
C
A B
Acute angled triangle Right angled triangle Obtuse angled triangle
Theorem 5.1 (Isosceles Triangle Theorem)
If two sides of a triangle are congruent, then the two angles opposite to the congruent
sides are congruent. That is, in △ABC, if AB ≅ AC , then Ð ABC @ Ð ACB .
Proof:
Consider ∆ABC in Figure 5.6. Suppose that AB and AC are congruent.
A
B C
M
Figure 5.6
117
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Statements Reasons
i AB @ AC Given
ii Draw an altitude AM from Construction
vertex A to side BC so that
m ÐAMB = m ÐAMC = 900
iii AM is common side for
ABM and ACM
iv ∆ABM @ ∆ACM Right Angle - Hypotenuse-Side Theorem
v ÐABC @ ÐACB Property of Congruent Triangles
Example 5.3
In triangle ABC in Figure 5.7 below, it is given that AB = AC = 12cm ,
BC = 7cm and m Ð ABC = 700 , then find the measure of ÐACB .
12cm 12cm
B 70o x
C
7cm
Figure 5.7
Solution
In ABC , it is given that AB = AC = 12cm .
Thus, ABC is isosceles triangle.
Then by the Isosceles Triangle Theorem, the base angles are congruent.
That is, ÐACB @ ÐABC
Hence m Ð ACB = m Ð ABC = 700 .
118
Unit 5: Theorems on triangles
Theorem 5.2 (Converse of Isosceles Triangle Theorem)
A
If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the two
sides opposite to the congruent angles are congruent.
That is, in △ABC, if ÐABC @ ÐACB then AB ≅
AC .
B C
N
Figure 5.8
Angle Sum Theorem of a Triangle
Activity 5.1
Do the activity in a group of two or three students. C
Using ruler and compass;
a draw a triangle as in Figure 5.9;
b cutout the two vertices of the triangle by a scissor
carefully; A B
Figure 5.9
c connect the two vertex angles with the third
angle side by side.
d What can you say about the sum of the measures of interior angles of the
triangle?
From your responses in Activity 5.1, observe that the sum of the measures of interior
angles of the triangle is 1800 and this result is true for any triangle, as stated in the
following Theorem.
Theorem 5.3 (Angle Sum Theorem)
The sum of the measures of all the three interior angles of a triangle is 1800
Proof:
Consider △ABC as in Figure 5.10. X B Y
A C
Figure 5.10
119
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Statements Reasons
1 Through vertex B, draw line XY parallel to AC Through a point not on a line
there is exactly one line parallel
2 to the given line
m ÐABC + m ÐCBY + m ÐABX = 1800 measure of a straight angle
3 ÐABX @ ÐCAB and ÐBCA @ ÐCBY alternate interior angles are
congruent
4 m ÐABC + m ÐBCA + m ÐCAB = 1800 substitution
Therefore, the sum of the measures of all the interior angles of a triangle is 1800.
Example 5.4
A
In Figure 5.11, in ABC , ÐBCD is a straight x
angle and m( ÐABC) = m ÐBAC = x and
m(ÐACD) = 130o, find the value of x.
130o
B x
C D
Figure 5.11
Solution
Statements Reasons
1 m ÐBCA + m ÐACD =1800 Supplementary angles
Given
2 m ÐBCA + 1300 = 1800
3 m ÐBCA = 1800 1300 = 500
Angle Sum Theorem of a
4 m Ð CBA + m Ð BAC + m Ð BCA = 1800 triangle
5 x + x + 500 = 1800 Given
6 2 x = 1300 Adding like terms
7 x = 650 Dividing both sides by 2.
120
Unit 5: Theorems on triangles
Example 5.5
In an isosceles triangle, if the vertex angle measures 750, find the measures of the
two base angles.
Solution
Let one of the two congruent base angles of the triangle be q. Then
750 1800 (Angle Sum Theorem of a Triangle)
750 2 1800 (Adding like terms)
2 1800 750 1050 (Subtracting 75o from both sides)
52.50 (Dividing both sides by 2)
Therefore, the measure of each base angle of the given triangle is 52.50
Example 5.6
Show that the measure of each angle of an equilateral triangle is 60o
Solution
Let ABC be an equilateral triangle.
Then, m(ÐABC) = m(ÐACB) = m(ÐBAC), by definition of an equilateral triangle.
By the Angle Sum Theorem of a triangle, m(ÐABC) + m(ÐACB) + m(ÐBAC) = 180o
This implies 3m(ÐABC) = 180o
180o
m(ÐABC) = = 60o
3
Thus, m(ÐABC) = m(ÐACB) = m(ÐBAC) = 60o
Exercise 5.1
1 Classify each of the following triangles as acute triangle, obtuse triangle or right
triangle with the following measures of angles:
a 90°, 45°, 45° c 80°, 60°, 40° e 90°, 35°, 55°
b 60°, 60°, 60° d 130°, 40°, 10° f 92°, 38°, 50°
2 Classify each of the following triangles according to the lengths of the sides as
equilateral, isosceles or scalene triangles with the given side lengths.
a 6 cm, 3 cm, 5 cm d 8 cm, 12 cm, 10 cm
b 6 cm, 6 cm, 6 cm e 3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm
c 7 cm, 7 cm, 5 cm f 3.5 cm, 3.5 cm, 4.5 cm
121
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
In ABC , if AB ≅ BC and m Ð ABC = 120 , then find the measures of the
0
3
m Ð CABandÐ ACB.
angles
4 Determine if it is possible to have a triangle with the following three angles as its
interior (Give reasons in support of your answer).
a 110°, 60°, 30° c 80°, 35°, 65°
b 70°, 70°, 70° d 50°, 50°, 90°
5 Identify each of the following statements as true or false and give your reasons.
a The sum of interior angles of some scalene triangles can be greater than 1800.
b An obtuse angled triangle can an equilateral triangle.
c An equilateral triangle can be a right angled triangle.
d Every equilateral triangle is an isosceles triangle.
6 Show that the angle bisector of an equilateral triangle is perpendicular to the base.
7 In the figure below, if AB @ AC and m Ð BCE = 1000 , then find m(ÐDAC)
B
A
E
C
D
8 In Figure 5.12, find the values of x and y.
R
yo
126o
xo Q
P
O
Figure 5.12
9 In Figure 5.13 below, ∆BAC is a right angled triangle with right angle at A and D is
a point on BC . If m Ð ACB = 500 and m Ð DAC = 450 , then find m Ð ABD
and m Ð ADC .
A
C
B D
Figure 5.13
122
Unit 5: Theorems on triangles
2
10 If x and y are supplementary angles and x = y, then find the values of x and y.
3
11 If one interior angle of a triangle is twice of the second angle and three times of the
third angle, then what is the measure of each angle of the triangle?
12 In the figure below, ÐAOB is a straight angle, then find the value of x if x y = 350 .
C
x
A y B
O
13 In the figure below, express y in terms of d, e and x.
x d
e
5.2 Exterior Angles of a Triangle
Definition 5.1
An exterior angle of a triangle is the angle at the vertex formed by one side of the
triangle and an extension of the adjacent side of the triangle.
In the figure below, if D, A, C and E are points on the same line and C, B and F
are points on the same line, then Ð DAB, Ð ECB and Ð FBA are exterior angles
of triangle ABC.
F B
D A C E
Activity 5.2
1 Construct a triangle as in the Figure 5.14 B
2 Carefully cut ∠BAC and ∠ABC and join
these two angles adjacently;
3 Put the two angles formed in (2) on the A
exterior angle at ∠C; C D
Figure 5.14
4 What relation do you observe?
From your responses in Activity 5.2, observe that the sum of the measures of two angles
of a triangle is equal to the measure the remote exterior angle.
123
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Theorem 5.4
An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two-remote interior angles.
That is, in Figure 5.15, m Ð BCD = m Ð ABC + m Ð BAC.
B
A D
C
Figure 5.15
Proof:
Given ∠ABC and ∠BAC are the two remote interior angles of the exterior
angle ∠BCD of △ABC as in Figure 5.15, then we want to show that
m Ð BCD = m Ð ABC + m Ð BAC
Statements Reasons
Both measure 180o
1 m ÐACB + m ÐBCD
= m ÐABC + m ÐACB + m ÐBAC
Subtract m Ð ACB
2 m ÐBCD = m ÐABC + m ÐBAC from both sides
Therefore, the measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the two-
remote interior angles of the triangle.
Example 5.7
An exterior angle of a triangle measures 120o. If the two remote interior angles of the
triangle are congruent, then find the measure of each interior angle of the triangle.
Solution
Let q be the measure of one of the remote interior angles of the triangle.
Then,
q + q = 120o (By Theorem 5.4)
q = 60o
If x is the measure of the third angle, then by the angle sum theorem of a triangle,
x + 60o + 60o = 180o.
Then, x + 120o = 180o and x = 180o − 120o = 60o
Therefore, the measure of each interior angle of the triangle is 60o.
124
Unit 5: Theorems on triangles
Example 5.8
Find the measure of an exterior angle of B
an equilateral triangle at any one of the
vertices.
Solution
Let △ABC be equilateral triangle. Now, A D
C
extend AC to D to get exterior angle
∠BCD of △ABC.
Then
m ÐCAB + m ÐABC + m ÐBCA = 1800 (Angle sum theorem)
m ÐBCA + m ÐBCD = 1800 (straight angle)
But, m Ð CAB = m Ð ABC = m Ð BCA = 600 (△ABC is an equilateral
triangle)
Hence, m Ð BCD = 1800 m Ð BCA = 1800 600 = 1200
Therefore, the measure of each exterior angle of an equilateral triangle is 120o.
Exercise 5.2
1 If the exterior and interior angles of a triangle at one vertex are equal, then identify
the type of the triangle
2 Two angles of a triangle measures 800 and 500 respectively. Find the measure of the
exterior angle adjacent to the third angle.
3 If Ð ABC and Ð ECD are straight angles, then find the measure of the interior and
exterior angles numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4 in Figure 5.16.
D
92o C
1
123o
B 3 2
A 4 E
Figure 5.16
125
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
5.3 Theorems on Right-Angled Triangles
A right-angled triangle is a triangle having one right angle. The sides forming a right
angle are perpendicular to each other.
The adjacent sides to the right angle of a right angled triangle are called legs and the side
opposite to the right angle is called hypotenuse of the right - angled triangle.
In Figure 5.17, △ABC is right-angled triangle with m(∠ACB) = 900. The sides AC and
BC are legs and side AB is the hypotenuse.
B
Hypotenuse
Leg
C A
Leg
Figure 5.17
5.3.1 Euclid’s Theorem and its Converse
Euclid is often referred to as the “Father of Geometry”.
He wrote the most enduring mathematical work of all
time, the Elements, 13 volumes work. The Elements cover
plane geometry, arithmetic and number theory, irrational
numbers, and solid geometry.
Theorem 5.5 (Euclid’s Theorem)
In a right angled triangle with an altitude drawn to the hypotenuse, the square of the
length of each leg is equal to the product of the hypotenuse and the length of the
adjacent segment into which the altitude divides the hypotenuse.
That is, as in Figure 5.18 if the altitude CD is drawn from C to the hypotenuse AB
of a right angled triangle, ABC , then the following results are true.
a (AC)2 = (AD)(AB) (i.e. b 2 = ec ) C
b (BC)2 = (BD)(BA) (i.e. a 2 = fc ) b a
h
c (CD)2 = (AD)(BD) (i.e. h 2 = ef )
A B
D
e f
c
Figure 5.18 A right angled triangle
126
Unit 5: Theorems on triangles
Proof:
Statements Reasons
1 m Ð CAB + m Ð CBA = m Ð CAB + m Ð DCA Complementary angles
2 m Ð CBA = m Ð DCA
3 Ð CAB common angle
4 CDA ~ BCA AA Similarity Theorem
CD DA CA Corresponding sides
5 = = are proportional
BC CA BA
h e b From step 5
6 = =
a b c
7 b2 = ce
Complementary angles
8 m ÐCAB + m ÐCBD = m ÐCBD + m ÐBCD
9 m ÐCAB = m ÐBCD
Ð CBD common angle
10
11 CDB ~ ACB AA Similarity Theorem
CD DB CB Corresponding sides
12 = =
AC CB AB are proportional
h f a From step 12
13 = =
b a c
14 a2 = cf
Similarly, ADC ~ CDB AA Similarity Theorem
h2 = ef (this is called altitude theorem)
Example 5.9
In the Figure 5.19 below, ACB is right angled triangle with right angle at C and
CD is altitude drawn from C to the hypotenuse. If AD = 9cm and DB = 6cm , then
find each of the following C
a AC
b BC
c CD
Solution A B
D
Note that AB = AD + DB = 9cm + 6cm = 15cm Figure 5.19
Then by Euclid’s Theorem
127
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
AC ADAB = 9cm 15cm = 135cm
2
a = 2
Thus, AC = 135cm 2 = 3 15cm
BC = BD BA = 6cm 15cm = 90cm 2 .
2
b
Thus, BC = 90cm 2 = 3 10cm
CD = AD BD = 9cm 6cm = 54cm
2
c 2
.
Therefore, CD = 54cm 2 = 3 6cm
Theorem 5.6 (Converse of Euclid’s Theorem)
In a triangle if the square of each shorter side is equal to the product of the length of
the longest side and the length of the adjacent segment into which the altitude to the
longest side divides this side, then the triangle is a right angled triangle.
C
Given △ABC, a right angled triangle
with right angle at C as in Figure 5.20 and b a
h
CD is an altitude draw from C to AB,
if (BC)2 = (BD)(BA) and (AC)2 = (AD)(AB),
A B
then ∆ABC is a right angled triangle. e
D
f
c
Figure 5.20
Example 5.10 Q
In Figure 5.21, prove that △ OPQ is a
right-angled triangle. m
7c
21
2
Solution
cm
From the given information O P
D
4cm 3cm
2
OQ
2
= 2 7 cm = 28cm 2 c
Figure 5.21
ODOP = 4 cm 4+3 cm = 4 cm 7cm = 28cm 2
Thus, we have OQ = OD OP .
2
Similarly
QP = 21cm 2 = PD PO = 3 cm 7cm
2
Therefore, △OPQ satisfies the converse of Euclid’s Theorem
Hence, △OPQ is right-angled triangle with right angle at Q.
