Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)

Module-4
Control of Voltage and Reactive Power
Introduction:
Consider the simple system linking two generating stations A and B, as shown in Figure.

 Initially the system is considered to be only reactive and R is ignored. The machine at A is in
phase advance of that at B and V1 is greater than V2
 Hence there is a flow of real power from A to B.
 This can be seen from the phasor diagram shown in Figure (b).
 It is seen that Id and hence P is determined by δ and the value of Iq and hence Q mainly, by V1
-V2.
 In this case V1 > V2 and reactive power is transferred from A to B.
 By varying the generator excitations such that V2 > V1, the direction of the reactive power is
reversed, as shown in Figure (c).
 Hence, real power can be sent from A to B or B to A by suitably adjusting the amount of steam
(or water) admitted to the turbine, and reactive power can be sent in either direction by adjusting
the voltage magnitudes.
 These two operations are approximately independent of each other if X > R, and the flow of
reactive power can be studied almost independently of the real power flow.
 The phasor diagrams show that if a scalar voltage difference exists across a largely reactive
link, the reactive power flows towards the node of lower voltage.
 From another point of view, if, in a network, there is a deficiency of reactive power at a point,
this has to be supplied from the connecting lines and hence the voltage at that point falls.
 Conversely if there is a surplus of reactive power generated (for example, lightly loaded cables
generate positive VArs), then the voltage will rise.
 This is a convenient way of expressing the effect of the power factor of the transferred current,
and although it may seem unfamiliar initially, the ability to think in terms of VAr flows, instead
of exclusively with power factors and phasor diagrams, will make the study of power networks
much easier.

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
 If it can be arranged that Q2 in the system in Figure (a) is zero, then there will be no voltage
drop between A and B, a very satisfactory state of affairs.
 Now assume that the interconnecting system shown in Figure (a) has some resistance and that
V1 is constant.
 Consider the effect of keeping V2, and hence the voltage drop ΔV, constant.
 From equation

where K is a constant and R is the resistance of the system.

 If this value of Q2 does not exist naturally in the circuit then it will have to be obtained by
artificial means, such as the connection at B of capacitors or inductors.
 If the value of the power changes from P2 to P0 2 and if V2 remains constant, then the reactive
power at B must change to Q0 2 such that Q0 2 Q2 ¼ R X P0 2 P2 that