128
Unit 5: Theorems on triangles
Exercise 5.3
1 In Figure 5.22, △ABC is a right-angled triangle and CD is the altitude to the
hypotenuse. Find each of the following C
lengths.
a AC
b BC
c CD B A
D
6cm
14cm
Figure 5.22
2 In ACB , if CD ⊥ AB , where D is a point on AB and AD = 3.6cm, AB = 10cm and
CD = 4.8cm, then show that △ABC is right angled triangle.
3 In Figure 5.23 a) and Figure 5.23 b), m ÐABC = 900 , BD is the altitude to the
hypotenuse AC of ∆ABC. Find the values of x, y and z
A
C
cm 8c
D 4 m
y cm D
9 cm z cm
cm xc
A B 9 m
x cm
B y cm C
a)
Figure 5.23 b)
4 In Figure 5.24, ∆ABC is a right-angled triangle; CD is the altitude to the hypotenuse.
Find the value of x, y and h
Figure 5.24
5.3.2 Pythagoras Theorem and its Converse
Early writers agree that Pythagoras was born in Samos, the
Greek island in the eastern Aegean Sea. Pythagoras was a Greek
religious leader and a philosopher who made developments in
astronomy, mathematics and music theories.
129
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Activity 5.3
1 Add the first two formulas of the Euclid theorem and observe the result
2 In Figure 5.25, count the number of squares in C and the
sum of squares in A and B. What relation do you observe
between the length of hypotenuse and the lengths of the
legs of the right angled triangle?
Figure 5.25
From your responses in Activity 5.3 observe that the sum of the squares of the two legs of
a right angled triangle is equal to the square of its hypotenuse
Theorem 5.7 (Pythagoras Theorem)
Given a right angled triangle with sides of
lengths a, b and c, where c is the hypotenuse
then
a 2 + b2 = c2
Figure 5.26
Proof:
Let ∆ABC be right-angled triangle with right angle at C and CD ⊥ AB as shown
2 2 2
in Figure 5.26. Then we want to show that a + b = c
Statements Reasons
1 b 2 = c1c By Euclids’ theorem
2 a 2 = c2c By Euclids’ theorem
3 a 2 + b 2 = c 2 c + c1 c = c c 2 + c1 Add the two Euclids’ formula in
Steps 1 & 2
4 a 2 + b2 = c2
Therefore, for any right-angled triangle whose legs are of lengths a and b and hypotenuse
c, you have a 2 + b 2 = c 2
A B
Example 5.11
cm
If the length of the diagonal of a square is 20cm, then find the 20 X
lengths of its sides.
D C
X
Figure 5.27
130
Unit 5: Theorems on triangles
All the sides of a square are equal in length. The diagonal divides the square into
two congruent right triangles. Consider square ABCD as shown in Figure 5.27. Let
x be the side of the square. Then
(AB)2 + (AD)2 = (BD)2 (By pythagoras Theorem)
x2 + x2 = (20cm)2
2 x2 = 400cm2
x2 = 200cm2
x= 200cm 2 = 100 × 2cm 2 = 10 2 cm
Example 5.12
A ladder of length 10m leans against a vertical wall. If the top of the ladder reaches
8m up the wall, find the distance from the wall to foot of the ladder.
Solution
Assume that the wall is perpendicular to the ground. Then
the ladder with the wall and the ground form a right-
angled triangle. Let x be the distance from the wall to the
foot of the ladder. Then, by Pythagoras theorem
x2 + (8m)2 = (10m)2
x2 = 100m2 – 64m2 = 36m2
x= 36m 2 = 6m
Therefore, the foot of the ladder is 6m away from the wall.
Theorem 5.8 (Converse of Pythagoras Theorem)
If the lengths of the sides of △ABC are a, b and c and a2 + b2 = c2, then the triangle
is right angled triangle and the right angle is opposite to the side of length c.
Example 5.13
Is △ABC with AB = 5m , BC = 4m and CA = 3m a right angled triangle?
Solution
The Square of the sides of the triangle are:
AB = 5m
2 2
= 25m 2
BC = 4m = 16m 2
2 2
CA = 3m = 9m 2
2 2
BC + CA = 16m 2 + 9m 2 = 25m 2 = 25m 2 = AB
2 2 2
Therefore, ∆ABC is right - angled triangle, by the coverse of Pythagoras Theoem.
131
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Exercise 5.4
1 Which of the following triples of numbers form lengths of sides of a right angle
triangle?
a 2cm, 3cm , 4cm d 3cm, 5cm , 7cm
b 6cm, 6 3cm , 12cm e 9cm, 12cm ,15cm
c 2cm, 2 5cm , 4cm f 10cm, 24cm , 26cm
2 If AB = 4cm and AC = 2 3cm are the lengths of two sides of a right angled
triangle ∆ABC, right angled at C, then find the length of the third side BC.
3 A carpenter builds a small tabletop with length 56 cm and width 33 cm for his
costumer. If diagonal of the tabletop measures 60 cm, does the tabletop have right
angle corners? Justify your answer?
4 In Figure 5.28,, ∆ABC is a right angled triangle, with right angle at B, BD ^ AC ,
BE = BC , BE = 6cm and AC = 12cm . Find
a AB b DC c BD
Figure 5.28
5 If a square shaped garden has a perimeter of 360m, then find the
a length of the side of the garden.
b diagonal of the garden.
6 A door has 3 meter height and 1 meter width. If a square piece of play wood has side
length of 2.2 meter, can the play wood inter through the door? How do you know?
Show your work with a figure.
7 (Project work): Draw any triangle ABC and fold the three sides of the triangle to
get the mid points of the sides, next draw perpendicular lines from side AB to side
BC and from side AC to BC. Fold inwards ∆ADE at line segment DE, ∆DBF at line
segment DF and ∆CEG at line segment EG. What can you say about the sum of the
interior angles of the triangle?
132
Unit 5: Theorems on triangles
Unit Summary
1 The sum of the measures of interior angles of any triangle is 1800.
2 Adjacent angles have a common vertex and a common side but not common interior
point.
3 Adjacent supplementary angles form a straight angle.
4 Adjacent complementary angles form a right angle.
5 Any of the three sides of a triangle can be considered as base of the triangle.
6 Triangles can be classified based on their length of sides and angle measures.
7 Every equilateral triangle is isosceles, but the converse is not true.
8 Every equilateral triangle is acute angled triangle.
9 For any ∆ABC, AB ≅ AC if and only if Ð ABC @ Ð ACB
10 Let ∆ABC be a triangle such that CD ^ AB , where D is a point on AB,
AB = c, BC = a, AC = b, AD = e and DB = f , then
a ∆ABC is a right-angled triangle if and only if a 2 = fc and b 2 = ec
b ∆ABC is a right-angled triangle if and only if a 2 + b 2 = c 2 .
Review Exercises
1 Which of the following set of numbers could not be the length of sides of a right-
angled triangle?
a 0.75cm, 1cm, 1.25cm c 6mm, 8mm, 10mm
3
b 1mm, mm , 2mm d 5m, 12m, 13m
2
2 From the information given in Figure 5.29, find the value of x.
Figure 5.29
3 If the length of the diagonal of a square is 400cm, then find the length of each side
of the square.
133
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
4 How long is the height of an equilateral triangle of side length 10cm?
5 One leg of an isosceles right angled triangle is 3cm long. What is the length of the
hypotenuse?
6 Suppose △ABC is a right angled triangle with hypotenuse AB and altitude CD to
AB.
a If AD = 4cm , CD = 2cm , then find the lengths of BC and DB.
b If AC = BC = 3cm , then find the lengths of AD, BD and CD.
7 In the figure below find the lengths of ED and CE.
A D
E 6 cm
B C
8 cm
8 In the figure below ∆ABC is aright angled triangle with right angle at C and
CD ^ AB, find the values of x, y and z.
2
B
D
4
y x
A C
z
9 A 6m long pole is used to support an electric pole. The pole is anchored at 4m far
from the base of the electric pole. What is the height the electric pole?
10 A farmer has a rectangular shaped farm land. The length of one side is 25m and the
diagonal is 35m. If in each square meter there is one plant, how many plants does the
farmer have in this farm land?
11 A verical electric pole casts a shadow of 24 meters long. If the tip of the shadow
is 25 meters away from the top of the pole, how high is the pole from the ground?
12 A tree of 18 meters height is broken off 5 meters from the ground as shown in the
figure below. How far from the foot of the tree will the top strike the ground?
134
Unit 6
LINES AND ANGLES
IN A CIRCLE
Learning outcomes:
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
ª understand circles and its parts;
ª identify the relationship between lines and circles;
ª determine measures of central & inscribed angles and angles formed by
intersecting chords;
ª apply the concept of lines and angles in a circle to solve real life problems.
Key terms
chord minor arc
secant line circle
inscribed angle segment
major arc sector
semi-circle minor segment
tangent line major segment
central angle miner sector
arc major sector
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Introduction
The concept of circle is important in our day-to-day activities and it is applicable in many
fields. In your previous grades, you have learnt about circle and its properties. In this
unit, you will learn about the relation between circle and lines; tangent lines, secant lines,
chords and angles formed by intersecting chords.
6.1 Circles and Lines
In this section, you will learn about circles and parts of a circle (semi-circle, minor arc and
major arc), tangent lines, secant lines and chords of a circle.
Definition 6.1
The set of all points in a plane that are at equal distance (or equidistant) from a fixed
point is called a circle; the fixed point is called the center of the circle and the distance
from the center of the circle to any point on the circle is called the radius of the circle.
Circles are named by their centers. For example, in Figure 6.1, O is the center of the circle
and P is a point on the circle. Then OP is the radius of the circle and the circle is named
as circle O.
Center
P
O
Radius
Figure 6.1 A circle with center O and radius OP
Note
1 We use the word radius for both the distance from the center to any point on the
circle and the line segment.
2 Given a circle, the distance around the circle is called circumference of the circle.
3 A segment through the center of a circle with end
points on the circle is called a diameter of the circle.
In the figure to the right AB is a segment through the A B
center of the circle and end points on the circle. O
4 The word diameter is used for both the distance and
the line segment
136
Unit 6: Lines and angles in a circle
Definition 6.2
Given a circle, any part of the circle is called an arc of the circle. C
In Figure 6.2, the curve on circle O from A to C through B is B
and read as arc ABC.
an arc of the circle, denoted by ABC
The curve on circle O from A to C through D is also another
O
read as arc ADC.
arc of circle O, denoted by ADC
D
A
Figure 6.2 Arcs of a circle
Classifications of Arcs
D
Arcs are classified as semi-circle, minor arc and major arc
based on their sizes as compared to the circle.
a An arc which is half of a circle is called a Semi-circle. A
In Figure 6.3, if O is the center of the circle and AB is a O B
and ADB
diameter of the circle, then the arcs ACB are
both semi-circles "semi" means "half"
C
Figure 6.3 A Circle
b Part of a circle which is smaller than a semi-circle is called
a minor arc and a part of a circle which is larger than a
circle is called a major arc. D
In Figure 6.4, O is the center of the circle, AB a diameter E
of the circle and C, D and E are points on the circle. Then A
i and DEB
the arcs ADE are both minor arcs; O B
ACE
ii the arcs AEC, and ACD
are all major arcs.
C
Figure 6.4 minor and major arcs
Tangent lines, Secant Lines and chords of a circle
Definition 6.3
Given a circle and a line in the same plane:
a if the line touches the circle only at one point, then the line is called a
tangent line and the point at which the tangent line touches the circle is
called point of tangency;
b if the line intersects the circle at two points, then the line is called a secant
line.
137
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Point of tangency
P Tangent line
Secant line
Figure 6.5 Tangent and secant lines
c A line segment joining any two points of the circle is called a chord.
d A diametre of the circle is twice its radius.
Activity 6.1
Do the following activity in a group of two or three students
Use ruler and compass to do the following tasks.
1 Draw a circle of radius of 2cm and locate its center, say O.
2 Draw at least two line segments through the center of the circle with ends points on
the circle.
3 Draw at least three line segments that do not passes through the center of the circle
with points on the circle.
4 Measure the line segments in 2 and 3 above and compare their lengths.
From your responses in Activity 6.1, observe that the line segment through the center are
longer in size than the line segment not through the center. Thus, diameter is the longest
chord.
Example 6.1
Consider a circle O of radius 5cm. Which one of the following can be a possible
length of a chord of the circle?
a 6cm b 10cm c 14cm
Solution
The radius of the circle is 5cm, hence its diameter is 10cm.
Therefore, the longest chord in the circle has length 10cm and any chord in the
circle has length less than or equal to 10 cm.
So, you can have a chord of length 6cm and you can also have a chord of length 10
cm. But it is not possible to have a chord of length 14cm.
138
Unit 6: Lines and angles in a circle
Activity 6.2
Do the following activity in a group of two or three students
Use ruler and compass to do the following tasks.
1 Draw a circle of radius 3cm and locate its center, say O.
2 Draw at a line tangent to the circle at a point on the circle.
3 Draw a radius from the center of the circle to the point of tangency in 2 above.
4 Measure the angle that the radius makes with the tangent line.
From your responses in Activity 6.2, observe that the radius of a circle is perpendicular to
the tangent line to the circle at the point of tangency.
P Q
Figure 6.6 A circle and a tangent line
In Figure 6.6, O is the center of the circle, OP in a radius of the circle, PQ is a line
tangent to the circle and P is the point of tangency.
Ð OPQ is a right angle, an angle that the radius OP makes with the tangent line PQ
Example 6.2 A
In the Figure 6.7, C is the center of the circle, AD and AB are D
tangent lines to circle C at D and B respectively. If the radius of
the circle is 5cm and AC = 13cm, then find the lengths of the line
C B
segments AD and AB .
Solution Figure 6.7 Circle C
From the given information, observe that CD ^ AD and CB ^ AB .
Then, ABC and ∆ ADC are right angled triangles.
a By Pythagoras Theorem, (AD)2 + (CD)2 = (AC)2.
(AD)2 + (5cm)2 = (13cm)2
(AD)2 + 25cm2 = 169cm2
(AD)2 = 169cm2 - 25cm2 = 144cm2.
AD = 144cm 2 = 12cm
139
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
b Again by Pythagoras Theorem, (AB)2 + (CB)2 = (AC)2.
(AB)2 + (5cm)2 = (13cm)2
(AB)2 + 25cm2 = 169cm2
(AB)2 = 169cm2 - 25cm2=144cm2.
AB = 144cm 2 = 12cm
Note
1 If the diameter bisects a chord of a circle, then it is perpendicular to the chord of
the circle.
2 Arcs intercepted by parallel lines have equal measure.
A B
C D
Figure 6.8
In Figure 6.8 AB CD , then m ( )
AC ) = m( BD
Sectors and Segments of Circles
Sectors of a Circle
Definition 6.4
Consider a circle with center O as shown in the figure below. If A, X, B and Y are
and the two radii OA and
points on the circle, then the region bounded by AXB
OB is called a sector of the circle.
A
minor sector
major sector
Y O X
a If and the two radii
AYB is a major arc, then the sector bounded by AYB
OA and OB is called a major sector.
b If and the two radii
AXB is a minor arc, then the sector bounded by AXB
OA and OB is called a minor sector.
140
Unit 6: Lines and angles in a circle
Segment of a circle
Definition 6.5
Consider a circle with center O as shown in the figure below. If A, X, B and Y are
and the chord AB is called
points on the circle, then the region bounded by AXB
a segment of the circle.
minor segment
major segment
Y X
O
a If and the chord AB
AYB is a major arc, then the sector bounded by AYB
is called a major segment.
b If and the chord AB
AXB is a minor arc, then the sector bounded by AXB
is called a minor segment.
Exercise 6.1
1 In Figure 6.9, O is the center of the circle, A, B, C and P are points on the circle
and BC passes through O. Identify each the following.
a a diameter f major arcs
b radii g minor arcs
c chords h semi-circles
d a tangent line i a sector
e a secant line
Figure 6.9
141
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
2 Consider a circle with center O and a radius of 5cm. Then
a how many chords can you draw?
b how many diameters can you have?
3 In Figure 6.10 to the right, O is the center of the circle
a Which parts of a circle (labeled by R’s) are segments? Which are sectors?
b Which of the following combinations form a segment? Which of these
combination form a sector?
i The region covered by R1, R5 and R6 R2
ii The region covered by R1 and R6
R4 O
R3
iii The region covered by R1, R2, R5 and R6 R5
R1
iv The region covered by R3 and R4
R6
c Identify minor and major sectors
Figure 6.10
d Identify minor and major segments
6.2 Central Angles and Inscribed Angles of circles
In the previous sub-unit, you have learnt about types of arcs, chords, segments and sectors
and in this sub-unit, you will learn the relationships betweeen arcs, central angles and
inscribed angles on a circle.
Definition 6.6
Given a circle with center O and radius r:
a an angle whose vertex is at the center of the circle and whose sides are two
radii of the circle is called a central angle;
b an angle whose vertex is on the circle and whose sides are two chords of the
circle is called an inscribed angle.
In Figure 6.11, O is the center of the circle, A, C, B and P are points on the circle and AP
and BP are chords of the circle.
a ÐAOB is central angle subtended by arc ACB Central angle
Inscribed angle
b ÐAPB is an inscribed angle subtended by B
arc ACB;
Inte
rcepted arc
c Arc ACB is called an arc intercepted by P O c
ÐAOB and
d Arc ACB is intercepted by ÐAPB A
Figure 6.11 Central and inscribed angles of a circle
142
Unit 6: Lines and angles in a circle
Note
In Figure 6.11 above
a ÐAOB is a central angle of circle O. In this case, we say that
arc
ACB subtends ∠AOB and
∠AOB intercepts arc
ACB
b ÐAPB is an inscribed angle of circle O. In this case, we say that:
arc
ACB subtends ∠APB and
∠APB intercepts arc
ACB
Theorem 6.1
In a given circle, the meaure of a central angle is equal to the
measure of its intercepted arc.
O
In Figure 6.12, O is the center of the circle and A, B and C are
points on the circle. Arc ACB is the arc intercepted by the central A B
angle ÐAOB and m Ð AOB = m( ACB) . C
Figure 6.12 A circle with center O
Example 6.3
In Figure 6.13, O is the center of the circle, A, X, B, Y, C ,Y and Z are points on the
circle, AC is a diameter of the circle and m Ð AOB = 80° .
Then find
A
a
m AXB x
m BYC
80o B
b O
Z
c m AZC
y
C
Figure 6.13 Circle
Solution
a By Theorem 6.1, m AXB
= m ÐAOB = 80° .
143
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
b As AC is a diameter of the circle, ÐAOC is a straight angle. That is,
m ÐAOC = 180° .
Thus, m ÐAOB + m(ÐBOC) = 180° .
This implies m(ÐBOC) = 180° m(ÐAOB) = 180° 80° = 100° .
= m ÐBOC = 100° .
Then, by Theorem 6.1, m BYC
c Using Theorem 6.1, m AZC
= m ÐAOC = 180° .
Example 6.4 D
A
In Figure 6.14, O is the center of the circle and AC and BD
O
are diameters of the circle. Then find. m AB , m BC and
70o
m CD
C
B
Solution Figure 6.14
As O is the center of the circle, ∠AOB, ∠BOC, ∠COD and ∠AOD are central angles.
a
= m(∠AOB) = 700 (by Theorem 6.1)
m AB
b m BC
= m(∠BOC) = 180 0
700 = 1100 (because m(∠AOC) = 180o)
c m CD
=
m ÐCOD = 1800 1100 = 700 (m(∠BOD) = 180o).
Measures of Inscribed Angels and Intercepted Arcs
Activity 6.3
Using a ruler and a protractor:
a draw a circle of radius 2cm with center O;
b draw a central angle and an inscribed angle which are subtended by the same
arc on the circle;
c measure the two angles in (b).
d what relation do you get between the measures of the two angles?
For your responses on Activity 6.3, observe that the measure of the inscribed angle is half
of the measure of the central angle that are subtended by the same arc.
In Theorem 6.1, the measure of a central angle and the measure of the arc intercepted by
the central angle are equal.
In the following Theorem, a relationship between the measure of an inscribed angle and
the measure of the arc intercepted by the inscribed angle is given.
144
Unit 6: Lines and angles in a circle
Theorem 6.2
In any circle, the measure of an inscribed angle is half of the P
measure of the arc intercepted by the inscribed angle.
In Figure 6.15, if O is the center of the circle and P, A,C and
1
B are points on the circle, then m (Ð APB) = m ABC O
2
A
B
C
Figure 6.15 Circle O
Using the results in Theorem 6.1 and Theorem 6.2, given a circle O, if A, X, B and D are
points on the circle, as shown in the figure below, then ÐADB is an angle inscribed angle
subtended bym(
AXB.) Then
A
1 1
a m(∠ADB) = m Ð AOB = m( AXB)
2 2
x
b m Ð AOB = 2 m Ð ADB
O
B
c m ÐAOB = m( AXB) D
Note
In a circle;
a the measures of inscribed angles which are subtended by the same arc are
equal;
b the measure of an inscribed angle is half of the measure of a central angle that
is subtended by the same arc.
Example 6.5
In the figure below, O is the center of the circle, AB and CD are diameters of the
circle and m( AXC ) = 900. Then evaluate each of the following.
A
a m(∠AOC)
x
b m(∠ADC)
D C
c m(∠ABC) O
d m(∠DCB)
B
145
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Solution
From the given information, ∠AOC is a centeral angle and ∠ADC, ∠ABC and
∠DCB are inscribed angles on the circle.
a m(∠AOC) = m(
AXC ) = 900 (by Theorem 6.1)
1 1
b m(∠ADC) =
2
m(
AXC ) =
2
900 = 45o (by Theorem 6.2)
1 1
c m(∠ABC) = m(
2
AXC ) =
2
900 = 45o (by Theorem 6.2)
d m(∠DOB) = 900 (vertically opposite angles are congruent)
1 1 m(DOB) 1 (90o ) 45o
Then, m(∠DCB) = m BD (by Theorem 6.2)
2 2 2
Therfore, m(∠DCB) = 450.
Example 6.6 B
In Figure 6.16, O is the center of the circle and AC is
C
diameter of the circle. If y = 1120, then find the value of x.
y
Solution x O
A
In Figure 6.16, ∠BOC is a central angle and ∠BAC is an
inscribed angle.
Figure 6.16
m(∠BOC) = 1800 − y =1800 − 1120 = 680 (∠AOC is straight angle).
1 1
m(∠BAC) = m(BOC) (68o ) 34o (by Theorem 6.2)
2 2
This implies, x = 34 .
o
Exercise 6.2
1 For each of th figures below, if O is the center of the circle and points A,B,C and D
are points on the circle, then find the measures of the angles indicated by x and y.
a b c
B B B C C C
D D D
C C C y y y
70o 70o 70o x x x
y y y B xB Bx x D D D
42o 42o 42o
O O O O O O A A AO O O
x x x 40o 40o 40o
120o 120o120o
C C C
A A A A A A B B B
146
Unit 6: Lines and angles in a circle
2 What is the measure of an inscribed angle subtended by a semi-circle?
3 In the figure below, if O is the center of the circle, EC EC
is a diameter of the circle and
A, B, C, D and E are points on the circle, then find the values of x and y.
B D
80o 50o
x O
A y
E
4 If the measure of a central angle of a circle of radius 3cm is 900, then
a find the length of the chord intercepted by the central angle;
b find the measure of any inscribed angle intercepted by the same arc as the
given central angle.
5 In the figures below, O is the center of the circle. If m(
ACB) = 212o , then find
m(∠AOB) and m(∠ACB).
C
B
O
6 In the figure below A,B,C and D are points on the circle and P is any point inside
the circle which is the intersection of chords AC and BD . If m(∠CPD) = 1200,
m(∠PCD) = 300. Then
B
a Are m(∠BAC) and m(∠BDC) equal? C
b Are m(∠ABD) and m(∠ACD) equal? P
c Find m(∠BAC) and m(∠BPA).
A
d Is P the center of the circle? Why?
D
6.3 Angles Formed by Two Intersecting Chords in a Circle
When two chords intersect inside a circle, the circle is divided B
into four arcs and there are four angles that are formed in the
A
process. E
C
In the figure on the right, A, B, C and D are points on the circle
and AC and BD are cords of the circle. D
147
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Activity 6.4
Using ruler and protractor,
a draw a circle of radius 2cm with center O;
b draw two chord AC and BD that are intersecting at point E inside the circle
c measure the angles ∠AED, ∠ACD and ∠BDC;
1
d compare m(∠AED) and m ∠ ACD + m ∠ BDC .
2
For your responses in Activity 6.4, observe that the measure of an angle formed by two
chords is half of the sum of the measure of the arcs inscribed it and its vertically opposite
angle.
Theorem 6.3
The measure of an angle formed by two chords intersecting inside a circle is half of
the sum of the measures of the arcs subtending the angle and its vertically opposite
angle. B
X
That is, if AB and CD are two intersecting chords of a circle at C P
point P, as in Figure 6.17, then D
Y
m ∠ BPD = m(BXD )
1 ) + m(AYC
2 A
Figure 6.17
Proof:
Consider Figure 6.18.
a m ∠ BPD + m ∠ΑPD = m ∠ BAD + m(∠ CDA) + m ∠ΑPD (both
sums are 1800)
This implies, m ∠ BPD = m ∠ BAD + m (∠ CDA) .
1
b m ∠ BAD = m( BXD
1
) (by Theorem 6.2) m ∠ CDA = m(
AYC ) (by
2 2
Theorem 6.2)
1 ) + 1 m(
c m ∠ BPD =m( BXD AYC ) ( from Steps a and b)
2 2
1
Therefore, m ∠ BPD = AYC ) .
m( BXD) + m(
2
B
x
C P
D
y
Figure 6.18
148
Unit 6: Lines and angles in a circle
Example 6.7
B
In Figure 6.19, AC and BD are chords of the circle that 82o
intersect at O. If m( ) = 460, then find
AB ) = 820 and m( DC A b
the value of β. O C
Solution 46o
D
AC and BD are chords of the circle that intersect at O. Figure 6.19
Then
m(DC AB) (by Theorem 6.3)
1
m ∠ AOB = ) + m(
2
82
1 0
= + 460 = 640
2
This implies, m AOB = 640
= m ∠ BOC = 1800 m ∠ AOB ( ∠ AOC is a straight angle).
=180o − 64o = 116o
Example 6.8
A
In Figure 6.20, AB and DC are parallel chords of circle O, D
AC and BD are chords of the circle that intersect at O and a o
m ∠ ABD = 330 . Find m (ÐAOD) and m (ÐACD). 33 o
O
bo
B
Solution C
Figure 6.20
AC and BD are chords that intersect at point O inside the circle.
a
= 2m Ð ABD = 2 ×330 = 660 (by Theorem 6.2)
m AD
b m Ð BDC = 330 ( Ð BDC and Ð ABD are alternate interior angles)
c
= 2m Ð BDC = 2 × 330 = 660 (by Theorem 6.2)
m BC
1 = 1 660 = 330 (by Theorem 6.2)
d m Ð ACD = m AD
2 2
+ m BC = 2 66
1 m AD
1
e m Ð AOD = 0
+ 660 = 660 (by
Theorem 6.3) 2
149
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Note
C
1 An inscribed angle on a circle subtended by a diameter is
900.
A B
In Figure 6.21, if AB is the diameter of a circle O and O
Ð ACB is an inscribed angle subtended by AB , then
m Ð ACB = 900
Figure 6.21
2 A line through the center of a circle perpendicular to a chord bisects both the chord
and the arc intercepted by the chord.
In Figure 6.22, if O is the center of a circle and OC is perpendicular to chord AB
at R, then AR @ RB and m AC
@ m BC
A R B
3 A perpendicular bisector of any chord of a circle passes through the center of the
circle.
4 The center of a circle is located on the intersection point of perpendicular bisectors
of the chords of the circle.
5 The center of any circle can be located by the following steps.
Step 1: Draw two different non parallel chords AB and CD of the circle.
Step 2: Construct the perpendicular bisectors of these chords using compass
and ruler.
Step 3: The intersection point of the perpendicular bisectors of AB and CD is
the center of a circle.
A B A B A B
C C
O
D D
150
Unit 6: Lines and angles in a circle
Exercise 6.3
1 In the figure below, AC and BD are chords and O is the center of a circle.
If m( ) = 400, then determine m(∠APD)
AD ) = 720 and m( BC
A
P
40o O
D
C
2 In the figure below, AC and BD are chords of the circle with center O.
) = 400, then find m(∠APD)
) = 1000 and m( BC
If m( ABC
A
P
40o O
D
C
3 In the figure below, AC , AD , AE and BE are chords and O is the center of the
circle. If m(∠AOB) = 800 and m(∠EAD) = 300, then find the value of x.
E
x D
30 o
A C
80o O
4 In the figure below, AC , AD , BC and BD are chords and O is the center of the
circle. Find m(∠AOC) and m(∠CBD).
C
D
40o
O
A
B
151
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
5 In the figure below, AB and CD are chords of the circle. If m(∠AEC) = 900 and
m(∠BAC) = 350, then find m(∠ABD).
A C
B
D
6 Find the values of all the unknown angles , and in the figure below if AC and
0
BD are chords of the circle intersecting at X, m( Ð AXB ) = 100 and m(∠ACD) =
240
D C
b 24o
X
a q
A B
7 In the figure below, if Q is the center of the circle, AB is a chord of the circle,
m( Ð AQC ) = 620 and M is the midpoint of chord AB, then find the values of x and
y.
O
62o
y M
A x B
8
0
In the figure below, m( Ð BAC ) = 45 , O is the center of the circle with radius 4cm,
AB, AC and BC are chords of the circle. Find B
a m( Ð BOC )
4 cm
)
b m( BAC 4 cm C
O
45 o
A
c the length of chord BC
152
Unit 6: Lines and angles in a circle
Unit Summary
1 A secant line intersects a circle at two distinct points.
2 A tangent line touches a circle only at a point.
3 The longest chord of a circle is called the diameter.
4 The measure of a minor arc of a circle is less than 1800.
5 The measure of a major arc of a circle is greater than 1800.
6 The measure of a semi-circles is 1800.
7 Arcs of the same circle are proportional to their corresponding angles.
8 A sector is part of a circle enclosed by two radii of a circle and its intercepted arc.
9 A segment of a circle is the region bounded by a chord and the arc subtended by
the chord.
10 The measure of a central angle is equal to the measure of the arc it intercepts.
11 The measure of an inscribed angle is equal to half of the measure of the arc it
intercepts.
12 Inscribed angles subtended by the same arc are congruent.
13 The measure of central angle subtended by a semi-circle is 1800.
14 The measure of an inscribed angle subtended by a semi-circle is 900.
15 Two chords intersecting inside a circle form an angle whose measure is equal to half
of the measures of opposite arcs subtending the angle.
16 A perpendicular bisector of any chord of a circle passes through the center of the
circle.
153
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Review Exercises
1 Identify which of the following statements are true
a Every chord is a diameter of the circle.
b A bisector of any chord of a circle is the bisector of its arc.
c An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.
2 Two chords intersect inside a circle andform an angle of 750. If one of the intercepted
arc is 600, find the measure of the other intercepted arc.
3 A chord of length 16cm is at a distance of 4cm from the center of the circle. Find
the radius of the circle.
4 Show that a line through the center of a circle and perpendicular to a chord
a bisects the chord.
b bisects the arc whose end points are the end points of the chord.
5 In the figure below, O is the center of the circle. Find the value of x.
4x
O
5x
C
B
B
6 In the figure to the right, O is the center of the circle
a If m (∠AOC) =1400, then find m(∠ABC) and m(∠ADC) O
b If m(∠ABC) = 600, then find m(∠AOC) and m(∠ADC) A C
c If m(∠ABC) = 800, then find m(∠OAC). D
d If m(∠OCA) = 200, then find m(
ADC )
154
Unit 6: Lines and angles in a circle
7 In the figure below, if m(∠BFC) = 58°, m(∠BXG) = 48° and m(∠CBF) = 22°, then
find the measure of
a ∠BGX
b ∠BGF G F E
H
X 58 o
48o
c ∠BCF 22o C
D
A
B
d ∠BCG
e ∠BFG
8 In the figure below if AC is diameter of the circle, m(∠CAD) = 250 and m(∠BCD)
= 1320, then find
a m(∠ACD) B
A
b m(∠ACB) 25o
c m(∠BDC) 132o C
d m(∠CBD) D
e m(∠CAB)
9 In the figure below, O is the center of the circle. If m(∠CBA) = 150, then find the
values of x and y.
B
C y
o 15o
xo O
10 The diagram below shows a triangle ABC inscribed in a circle O of diameter AB,
AC = 16cm and BC = 12cm. Find the area of the shaded region.
16cm
12c
O
m
A B
155
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
11 The tires of a car rotate 1000 revolution to cover a certain distance. If the diameter
of the tire is 100 cm. how much distance did the car travel to cover that distance?
12 In the figure below, ABCD is an inscribed quadrilateral, express x in terms of y and
y in terms of x.
B
x
C
A
y
D
156
Unit 7
SOLID FIGURES AND
MEASUREMENTS
Learning outcomes:
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
ª identify types and parts of solid figures
ª find the surface area of solid figures
ª find the volume of solid figures
ª appreciate application of solid figures in solving real-life problems.
Key terms
prism pyramid
cylinder cone
net of solid figures surface area
volume slant height
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Introduction
In your previous grades, you have studied about perimeters and areas of squares,
rectangles, triangles, circles, sectors of circles, etc. These figures are called plane figures
because each of them lies in a plane. However, most of the objects that you come across
in daily life do not wholly lie in a plane. Some of these objects are match box, balls, ice
cream cones, drums, and so on. The figures representing these objects are called three
dimensional ��es or solid ��es. Some common solid figures are prisms, pyramids,
cylinders, cones and spheres. In this unit, you will learn about the shape, surface areas and
volumes of common solid figures and their applications.
7.1 Solid Figures
A solid figure is a three-dimensional figure because it has three dimensions length, width
and height. Solid figures can be identified by the shape of their bases, number of faces
and the shape of their lateral faces. In this section, you will learn about the most common
solid figures namely prism, pyramid, cylinder and cone.
Activity 7.1
1 Give a model or real object as an example for each of the solid figures in Figures 7.1.
2 For each of the solid figures identify the type and number of faces.
a b c d
e f g h
Figure 7.1 Solid figures
You can mention real objects having shapes similar to the above figures in your
surroundings. For example ball, tin can, match box, funnel, roof of hut, barrel, drum and
so on. A match box has six rectangular faces but a tin can has curved face.
158
Unit 7: Solid figures and measurements
7.1.1 Prism and Cylinder
Activity 7.2
A designer wants to make containers in the shape of a box and a tin can as shown
in Figure 7.2.
a How many bases do the box and the tin can
have?
b What are the shapes of the bases for the box and
the tin can?
c What are the shapes of the lateral faces of the
Figure 7.2
box and the tin can?
Definition 7.1
A prism is a solid figure with two congruent parallel faces called bases, that can
be triangles, squares, rectangles or a polygon in general and the lateral faces are
parallelograms. A prism take its name from the name of the base.
Triangular Prism Square Prism Pentagon Prism
(Bases are Triangles) (Bases are Squares) (Bases are Pentagons)
A prism has two congruent bases: upper base and lower base. The lateral faces of any
prism are parallelograms. The edges of a prism are line segments that are intersection of
adjacent faces. The intersection part of edges of the prism is called vertex of the prism.
Consider the rectangular prism shown in Figure 7.3.
upper base
B C
A h lateral face
D
lateral face F G
w
E l H
lower base
Figure 7.3
In Figure 7.3
The quadrilateral region ABCD is the upper base and quadrilateral EFGH is the
lower base. The two quadrilateral are parallel and congruent.
159
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
The parallelograms ABFE, BCGF, CDHG and ADHE are lateral faces of the prism.
The line segments AB, BC , CD, DA, EF , FG, GH and HE are edges of the base.
and the line segment AE , BF , CG and DH are lateral edges of the prism.
Points A, B, C, D, E, F,G and H are verices of prism.
Definition 7.2
A prism is said to be right prism, if each lateral edge is perpendicular to the edge of
the base. Otherwise it is called an Oblique prism.
Base
Base
Base Base
Right Prism Oblique Prism
A right prism has the following properties.
The bases are congruent polygons.
The bases lay on parallel planes.
Every lateral edge is perpendicular to its base edge.
All lateral edges are parallel and congruent.
All lateral faces are rectangular regions.
Definition 7.3
A cylinder is a solid figure whose upper and lower bases are congruent circles
joined by curved surface on parallel planes.
Bases Radius
Axis
Height Height
Bases
Axis
Right cylinder Oblique cylinder
160
Unit 7: Solid figures and measurements
Note
The distance between the two bases of the cylinder is called height of the cylinder.
Definition 7.4
A right cylinder is a cylinder in which the line through the center of the bases is
perpendicular to the bases, otherwise it is called an oblique cylinder.
Right Cylinder Oblique cylinder
A right circular cylinder has the following properties.
The upper and the lower bases are congruent (circles of equal radius).
The bases lay on parallel planes.
A line through the centers of the bases is perpendicular to every diameter of the
bases.
Exercise 7.1
1 Answer the following questions based on the given information in Figure 7.4
a Write the name of the solid figure
b Identify all bases, lateral faces, lateral edges and vertices
T
P S
Q R
h h
E
A e d D
a c
B b C
Figure 7.4
2 Draw a right hexagonal prism and identify its parts
3 Draw a right cylinder and identify its parts
161
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
7.1.2 Pyramids and Cones
Activity 7.3
1 The roof of a house is designed in two different models as shown in Figure 7.5
below. What similarity and difference do you observe?
Figure 7.5
2 Have you ever seen the shape in Figure 7.6? What is its name?
Figure 7.6
Definition 7.5
Vertex
A pyramid is a solid figure bounded by a polygon called
the base, and others are triangles having a common vertex
at some point not in the plane of the base. Lateral Face
ge
Ed
Base
pyramid
The base of a pyramid can be triangle, quadrilateral or any polygon and the corresponding
pyramid is named according to its base.
Triangular pyramid if its base in a triangle.
Rectangular pyramid if its base is a rectangle.
Square pyramid if its base is a square.
A V V
B
B B A B C
A
A C
D E D
Triangular Pyramid Rectangular Pyramid Pentagon Pyramid
162
Unit 7: Solid figures and measurements
In this discussion we shall consider only pyramids with regular bases. A regular pyramid
is a pyramid whose base is a regular polygon and whose lateral edges are all equal in
length and as a result all the lateral faces are congruent isosceles triangles.
Consider the pyramid Figure 7.7
Vertex
V
Lateral edges
Slant height
Height of the pyramid
Lateral face
D C
F E
Base
A
B
Figure 7.7 Regular pyramid
The polygonal region ABCD is the base of the pyramid.
The point V outside of the plane of the polygon (base),which is the intersection
of the lateral faces, is the vertex of the pyramid.
The triangles ∆VAB, ∆VBC, ∆VCD and ∆VDA are lateral face of the pyramid.
AB, BC , CD and DA are the edges of the base of the pyramid
VA,VB, VC and VD are lateral edges of the pyramid, they meet at the vertex
The perpendicular distance VF from the vertex to a point on the base is the
altitude of the pyramid.
The length of the altitude of a lateral face of the pyramid is a slant height.
Definition 7.6
A right pyramid is a pyramid whose altitude drawn from its vertex to the base
passes through the center of the base and it is perpendicular to the base, otherwise
it is called oblique pyramid.
h h
Base Base
Right Pyramid Oblique pyramid
163
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
A right pyramid has the following properties.
The foot of the altitude is at the center of the base.
All the lateral faces are isosceles triangles.
All the slant heights are equal.
Definition 7.7
Cone is a solid figure formed by a circular shaped base and
closed curved surface meet at a point not on the plane of
the base.
Figure 7.8 A cone
Consider the cone in Figure 7.9.
V
Vertex
Vertex
Height
Slant height
Base Base raidus
O
Figure 7.9
The circle O is the base of the cone.
The closed curved surface is lateral surface of the cone.
The point V outside the plane of the base at which the curved surface meets is
the vertex of the cone.
The perpendicular distance VO from the vertex to the base is called the altitude
of the cone.
The length of a line segment from the vertex to any point of the base circle is
slant height.
Definition 7.8
A right circular cone is a circular cone with the foot of its altitude is at the center of
the base, otherwise it is called oblique cone.
Axis Axis
Base r Base r
Right Cone Oblique Cone
164
Unit 7: Solid figures and measurements
A right cone has the following properties.
The altitude is perpendicular to the base at the center of the circle.
Any two slant heights are congruent.
Exercise 7.2
1 Answer the following questions based the information in Figure 7.10
Z
R S T
Q A U
P W V
Figure 7.10
a Give a name for the solid figure.
b Identify the base, lateral faces, lateral edges , vertex, slant height and height
of the pyramid.
2 Draw a right pentagonal pyramid and identify its parts
3 Draw a right circular cone and identify its parts.
7.2 Surface Area of Solid Figures
In our daily life, there are many situations which need the concept of surface area of solid
figures. For example, if you are interested in paint the walls and ceiling of a room, you
have to find the surface areas of the walls and the ceiling of the room to determine the
cost.
7.2.1 Nets of Solid Figures
A net is a two-dimensional figure that can be folded into a solid figure. There are many
different nets. Here, nets have been provided for the cube, square pyramid, rectangular
prism, triangular prism, triangular pyramid, cylinder and cone. Cutting out these nets,
folding and gluing them to create a solid object, will help you become familiar with the
features of these solids (such as their faces, edges and vertices). A solid can have several
different nets.
165
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 7.1
Net for Square Prism
Net for Square Pyramid
Net for Triangular Prism
r
C=2r
C=2r
Net for Circular Cylinder
l
l
r r
Net for Circular Cone
166
Unit 7: Solid figures and measurements
Exercise 7.3
1 Which of the following are nets of a cube?
2 Prepare papers with the following design and fold to identify solid figures that
could be formed by each of the following nets.
3 Use the description below; identify an object that has each set of faces.
a Two congruent squares and four congruent rectangles.
b One rectangle and two pairs of congruent triangles.
c Four congruent equilateral triangles.
7.2.2 Surface Area of Prism and Cylinder
Activity 7.4
The figure below shows a cube with edge length a units and its nets (all faces) are given.
a Calculate the area of each face of the cube and add together. Compare this
result with the area of the net of the cube?
b How much faces are needed to make net of a cube?
a2
a a2 a2 a2 a2
a a
a2
From your response in Activity 7.4 observe that the sum of the areas of all faces of
the cube is equal to the area of the net of the cube.
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Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Definition 7.9
The surface area of a solid figure is the sum of the area of each face of the solid
figure.
Surface Area of a Rectangular Prism
You can use a net to help you to find the surface area of the solid figure.
Consider a rectangular prism with length , width w and height h.
B C
A h
D
F G
w
E l H
Then, the lateral faces of the prism are rectangles ABFE, BCGF, CDHG and ADHE and
the bases are rectangles ABCD and EFGH.
Now, you can compute surface area using nets as follows.
Step 1: Draw the net. A rectangular prism has six [Link] is, two bases (Lower and
upper) and four lateral faces.
Upper Base
ABCD
Back Side Right Side Front Side Left Side
BCGF CDHG h
ADHE ABFE
w l w
Lower Side
EFGH w
Step 2: Find the area of each face
Face ABCD: Area ABCD =w Face BCGF: Area BCGF = h
Face EFGH: Area EFGH = w Face CDHG: Area CDHG =wh
Face ADHE: Area ADHE = h Face ABFE: Area ABFE =wh
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Unit 7: Solid figures and measurements
Step 3: Add all the areas to find the surface area. Let AL be the lateral surface area,
Then
AL =a ADHE +a BCGF +a CDHG +a ABFE
AL = h + h +wh +wh
AL = 2 +w h
AL =Ph, where P is perimeter of the base
Let AB be area of one of the bases. Then AB = w
Let AT be the total surface area of the regular rectangular prism. Then
AT =AL +2 AB
AT =Ph +2 AB = 2 +w h +2 w
= 2 h +wh + w
Therefore, the total surface a rectangular regular prism with length , width w and
length h is given by AT=2(w+h+wh)
Example 7.2
A carpenter is designing a wooden box for sale. The box has length 6ft, width 4ft
and height 4ft. Before he buys the wood, he needs to find the total surface area of
the box. How much square feet of material is needed to prepare the box?
Solution
Suppose the box is designed as in the following figure.
B C
Then it is given that =6 ft , w=4 ft and h =5 ft.
Then the total surface area of the box is A
h=5ft
AT=2(w+h+wh)=2(6ft ´4ft+6ft ´5ft+4ft ´5ft)
F G
=2 (24ft2 +30ft2+20ft2)
w=4ft
So, AT = 2(74ft ) = 148ft
2 2 E
H
Therefore, the carpenter has to buy a wooden material of 148 ft2 to prepare the box
of his design.
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Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Surface Area of a circular cylinder
Consider a circular cylinder with base radius r and height h. The net for this solid is shown
in the figure below.
r
C=2r h h
C=2r
Since the bases of a cylinder are congruent circles, they have equal area. If the bases
are detached, the remaining parts of the cylinder form a rectangle of length 2pr
(Circumference of the circle) and width h (height of the cylinder)
Thus, we have;
the lateral surface area of the cylinder is the area of the rectangle:
AL=2prh
the area of the bases is the sum of the areas of the two circles:
2AB=2pr2
The total surface area of the cylinder is
AT= AL+2AB=2prh+2pr2 = 2pr (r+h)
Example 7.3
If the height of a right circular cylinder is 7 cm and diameter of its base is 10cm,
then find
a lateral surface area of the cylinder
b total surface area of the cylinder, h=7cm
Solution
Since diameter of the base d=10cm, its radius r =5cm and height h=7cm. Then
a Lateral surface area:
AL=2prh=2p(5cm) (7cm)
AL=2´p´35cm2=70pcm2
Therefore, lateral surface area of the cylinder is 70pcm2
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Unit 7: Solid figures and measurements
b Total surface area:
AT=2pr(r+h)
AT=2p(5cm)(5cm+7cm)
AT=2 ´ p ´ (5cm)(12cm)
AT=120pcm2
Therefore, total surface area of the cylinder is 120pcm2
Exercise 7.4
1 Find the lateral and total surface area of a rectangular prism whose height is 8cm
and base with length 4cm and width 6cm.
2 Find the lateral surface area and total surface of a right circular cylinder
of radius 5m and height 1.4 m.
3 Find the total surface area for the following solid figures
3cm
4cm
6.5cm 9.6cm 4.4cm
3.4cm 0.9cm
7.2.3 Surface Area of Pyramid and Cone
Activity 7.5
Prepare a net of triangular pyramid by using piece of paper as shown below.
a Construct the model of the pyramid by using
the above net.
b What is the shape of each face of the pyramid?
c Discuss how to find the surface area of
pyramid?
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Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
The lateral surface area of pyramid is the sum areas of its lateral faces. The total surface
area of a pyramid is the sum of its lateral surface area and the area of is base
Consider the net diagram of a square pyramid as shown below
Vertex
Lateral Face Lateral Face
Slant Height
hs Base
l Base
Slant Height
1
The lateral surface area A of a square pyramid is given by= 4 hs (the four lateral
2
faces are congruent triangles with as base and hs as a height ) and the total surface area
AT of a square pyramid is given by
AT =AB +A =l 2 + 4 1 hs =l 2 + 1 Phs
2 2
where,
is the length of one side of the square base;
hs is the slant height of the pyramid; and
P is perimeter of the base, P=4
Example 7.4
The base of right square pyramid has length 6cm. If the height of the pyramid is
4cm, then find
V
a lateral surface area of the pyramid; 4cm
b total surface area of the pyramid. hs
Solution D
A x C
Let us draw the model of the square pyramid O
6cm E
with given dimensions. B
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Unit 7: Solid figures and measurements
To find the lateral surface area, we need the length of the slant height. Since ÐVOE is
right angle triangle, by Pythagoras theorem
AB 2 1
2 (VE is the slant height and OE = 2 AB )
2 2 2 2
VE = VO + OE = VO +
VE = 4cm + 3cm =25cm2
2 2 2
Thus, hs = VE = 25cm 2 =5cm .
Hence, the lateral surface area is given by
1 1
AL = Phs = × 4×6cm×5cm
2 2
AL =60cm 2
The base is square with side 6cm.
So, the base area is AB = (6cm)2
=36cm2
Thus, the total surface area
AT = AL + AB =60cm 2 +36cm 2 =96cm 2
Surface Area of a Cone
Consider a right circular cone with base radius r and slant height hs . Then its net is given
in Figure 7.11. The net of a cone is union of a circle and a sector.
Note: the area of sector As of a circle of radius is r and arc length is given by the formula
1
AS = r
2
hs
hs
r r
Figure 7.11
The base area is the area of a circle of radius r. That is AB=pr2
The lateral surface area is the area of the sector which is given by
1
AL = ×hs ×2r =rhs , where r is given by the radius of the sector and 2pr is the length
2
of the arc.
Hence, the total surface area
AT AL AB rhs r 2 r (r hs )
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Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Note: The area of a sector of a circle with radius r and central angle q is defined by
r
2
A=
3600
V
Example 7.5
Find the total surface area of a right circular cone whose altitude is
h hs
12cm and base radius is 5cm.
Solution r
O A
Consider Figure 7.12 Figure 7.12
Since the altitude is h=12cm and the base radius is r=5cm, then using Pythagoras
theorem on the right angled triangle ∆VOA, the slant height hs, can be calculated as
VA = OA + VO
2 2 2
hs2 =r 2 +h 2 =(5cm) 2 + 12cm =25cm 2 +144cm 2 =169cm 2
2
Thus, hs = 169cm 2 =13cm
Then, the total surface area is given by
AT r (r hs ) 5cm 5cm 13cm
AT 5cm 18cm 90cm 2
Exercise 7.5
1 Find lateral surface area and total surface area of a right square pyramid with length
of the base 8cm and slant height of the pyramid is 10 cm.
2 Find lateral surface area and total surface area of a right circular cone with diameter
of the base 12 cm and height 8cm.
3 If the edge of the base of a regular square pyramid is 16cm long and its lateral
surface area is 320 cm2, then
a find the slant height of the pyramid;
b the altitude of the pyramid.
4 What is the increase in the total surface area of a cone, if the base radius and slant
height are both doubled?
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Unit 7: Solid figures and measurements
7.3 Volume of Solid Figures
Volume is the quantity of three-dimensional space occupied by
a liquid, solid, or gas. Common units used to express volume 1 unit
include liters, cubic meters (m3), gallons, cubic centimeters
(cm3). To find the volume of three-dimensional figure, we can
1 unit
use cubes as a unit and count the number of cubes it should take 1 unit
to fill the space.
7.3.1 Volume of Prism
Activity 7.6
Consider the following rectangular prism filled with unit cubes.
a How many unit cubes are needed to fill the object in the left?
b Set a formula to determine the total number of unit cubes contained in the
prism?
From your responses in Activity 7.6, observe that the the total numberof cubes that are
used to fill the rectangle box is the volume of the box.
Definition 7.10
The volume (V) of a right prism is the product of its base area AB and height (h) of
the prism. That is, V= ABh
w
l
The volume V of a right rectangular prism of length l, width w and height h is given
by V=lwh
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Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 7.6
Find the volume of a rectangular prism of length 3cm, width 4cm and height 5cm
Solution
Volume = l ´ w ´ h
=3cm ´ 4cm ´ 5cm
=60cm3
Example 7.7
Find the volume of a right prism whose altitude is 8
units and whose base is a right-angled triangle with
legs 5 units and 12 units.
Solution
8 unit
The prism is illustrated in the Figure in the right side 5u
nit nit
V=ABh 12 u
1
V =
×5cm×12cm
8cm
2
V =30cm 2 ×8cm=240cm3
Example 7.8
If the volume of a square prism is B cm3, then find the height of the prism in terms
of dimension of the base and its volume.
Solution
Let h be the height of a prism. If the length of side of the base is a cm, then
V=Bcm3 =AB h
V B
h= = cm3 , but AB =a 2 cm 2 (the base is square)
AB AB
Bcm3 B
Then, h = 2 2
= 2 cm
a cm a
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Unit 7: Solid figures and measurements
Exercise 7.6
1 Find the volume of a square prism with edges of the square are 6cm each and its
height is 10cm.
2 Find the length of the edge of a cube whose volume is 3375cm3
3 The length, width and height of a rectangular box are 12m, 8m and 6m respectively.
How many small boxes can it hold if each box occupies 1.5 m3 space?
7.3.2 Volume of Pyramid
Theorem 7.1
The volume V of any pyramid is equal to one-third of the
product of its base area and height. That is h
1
V= AB h
3
where, AB is the base area of the pyramid and h is the
height of the pyramid.
AB
Example 7.9
The base of a pyramid is a square whose side is 6cm long. Find the volume of the
pyramid if its height is 4cm.
Solution
Since the base is a square, the base area is given by
AB = 6cm =36cm 2
2
Then, volume of the pyramid is given by
1 1
V = AB h = ×36cm 2 ×4cm=48cm3
3 3
Thus, the volume of the pyramid is 48cm3
Example 7.10
Find the height of a rectangular pyramid with volume of 100cm3 and a base of
length 4cm and width 5cm.
Solution
Volume = ABh, where AB = area of the base and h= height
AB= lw, where l is the length and w is the width of the base.
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Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
So, AB= 4cm x 5cm = 20 cm2
100 cm 2
100 cm2 = 20cm x h and h =
20 cm
= 5cm
Exercise 7.7
1 Find the volume of a right pyramid whose altitude is 6cm and whose base is a right
angled triangle with legs 3cm and 4 cm.
2 Find the length of edge of the base of square pyramid whose volume and height are
1200cm3 and 25cm respectively.
7.3.3 Volume of Cylinder
Definition 7.11
The volume V of a circular cylinder is equal to the product h
of the base area and its altitude. That is V AB h r 2 h r
where, r is the radius of the base, h is the height of the
cylinder
Example 7.11
A tin can has a shape of circular cylinder whose base radius is 5cm and height is
80cm. Find the volume of the tin can.
Solution
We know that a tin can is one of the real objects modeled by circular cylinder. Then
its volume is given by
V AB h r 2 h
V 5cm 80cm 25cm 2 80cm 2000cm3
2
Thus, the volume of the tin can is 2000cm3
Exercise 7.8
1 A cylindrical water tank has a base diameter 7 m and height 2.1 m. Find the capacity
(volume) of the tank.
2 Length and width of a rectangular paper are 33 cm and 16 cm respectively and it is
folded about its width to form a cylinder. Find the volume of the cylinder.
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Unit 7: Solid figures and measurements
7.3.4 Volume of Cone
Activity 7.7
Do the Activity in a group of two or three students.
Using hard paper, construct a right circular cylinder and a cone having the equal
base and height. Then
a Fill the cone with sand or any cereals and pour into the cylinder. How many
times did you pour into the cylinder to make it full?
b What can you say about the volume of a cylinder and a cone?
From your responses in Activity 7.7, observe that the cylinder can be filled with
three cones sand or cereal
Theorem 7.2
The volume V of a right circular cone with height h and radius
of the base r is equal to one-third of the product of the base
1 1 2
area and its altitude. That is, V AB h r h where, r is the
3 3
radius of the base and h is the height of the cone
Example 7.12
Find the volume of right circular cone with height 12cm and base radius 5cm.
Solution
It is given that base radius r =5cm and height h =12cm
Hence, the volume of the cone is given by
1 1
V r 2 h 5cm 12cm
2
3 3
V 100cm3
Thus, the volume of the cone is 100cm3
Exercise 7.9
1 Find the volume of right circular cone with slant height 13cm and base radius 5cm.
2 A cone has the same height and its radius is twice the radius of another cone. What
is the ratio of the volumes of the two cones?
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Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Unit Summary
1 Family of prisms and pyramids have plane faces whereas family of cylinders and
cones have curved and circular faces.
2 The surface areas and volume of solid figures (prism, pyramid, cylinder and cone)
is summarized in the table below.
Shape Lateral surface area Total surface area Volume
AL = Ph V = AB h
Prism P- perimeter of base
AT = AL + 2 AB . AB - area of base
h-height of prism h- height of prism
1
AL = Phs 1
2 V= AB h
3
Pyramid AT = AL + AB
P- perimeter of base AB - area of base
hs - slant height of pyramid h- height of pyramid
A L 2rh V r 2 h
Cylinder r - radius of base A T 2r r h r - radius of base
h- height of cylinder h- height of cylinder
1
A L rh s V r 2 h
3
Cone A T r r h s
r= radius of base r - radius of base
hs - slant height of cone h- height of cone
Review Exercises
1 How many plane faces are needed to form a solid figure?
2 Find the total surface area and volume of the following solid figures.
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Unit 7: Unit summary
3 If the length of the edge of a cube is doubled, then find
a the increase in its surface area;
b the increase in its volume.
4 If the radius of the base of a cylinder r is doubled, then find
a the increase in its lateral surface area;
b the increase in its volume.
5 Two equally A4 sized sheets of papers are rolled one along the length and the other
along the width to form cylinders. Which cylinder do you think has the greater
volume? Explain.
6 Maritu wants to sell juice in cone-shaped cups. Each cup has a diameter of 4 cm and
height of 8cm. She wants to make enough juice for 50 cups. How much juice does
Martu need to make so all the cups are full?
7 A square sheet of paper 16cm by 16 cm is folded to form lateral surface area of a
square prism. Find the area of the base.
8 The volume of a rectangular prism is 1944cm3. Find the dimensions if the edges are
in the ratio of 3:4:6.
9 The volume of a right circular cylinder is 3080 cm3 and radius of its base is 7cm.
Then find
a the lateral surface area of the cylinder;
b the total surface area of the cylinder.
10 A cone and cylinder as shown in the figure below have the same base area and the
same volume. Find the height of the cone if the height of the cylinder is 30cm.
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Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
11 A soap company sells laundry detergents in two different containers with
dimensions in the following figure. Which container holds more detergent? Justify
your answer.
182
Unit 8
INTRODUCTION TO
PROBABILITY
Learning outcomes:
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
ª understand the concept of probability;
ª identify event, sample space and possible outcomes;
ª find probability of simple event;
ª apply the concept of probabilities in solving real – life problems.
Key terms
certain event likely event
equally likely probability of an event
event sample space
experiment outcome
impossible outcome unlikely event
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Introduction
We have been using the concept of probability in our
daily life. For example, the probability of winning a
game is high or low, there is high probability that it
will rain today, etc, are used in our day to day activities.
In these sentences, the word probability describes the
estimates of the possibilities or chances to represent The first inquiry into the
how likely or unlikely an event may happen. science of probability was
made by an Italian physician
Probability is being used by governments, economists, and mathematician Girolamo
medical researchers and many other to predict the Cardano (1501-1576). He
future by studying what has already happened. predicated the date of his own
death.
In this unit, you will learn about introductory concepts
of probability.
8.1 The Concept of Probability
Activity 8.1
1 Identify each of the following situations or events as “impossible”, “possible” and
“certain” to happen.
a A sun rises in the East.
b July is always after June.
c A newly born baby will be a girl.
d A flower can talk.
e It will rain tomorrow.
2 Describe the following situations or events as “likely” or “unlikely”
a It will rain in Juanary in Bahr Dar.
b All of the Grade 8 students in the counrty will pass the national examination
c You can complete highschool at the age of 18.
d There will be a heavy rain with the possibility of thunder in August
e All the students in your class have the same weight.
From your responses in Activity 8.1, observe that there are situations or events that are
certain to happen; for example, it is certain that the sun rises in the East;
possible to happen, for example, it may rain tomorrow or
impossible to happen, for example, a flower can’t talk.
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Unit 8: Introduction to probability
There are situations or events that are possible to happen, but it can be classified as likely
and unlikely to happen. For example,
most of the students complete their high school at the age of 18 and the situation
that a you can complete high school at the age of 18 is a likely situation.
The rainy season in Bahr Dar is from July to September and it is unlikely to rain
in January. Therefore, the situation that it will rain in January in Bahr Dar is an
unlikely situation.
Consider following games and the possible outcomes.
Situation Possible Outcomes
Tossing (flipping) a coin and observe the The possible chance is getting either a
above face of the coin. head (H) or a tail (T), but not both at a time
In every tossing, there is one chance out of
the two possibilities, H or T.
T H
Figure 8.1. Ethiopia coin
Rolling (tossing) a fair (balanced) die and The possible chance is getting one of the
observing a number on the top face of the numbers from the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).
die.
In every rolling, there is one chance out of
3 6 the six possibilities, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6. The
2 plural for of die is dice.
4 5
1
Figure 8.2. Fair die
Selecting(picking) a card from a shuffled 52 The possible chance is getting one of the
cards cards from the set of 52 cards marked by
numbers from 2 to 10, letters J, Q, K and A.
There are four chances for each of the
numbers from 2 to 10 or the letters J, Q, K
and A out of the 52 possibilities.
Figure 8.3. Pack of playing cards
Example 8.1
When you roll or toss a fair die once, the possible chance is getting one of the
numbers from the set{1,2,3,4,5,6}. Classify the following situations as possible to
happen, impossible to happen or certain to happen:
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Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
a getting number 7,
b getting an even number and
c getting a number less than 7.
Solution
a The situation of getting number 7 is impossible to happen, because, in rolling
a die, the only numbers that will appear are only.1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6.
b The situation of getting an even number is possible to happen, because, in
rolling a die, you can get even numbers 2, 4 or 6.
c The situation of getting number less than 7 is certain to happen, because, in
rolling a die, the number that will appear is one of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 and all of
them are less than 7.
Basic Terminologies in Probability
Definition 8.1
A process of observation or measurement that produces quantifiable results is called
an experiment and every observation of an experiment is called a trial.
Example 8.2
Throwing a die, tossing a coin, drawing a card and spinning spinner are all trials,
whereas, making each of the trials repeatedly is an experiment.
Definition 8.2
The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called the sample space or the
probability set of that experiment and it is usually denoted by S.
Example 8.3
Find the sample space of each of the following experiments.
a Tossing a coin b Rolling a die
Solution
a In tossing a coin, there are two possible outcomes, Head (H) and Tail (T).
Therefore, the simple space of the experiment is S = {H, T}.
b In rolling a die, the numbers that will appear are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6. Therefore,
the sample space of the experiment is S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}.
Definition 8.3
An outcome or a sample point is a single result from an observation or a
measurement. Outcome is a subset of a sample space.
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Unit 8: Introduction to probability
Example 8.4
Find the sample points of each of the following experiments.
a Tossing a coin b Rolling a die
Solution
a In tossing a coin once, the sample space S = {H, T} has two outcomes {H}
and {T}, which are sample points of S.
b In rolling a die, the sample space S = {1,2,3,4,5,6} has six outcomes {1},
{2}, {3}, {4}, {5} and {6}, which are sample points of S.
Definition 8.4
An Event of a certain experiment is a set of one or more outcomes from the sample
space and it is a subset of the sample space.
Example 8.5
Find each of the following events of rolling a die;
a getting an odd number;
b getting an even number;
c getting a prime number;
d getting a number less than 6
Solution
The sample space of rolling a die is S ={1,2,3,4,5,6}.
a The odd numbers in the sample space are 1, 3 and 5.
Thus, the event of getting an odd number is {1,3,5}.
b The even numbers in the sample space are 2,4 and 6.
Therefore, the event set of getting an even number is {2,4,6}.
c The prime numbers in the sample space are 2,3 and 5.
Therefore, the event set of getting an even number is {2,3,5}.
d The numbers that are less than 6 in the sample space are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Thus, the event of getting a number less that 6 is {1,2,3,4,5}.
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Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Definition 8.5
An event that does not have any chance of occurrence is called impossible outcome.
An impossible outcome has no member.
Example 8.6
The whole numbers 1 to 10 are written on equal sized piece of papers and placed in
a box to drawn a lottery of students’ prize. What is the chance of getting 12?
Solution
There are no ways of getting 12 in this experiment. So, the chance of getting 12 is
impossible. Therefore, this event is impossible with no sample point.
Definition 8.6
If it is certain that an event will occur in an experiment, then it is called a certain
or a sure event.
Example 8.7
In rolling a die, what is the chance of getting a number less than 7?
Solution
If you roll a die, the number that will appear is either 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 and all of the
numbers are less than 7.
Thus, the event of getting a number less than 7 is a certain event.
Example 8.8
There are 40 students in a class and all of them are female. From this class a teacher
wants to select one student at random. What is the chance of selecting a female
student?
Solution
All the students in the class are female and if the teacher selects one student from
the class, then that student will definitely be a female student.
Thus, the event of selecting a female sudent in the class is a certain event.
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Unit 8: Introduction to probability
Activity 8.2
Consider the following experiments:
a Tossing (flipping) a coin
b Rolling (tossing) a die
c Selecting a ball from a box containing 4 red big balls and 3 yellow small
balls.
In which of the experiments does each sample point have an equal chance of
occurrence? Give your reasons.
From your responses in Activity 8.2, observe that there are experiments in which all the
the sample points have equal chance of occurrence and there are experiments that the
sample points do not have equal chance of occurrence.
Definition 8.7
Outcomes in a sample space of a given experiment are said to be equally likely if
each outcome has equal chance of occurrence. Otherwise, it is not equally likely
event.
Example 8.9
In an experiment of rolling a six-faced die, if all the six faces have the same size
and shape, then the six outcomes {1},{2},{3},{4},{5} and {6} have equal chance
of occurrence. In this case, the event containing such types of outcomes is said to
be equally likely event.
Example 8.10
The spinner shown in Figure 8.4 has four unequal sectors,
so when the pointer stops spinning, there are four possible
outcomes indicated by the arrow.
a What are the possible outcomes?
b Give an example of an impossible outcome.
c Is the chance of getting banana and tomato equal?
Why?
Figure 8.4. A spinner
Solution
The spinner has four sectors with different sizes as shown in Figure 8.4. The sector
of Banana has a central angle of 130o, the center for Orange has a central angle of
93o, the sector for Avocado has a central angle of 87o, the sector of Tomato has a
central angle of 50o.
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Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
a When spinning the spinner, the pointer will stop at any of the four regions
labeled by Orange, Banana, Tomato and Avocado. Therefore, the only
possible outcomes of this experiment are elements of the following set.
S={Orange, Banana, Tomato, Avocado}
b The arrow cannot indicate on Lemon as there is no region labeled by Lemon.
Hence {Lemon} is an example of impossible event.
Hence you can have other examples of impossible events
c Since the sector with Banana is much larger than the sector with Tomato,
Banana has a high chance of occurrence than Tomato. Similarly, Banana has
a high chance of occurrence than Orange and it has also a high chance of
occurrence than Avocado.
Hence, the outcomes of this experiment are not equally likely outcomes.
Multiple Events
Activity 8.3
1 Suppose you toss a pair of coins at a time:
a list all possible outcomes of the experiment;
b how many possible outcomes are there?
2 Suppose you roll a pair of dice at the same time:
a list all possible outcomes of the experiment;
b how many possible outcomes are there?
From your responses in Activity 8.3, observe that the number of possible outcomes of a
given experiment is obtained by multiplying the number of possible outcomes in each step.
Note
If there are m different ways that one event can occur and following this event there
are n different ways that another event can occur, then there are m ´n different ways
that both events can occur one after the other.
If there are m different ways that one event can occur, following the first event there
are n different ways that the second event can occur and following the second event
there are k ways that the third event can occur, then there are m´ n´ k different ways
that all the three events can occur one after the other.
Example 8.11
Determine the sample space and the number of elements in the sample space when
you toss a coin two times.
190
Unit 8: Introduction to probability
Solution
Since tossing a coin has two possible outcomes {H} or {T}, the number of sample
points or outcomes in the sample space S when tossing a coin two times are HH,
HT, TH and HH.
In the first throw there are two ways and in the second throw after the first throw
there are two ways.
Therefore, the sample space is {HH, HT, TH, HH} and number of elements in the
sample space is given by 2 ´ 2 = 4.
Example 8.12
Determine the number of elements in the sample space when you toss a coin and
roll a die.
Solution
In tossing a coin there are two possible outcomes {H} or {T} and in rolling a die
there six possible outcomes, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6.
Therefore, the sample space has 2 ´ 6 = 12 elements.
Example 8.13
Determine the sample space and the number of elements in the sample space when
you toss a coin 3 times.
Solution
Since a coin has two possible outcomes {H} or {T}, the number of sample points
or outcomes in the sample space S when tossing a coin three times are listed in the
tree diagram as follows.
That is the first event (throw) can happen in 2 ways, the second event (throw) can happen
in 2 ways and the third event (throw) can happen in 2 ways.
Therefore, the number of elements in the sample space is given by 2 ´ 2 ´ 2 = 8.
191
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 8.14
Find the number of elements in the sample space of rolling a die three times.
Solution
Rolling die has six possible outcomes {1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {5} and {6} and if you
roll (or throw) a die three times, the number of sample points or outcomes in the
sample space is 6 ´ 6 ´ 6 = 216.
Exercise 8.1
1 Determine the sample space and sample points for each of the following experiments.
a Tossing five coins at one time and observing the sequence of heads and tails.
b Rolling a die and tossing a coin
c Answering a true or false question.
d Answering a multiple choice question with four alternatives A, B, C and D.
2 Let each number 1 to 20 be written on one of 20 equal sized cards. If one card is
chosen at random, then list the elements of the following events.
a The number is less than 5
b The number is between 6 and 15
c The number is greater than 21
d The number is a prime number.
3 List all possible outcomes of an event if two dice are rolled at a time
a the same numbers are shown on both dice
b the product of the two numbers is 1
c the sum of the numbers is 13
d a prime number is shown on each die
4 Consider the Spinner Board Game as in the right.
a List the possible outcomes of spinning the spinner.
b How many outcomes include landing on an even
number?
192
Unit 8: Introduction to probability
8.2 Probability of Simple Event
Activity 8.4
Do the following activity in a group of two or three students.
Toss (flip) a coin 10 times and record the results in a table.
a How many times did you get head?
b How many times did you get tail?
c Write the number of heads as a fraction of the total number of tosses.
d Write the number of tails as a fraction of the total number of tosses.
From your responses in Activity 8.4, observe that, the chance of occurrence of a given
event is the ratio of the number of elements in each event to the number of elements in the
sample space. This ratio is called the probability of the event.
Definition 8.8
In an experiment, if all outcomes are equally likely, then the probability of a simple
event E, P(E), is the ratio of the number of successful outcomes in the event “E”,
n(E) to the total number of possible outcomes in the sample space “S”, n(S). That is,
=
Number of elements of event E n E
P E =
Number of elements of the sample spaaceS n S
Example 8.15
Suppose you toss a coin. Find the probability of getting:
a a head b a tail
Solution
The possible outcomes are head (H) and tail (T).
Then, the sample space is given by S={H,T}.
a the event of getting head is E={H}.
n E 1
Thus the probability of getting head is P E = = .
n S 2
b the event of getting tail is E={T}.
n E 1
Thus the probability of getting a tail is P E = = .
n S 2
193
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Example 8.16
Suppose you roll a die. Then determine the probability of getting
a a composite number. c a number less than 6
b a prime number d a number divisible by 5.
Solution
The possible outcomes are 1,2,3,4,5 and 6. Then, the sample space is given by
S = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and n S = 6 .
a Let E be the event for getting a composite number. Then E= 4, 6and n E = 2.
Therefore, P E = = = .
n E 2 1
n S 6 3
b The event of getting a prime number is E = {2, 3, 5} with n (E) = 3
n E 3 1
Therefore, P E = = =
n S 6 3
c The event of getting a number less than 6 is E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and n (E) = 5.
n E 5
Thus, P E = = .
n S 6
d The event of getting a number divisible by 5 is E= (5) and n (E)=1
n E 1
So, P E = = .
n S 6
Example 8.17
Two fair dice are rolled. Find the probability of each of the following events.
a An event of getting two numbers whose sum is 7
b An event of getting two numbers whose sum is 13
c An event of getting two numbers whose sum is less than 13
Solution
There are 6 numbers on each die. The sample space has 6 ´ 6 = 36 outcomes. It is
illustrated as follows
Second die
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
2 (2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)
3 (3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)
First Die
4 (4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) (4,6)
5 (5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
6 (6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)
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Unit 8: Introduction to probability
a The possible outcomes of numbers with sum 7 are {(1, 6), (2, 5), (3, 4),
(4, 3), (5, 2) (6, 1)}. Hence there are 6 possible outcomes.
number of sucessful outcomes 6 1
P sum is 7 = = =
total numberof possible outcomes 36 6
b There are no outcome with sum is 13. Thus, this is an impossible event.
0
P sum is 13 =
=0
36
c All the 36 outcomes have sum less than 13. Thus, this event is certain.
36
P( sum <13) = =1 .
36
Activity 8.5
Suppose you toss a coin. Then find the probability getting:
a a head. c a tail
b number less than 3. d a head or a tail.
From your respponses in Activity 8.5, observe that the probability of an event is always
between 0 and 1.
Note
1 If P(E) is the probability of a given event E, then 0 £ P E £ 1 .
2 In an experiment, if an event is likely to occur, then the probability of an event is
close to 1, where as if it is not likely to occur, then the probability of the event is
close to 0.
Unlikely Likely
Event, E Impossible Even chance Certain
(Poor chance) (Good chance)
Probability 1 1 1 P E =1
scale P E =0 0<P E < P E = <P E <1
2 2 2
Example 8.18
Consider the following list of numbers, 7, 12, 15, 23, 32, 33, 34, 50, 65.
If one of these numbers is selected at random, then what is the probability that the
selected number is
a a number less than 6?
b an odd number?
c a prime number?
d a number less than 100?
195
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Solution
In this experiment, there are 9 sample points.
a Out of the nine numbers given, none of them is less than 6. So, the probability
0
of selecting a number that is less than 6 is =0.
9
Therefore, the event of selecting a number less than 6 is impossible to occur.
b Out of the nine given numbers, only five of them are odd; 7, 15, 23, 33 and
5
65. So, the probability of selecting an odd number is =0.555 , which is
1 9
between and 1.
2
Therefore, the event of selecting an odd number is likely (good chance) to occur.
c Out of the nine numbers given, only two of them are primes; 7 and 23. So, the
2
probability of selecting a prime number is =0.222 , which is between 0
1 9
and
2
Therefore, the event of selecting a prime number is unlikely (poor chance) to occur.
d All of the nine numbers are less than 100. So, the probability of selecting a
9
number less than 100 is =1 .
9
Therefore, the event of selecting a number less than 100 is certain to occur.
Note
In a probability experiment or trial, a particular result, say event A must either
happen or does not happen. Thus,
P A does happen + P A does not happen =1
.
This leads to a very useful rule that:
P A does not happen =1- P A does happen
Example 8.19
If the probability that it will rain on Easter day is 0.15, then find the probability that
it will not rain on Easter day.
Solution
Let E be an event that it will rain on Easter day and EC be an event that it will not
rain on Easter day.
P E +P E c =1
P E c =1-P E =1-0.15=0.85
Therefore, the probability that it will not rain on Easter day is 0.85
196
Unit 8: Introduction to probability
Exercise 8.2
1 A letter is chosen at random from the word “PROBABILITY”. Find the probability
that the chosen letter is:
a R c I or A.
b B d not a vowel
2 A natural number less than 30 is chosen at random. Find the probability that the
chosen number is:
a a multiple of 4 d a factor of 36
b a perfect square e a perfect cube
c a prime f Less than 6
3 Two dice are rolled at the same time. Find the probability of each of the following
events.
a The sum of the numbers is prime.
b The sum of the numbers is less than 9.
c The sum of the numbers is greater than 7.
d The sum of the numbers is greater than 5 and less than 10.
4 If the probability of winning a specific game is 0.3, what is the probability of losing
that game, where win or loss are the only options of the game?
5 A jar contains 54 marbles of the same size which are blue, green or white in color.
1
The probability of selecting a blue marble at random is and the probability of
4 3
selecting a green marble at random is .
9
a Find the numbers of blue, green and white marbles in the jar.
b What is the probability of selecting a white marble?
6 In certain shop there are 600 electric bulbs in a box where 12 are defective bulbs.
You bought one bulb taken out at random from the box.
a What is the probability that the bulb is defective?
b What is the probability that the bulb is non-defective?
7 A bag contains 8 identical discs of which four of them are red in color, three of them
are blue in color and one of them is yellow in color. If one disc is drawn at random,
then find the probability that drawn card is:
a red c yellow or blue
b blue d not blue
197
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
8 If a city has a population of 1,000,000 and the death rate in car accidents is 500
per year, then what is the chance of an individual living in the city dying by a car
accident in a certain year?
9 A School Music Band is selling lottery tickets for community service. They sold
3,000 tickets at 100 Birr each. Your parents spent 2000 Birr on the lottery tickets.
a What is the probability that your parents will win the lottery?
b What is the probability that your parents will not win the lottery?
198
Unit 8: Introduction to probability
Unit Summary
1 Experiment: An activity involving chance in which results are observed.
2 Outcome: A single possible result of an experiment or trial.
3 Sample space: The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment.
4 Sample point: An element of the sample space
5 Event: The set of one or more outcomes from sample space.
6 Probability: The chance that something will happen or will not happen.
7 Probability of an event E is calculated as
Number of possible outcomes in an event E
P E =
Number of all outcomes in the sample space S
8 An event can be categorized as Impossible event, Certain event, Likely event or
Unlikely event
9 Probability scale
1
P impossible event =0 0<P Unlikely event <
2
1
P Certain event =1 <P Likely event <1
2
10 In a fair experiment, each outcome has an equal chance to occur and hence is equally
likely.
11 For any event E ,
a 0 £ P E £ 1 b P E +P not E =1
Review Exercises
1 Three dice are rolled at the same time. Find the probability of each of the following
events.
a the sum of the numbers is 5
b the product the numbers is 12
c the sum of the numbers is 517
2 A number is selected at random from whole numbers 1 to 100. Find the probability
that the selected number is:
a an odd number
199
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
b the number is even or divisible by 5
c the number is divisible by 5
d the number is divisible by 3 or 5.
3 One letter is chosen at random from the word “ISOSCELES”. Find the probability
of choosing
a letter C c letter E
b a vowel letter d a consonant letter
4 There are 52 cards in a deck (playing cards). The playing cards have 4 groups; each
group has 13 members of Ace, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King. What is
the probability of drawing a Queen card at random?
5 A school sold 348 lottery tickets to raise money to buy equipments for a playground.
Jemal bought 5 tickets. How likely is Jemal winnig the lottery?
6 There are 54 Ethiopian and 17 foreigners in a meeting hall. One person is chosen at
random as a chairperson of the meeting. Find the probability that the chairperson
is:
a an Ethiopian
b a foreigner
c either an Ethiopian or a foreigner
7 The table below shows students distribution per grade in a school.
Grades Total
Sex 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
M 33 18 20 23 17 16 25 30 182
F 17 12 20 19 21 34 15 20 158
Total 50 30 40 42 38 50 40 50 340
If a student is selected at random as chairperon of students’ association of the school,
then find the probability that the chairperson is:
a a female student from grade 6
b a male student either from grade 5 or grade 7
8 In “Ekub” association, there are 98 members. Each member pays 2000 Birr per
week. W/ro. Fatuma is one of the members who had not received her “Ekub” until
the 46th “Ekub”. What is the probability Wro. Fatuma gets the “Ekub” in 46th “Ekub”?
200
Appendix
Table A-1: -table, for 1.0 £ x £ 5.55
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.0 1.000 1.020 1.040 1.061 1.082 1.103 1.124 1.145 1.166 1.188
1.1 1.210 1.232 1.254 1.277 1.300 1.323 1.346 1.369 1.392 1.416
1.2 1.440 1.464 1.488 1.513 1.538 1.563 1.588 1.613 1.638 1.664
1.3 1.690 1.716 1.742 1.769 1.796 1.823 1.850 1.877 1.904 1.932
1.4 1.960 1.988 2.016 2.045 2.074 2.103 2.132 2.161 2.190 2.220
1.5 2.250 2.280 2.310 2.341 2.372 2.403 2.434 2.465 2.496 2.528
1.6 2.560 2.592 2.624 2.657 2.690 2.723 2.756 2.789 2.822 2.856
1.7 2.890 2.924 2.958 2.993 3.028 3.063 3.098 3.133 3.168 3.204
1.8 3.240 3.276 3.312 3.349 3.386 3.423 3.460 3.497 3.534 3.572
1.9 3.610 3.648 3.686 3.725 3.764 3.803 3.842 3.881 3.920 3.960
2.0 4.000 4.040 4.080 4.121 4.162 4.203 4.244 4.285 4.326 4.368
2.1 4.410 4.452 4.494 4.537 4.580 4.623 4.666 4.709 4.752 4.796
2.2 4.840 4.884 4.928 4.973 5.018 5.063 5.108 5.153 5.198 5.244
2.3 5.290 5.336 5.382 5.429 5.476 5.523 5.570 5.617 5.664 5.712
2.4 5.760 5.808 5.856 5.905 5.954 6.003 6.052 6.101 6.150 6.200
2.5 6.250 6.300 6.350 6.401 6.452 6.503 6.554 6.605 6.656 6.708
2.6 6.760 6.812 6.864 6.917 6.970 7.023 7.076 7.129 7.182 7.236
2.7 7.290 7.344 7.398 7.453 7.508 7.563 7.618 7.673 7.728 7.784
2.8 7.840 7.896 7.952 8.009 8.066 8.123 8.180 8.237 8.294 8.352
2.9 8.410 8.468 8.526 8.585 8.644 8.703 8.762 8.821 8.880 8.940
3.0 9.000 9.060 9.120 9.181 9.242 9.303 9.364 9.425 9.486 9.548
3.1 9.610 9.672 9.734 9.797 9.860 9.923 9.986 10.049 10.112 10.176
3.2 10.240 10.304 10.368 10.433 10.498 10.563 10.628 10.693 10.758 10.824
3.3 10.890 10.956 11.022 11.089 11.156 11.223 11.290 11.357 11.424 11.492
3.4 11.560 11.628 11.696 11.765 11.834 11.903 11.972 12.041 12.110 12.180
3.5 12.250 12.320 12.390 12.461 12.532 12.603 12.674 12.745 12.816 12.888
3.6 12.960 13.032 13.104 13.177 13.250 13.323 13.396 13.469 13.542 13.616
3.7 13.690 13.764 13.838 13.913 13.988 14.063 14.138 14.213 14.288 14.364
3.8 14.440 14.516 14.592 14.669 14.746 14.823 14.900 14.977 15.054 15.132
3.9 15.210 15.288 15.366 15.445 15.524 15.603 15.682 15.761 15.840 15.920
4.0 16.000 16.080 16.160 16.241 16.322 16.403 16.484 16.565 16.646 16.728
4.1 16.810 16.892 16.974 17.057 17.140 17.223 17.306 17.389 17.472 17.556
4.2 17.640 17.724 17.808 17.893 17.978 18.063 18.148 18.233 18.318 18.404
4.3 18.490 18.576 18.662 18.749 18.836 18.923 19.010 19.097 19.184 19.272
4.4 19.360 19.448 19.536 19.625 19.714 19.803 19.892 19.981 20.070 20.160
4.5 20.250 20.340 20.430 20.521 20.612 20.703 20.794 20.885 20.976 21.068
4.6 21.160 21.252 21.344 21.437 21.530 21.623 21.716 21.809 21.902 21.996
4.7 22.090 22.184 22.278 22.373 22.468 22.563 22.658 22.753 22.848 22.944
4.8 23.040 23.136 23.232 23.329 23.426 23.523 23.620 23.717 23.814 23.912
4.9 24.010 24.108 24.206 24.305 24.404 24.503 24.602 24.701 24.800 24.900
5.0 25.000 25.100 25.200 25.301 25.402 25.503 25.604 25.705 25.806 25.908
5.1 26.010 26.112 26.214 26.317 26.420 26.523 26.626 26.729 26.832 26.936
5.2 27.040 27.144 27.248 27.353 27.458 27.563 27.668 27.773 27.878 27.984
5.3 28.090 28.196 28.302 28.409 28.516 28.623 28.730 28.837 28.944 29.052
5.4 29.160 29.268 29.376 29.485 29.594 29.703 29.812 29.921 30.030 30.140
5.5 30.250 30.360 30.470 30.581 30.692 30.803 30.914 31.025 31.136 31.248
14.516 » 3.81 , 17.978 » 4.24 , 20.07 » 4.48
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Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Table A-2: x 2 -table, for 5.6 £ x £ 10.0
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.6 31.360 31.472 31.584 31.697 31.810 31.923 32.036 32.149 32.262 32.376
5.7 32.490 32.604 32.718 32.833 32.948 33.063 33.178 33.293 33.408 33.524
5.8 33.640 33.756 33.872 33.989 34.106 34.223 34.340 34.457 34.574 34.692
5.9 34.810 34.928 35.046 35.165 35.284 35.403 35.522 35.641 35.760 35.880
6.0 36.000 36.120 36.24 36.361 36.482 36.603 36.724 36.845 36.966 37.088
6.1 37.210 37.332 37.454 37.577 37.700 37.823 37.946 38.069 38.192 38.316
6.2 38.440 38.564 38.688 38.813 38.938 39.063 39.188 39.313 39.438 39.564
6.3 39.690 39.816 39.942 40.069 40.196 40.323 40.450 40.577 40.704 40.832
6.4 40.960 41.088 41.216 41.345 41.474 41.603 41.732 41.861 41.990 42.120
6.5 42.250 42.380 42.510 42.641 42.772 42.903 43.034 43.165 43.296 43.428
6.6 43.560 43.692 43.824 43.957 44.09 44.223 44.356 44.489 44.622 44.756
6.7 44.890 45.024 45.158 45.293 45.428 45.563 45.698 45.833 45.968 46.104
6.8 46.240 46.376 46.512 46.649 46.786 46.923 47.060 47.197 47.334 47.472
6.9 47.610 47.748 47.886 48.025 48.164 48.303 48.442 48.581 48.720 48.860
7.0 49.000 49.140 49.280 49.421 49.562 49.703 49.844 49.985 50.126 50.268
7.1 50.410 50.552 50.694 50.837 50.980 51.123 51.266 51.409 51.552 51.696
7.2 51.840 51.984 52.128 52.273 52.418 52.563 52.708 52.853 52.998 53.144
7.3 53.290 53.436 53.582 53.729 53.876 54.023 54.170 54.317 54.464 54.612
7.4 54.760 54.908 55.056 55.205 55.354 55.503 55.652 55.801 55.950 56.100
7.5 56.250 56.400 56.55 56.701 56.852 57.003 57.154 57.305 57.456 57.608
7.6 57.760 57.912 58.064 58.217 58.370 58.523 58.676 58.829 58.982 59.136
7.7 59.290 59.444 59.598 59.753 59.908 60.063 60.218 60.373 60.528 60.684
7.8 60.840 60.996 61.152 61.309 61.466 61.623 61.780 61.937 62.094 62.252
7.9 62.410 62.568 62.726 62.885 63.044 63.203 63.362 63.521 63.680 63.84
8.0 64.000 64.160 64.320 64.481 64.642 64.803 64.964 65.125 65.286 65.448
8.1 65.610 65.772 65.934 66.097 66.260 66.423 66.586 66.749 66.912 67.076
8.2 67.240 67.404 67.568 67.733 67.898 68.063 68.228 68.393 68.558 68.724
8.3 68.890 69.056 69.222 69.389 69.556 69.723 69.890 70.057 70.224 70.392
8.4 70.560 70.728 70.896 71.065 71.234 71.403 71.572 71.741 71.910 72.080
8.5 72.250 72.420 72.590 72.761 72.932 73.103 73.274 73.445 73.616 73.788
8.6 73.960 74.132 74.304 74.477 74.650 74.823 74.996 75.169 75.342 75.516
8.7 75.690 75.864 76.038 76.213 76.388 76.563 76.738 76.913 77.088 77.264
8.8 77.440 77.616 77.792 77.969 78.146 78.323 78.500 78.677 78.854 79.032
8.9 79.210 79.388 79.566 79.745 79.924 80.103 80.282 80.461 80.640 80.820
9.0 81.000 81.180 81.360 81.541 81.722 81.903 82.084 82.265 82.446 82.628
9.1 82.810 82.992 83.174 83.357 83.540 83.723 83.906 84.089 84.272 84.456
9.2 84.640 84.824 85.008 85.193 85.378 85.563 85.748 85.933 86.118 86.304
9.3 86.490 86.676 86.862 87.049 87.236 87.423 87.610 87.797 87.984 88.172
9.4 88.360 88.548 88.736 88.925 89.114 89.303 89.492 89.681 89.870 90.060
9.5 90.250 90.440 90.630 90.821 91.012 91.203 91.394 91.585 91.776 91.968
9.6 92.160 92.352 92.544 92.737 92.930 93.123 93.316 93.509 93.702 93.896
9.7 94.090 94.284 94.478 94.673 94.868 95.063 95.258 95.453 95.648 95.844
9.8 96.040 96.236 96.432 96.629 96.826 97.023 97.220 97.417 97.614 97.812
9.9 98.010 98.208 98.406 98.605 98.804 99.003 99.202 99.401 99.600 99.800
10.0 100.000 100.200 100.400 100.601 100.802 101.003 101.204 101.405 101.606 101.808
34.928 » 5.91 , 83.54 » 9.14 , 101.808 » 10.09
202
Appendix
Table B-1: x 3 -table, for 1 .0 £ x £ 5.55
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.0 1.000 1.030 1.061 1.093 1.125 1.158 1.191 1.225 1.260 1.295
1.1 1.331 1.368 1.405 1.443 1.482 1.521 1.561 1.602 1.643 1.685
1.2 1.728 1.772 1.816 1.861 1.907 1.953 2.000 2.048 2.097 2.147
1.3 2.197 2.248 2.300 2.353 2.406 2.460 2.515 2.571 2.628 2.686
1.4 2.744 2.803 2.863 2.924 2.986 3.049 3.112 3.177 3.242 3.308
1.5 3.375 3.443 3.512 3.582 3.652 3.724 3.796 3.870 3.944 4.020
1.6 4.096 4.173 4.252 4.331 4.411 4.492 4.574 4.657 4.742 4.827
1.7 4.913 5.000 5.088 5.178 5.268 5.359 5.452 5.545 5.640 5.735
1.8 5.832 5.93 6.029 6.128 6.230 6.332 6.435 6.539 6.645 6.751
1.9 6.859 6.968 7.078 7.189 7.301 7.415 7.530 7.645 7.762 7.881
2.0 8.000 8.121 8.242 8.365 8.490 8.615 8.742 8.870 8.999 9.129
2.1 9.261 9.394 9.528 9.664 9.800 9.938 10.078 10.218 10.360 10.503
2.2 10.648 10.794 10.941 11.09 11.239 11.391 11.543 11.697 11.852 12.009
2.3 12.167 12.326 12.487 12.649 12.813 12.978 13.144 13.312 13.481 13.652
2.4 13.824 13.998 14.172 14.349 14.527 14.706 14.887 15.069 15.253 15.438
2.5 15.625 15.813 16.003 16.194 16.387 16.581 16.777 16.975 17.174 17.374
2.6 17.576 17.78 17.985 18.191 18.400 18.610 18.821 19.034 19.249 19.465
2.7 19.683 19.903 20.124 20.346 20.571 20.797 21.025 21.254 21.485 21.718
2.8 21.952 22.188 22.426 22.665 22.906 23.149 23.394 23.640 23.888 24.138
2.9 24.389 24.642 24.897 25.154 25.412 25.672 25.934 26.198 26.464 26.731
3.0 27.000 27.271 27.544 27.818 28.094 28.373 28.653 28.934 29.218 29.504
3.1 29.791 30.080 30.371 30.664 30.959 31.256 31.554 31.855 32.157 32.462
3.2 32.768 33.076 33.386 33.698 34.012 34.328 34.646 34.966 35.288 35.611
3.3 35.937 36.265 36.594 36.926 37.260 37.595 37.933 38.273 38.614 38.958
3.4 39.304 39.652 40.002 40.354 40.708 41.064 41.422 41.782 42.144 42.509
3.5 42.875 43.244 43.614 43.987 44.362 44.739 45.118 45.499 45.883 46.268
3.6 46.656 47.046 47.438 47.832 48.229 48.627 49.028 49.431 49.836 50.243
3.7 50.653 51.065 51.479 51.895 52.314 52.734 53.157 53.583 54.010 54.440
3.8 54.872 55.306 55.743 56.182 56.623 57.067 57.512 57.961 58.411 58.864
3.9 59.319 59.776 60.236 60.698 61.163 61.630 62.099 62.571 63.045 63.521
4.0 64.000 64.481 64.965 65.451 65.939 66.430 66.923 67.419 67.917 68.418
4.1 68.921 69.427 69.935 70.445 70.958 71.473 71.991 72.512 73.035 73.560
4.2 74.088 74.618 75.151 75.687 76.225 76.766 77.309 77.854 78.403 78.954
4.3 79.507 80.063 80.622 81.183 81.747 82.313 82.882 83.453 84.028 84.605
4.4 85.184 85.766 86.351 86.938 87.528 88.121 88.717 89.315 89.915 90.519
4.5 91.125 91.734 92.345 92.960 93.577 94.196 94.819 95.444 96.072 96.703
4.6 97.336 97.972 98.611 99.253 99.897 100.545 101.195 101.848 102.503 103.162
4.7 103.823 104.487 105.154 105.824 106.496 107.172 107.85 108.531 109.215 109.902
4.8 110.592 111.285 111.98 112.679 113.38 114.084 114.791 115.501 116.214 116.930
4.9 117.649 118.371 119.095 119.823 120.554 121.287 122.024 122.763 123.506 124.251
5.0 125.000 125.752 126.506 127.264 128.024 128.788 129.554 130.324 131.097 131.872
5.1 132.651 133.433 134.218 135.006 135.797 136.591 137.388 138.188 138.992 139.798
5.2 140.608 141.421 142.237 143.056 143.878 144.703 145.532 146.363 147.198 148.036
5.3 148.877 149.721 150.569 151.419 152.273 153.130 153.991 154.854 155.721 156.591
5.4 157.464 158.34 159.220 160.103 160.989 161.879 162.771 163.667 164.567 165.469
5.5 166.375 167.284 168.197 169.112 170.031 170.954 171.880 172.809 173.741 174.677
3
19.683 » 2.70 , 3
65.451 » 4.03 , 3
123.506 » 4.98
203
Grade 8 MATHEMATICS
Table B-2: x 3 -table, for 5.6 £ x £ 10.0
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.6 175.616 176.558 177.504 178.454 179.406 180.362 181.321 182.284 183.250 184.220
5.7 185.193 186.169 187.149 188.133 189.119 190.109 191.103 192.100 193.101 194.105
5.8 195.112 196.123 197.137 198.155 199.177 200.202 201.230 202.262 203.297 204.336
5.9 205.379 206.425 207.475 208.528 209.585 210.645 211.709 212.776 213.847 214.922
6.0 216.00 217.082 218.167 219.256 220.349 221.445 222.545 223.649 224.756 225.867
6.1 226.981 228.099 229.221 230.346 231.476 232.608 233.745 234.885 236.029 237.177
6.2 238.328 239.483 240.642 241.804 242.971 244.141 245.314 246.492 247.673 248.858
6.3 250.047 251.240 252.436 253.636 254.840 256.048 257.259 258.475 259.694 260.917
6.4 262.144 263.375 264.609 265.848 267.090 268.336 269.586 270.840 272.098 273.359
6.5 274.625 275.894 277.168 278.445 279.726 281.011 282.300 283.593 284.890 286.191
6.6 287.496 288.805 290.118 291.434 292.755 294.080 295.408 296.741 298.078 299.418
6.7 300.763 302.112 303.464 304.821 306.182 307.547 308.916 310.289 311.666 313.047
6.8 314.432 315.821 317.215 318.612 320.014 321.419 322.829 324.243 325.661 327.083
6.9 328.509 329.939 331.374 332.813 334.255 335.702 337.154 338.609 340.068 341.532
7.0 343.00 344.472 345.948 347.429 348.914 350.403 351.896 353.393 354.895 356.401
7.1 357.911 359.425 360.944 362.467 363.994 365.526 367.062 368.602 370.146 371.695
7.2 373.248 374.805 376.367 377.933 379.503 381.078 382.657 384.241 385.828 387.420
7.3 389.017 390.618 392.223 393.833 395.447 397.065 398.688 400.316 401.947 403.583
7.4 405.224 406.869 408.518 410.172 411.831 413.494 415.161 416.833 418.509 420.190
7.5 421.875 423.565 425.259 426.958 428.661 430.369 432.081 433.798 435.520 437.245
7.6 438.976 440.711 442.451 444.195 445.944 447.697 449.455 451.218 452.985 454.757
7.7 456.533 458.314 460.100 461.890 463.685 465.484 467.289 469.097 470.911 472.729
7.8 474.552 476.380 478.212 480.049 481.890 483.737 485.588 487.443 489.304 491.169
7.9 493.039 494.914 496.793 498.677 500.566 502.460 504.358 506.262 508.170 510.082
8.0 512.00 513.922 515.850 517.782 519.718 521.660 523.607 525.558 527.514 529.475
8.1 531.441 533.412 535.387 537.368 539.353 541.343 543.338 545.339 547.343 549.353
8.2 551.368 553.388 555.412 557.442 559.476 561.516 563.560 565.609 567.664 569.723
8.3 571.787 573.856 575.930 578.010 580.094 582.183 584.277 586.376 588.480 590.590
8.4 592.704 594.823 596.948 599.077 601.212 603.351 605.496 607.645 609.800 611.960
8.5 614.125 616.295 618.470 620.650 622.836 625.026 627.222 629.423 631.629 633.840
8.6 636.056 638.277 640.504 642.736 644.973 647.215 649.462 651.714 653.972 656.235
8.7 658.503 660.776 663.055 665.339 667.628 669.922 672.221 674.526 676.836 679.151
8.8 681.472 683.798 686.129 688.465 690.807 693.154 695.506 697.864 700.227 702.595
8.9 704.969 707.348 709.732 712.122 714.517 716.917 719.323 721.734 724.151 726.573
9.0 729.00 731.433 733.871 736.314 738.763 741.218 743.677 746.143 748.613 751.089
9.1 753.571 756.058 758.551 761.048 763.552 766.061 768.575 771.095 773.621 776.152
9.2 778.688 781.230 783.777 786.330 788.889 791.453 794.023 796.598 799.179 801.765
9.3 804.357 806.954 809.558 812.166 814.781 817.400 820.026 822.657 825.294 827.936
9.4 830.584 833.238 835.897 838.562 841.232 843.909 846.591 849.278 851.971 854.670
9.5 857.375 860.085 862.801 865.523 868.251 870.984 873.723 876.467 879.218 881.974
9.6 884.736 887.504 890.277 893.056 895.841 898.632 901.429 904.231 907.039 909.853
9.7 912.673 915.499 918.330 921.167 924.010 926.859 929.714 932.575 935.441 938.314
9.8 941.192 944.076 946.966 949.862 952.764 955.672 958.585 961.505 964.430 967.362
9.9 970.299 973.242 976.191 979.147 982.108 985.075 988.048 991.027 994.012 997.003
10.0 1000.00 1003.003 1006.012 1009.027 1012.048 1015.075 1018.108 1021.147 1024.193 1027.244
3
428.661 » 7.54 , 3
846.591 » 9.46 , 3
213.847 » 5.98
204
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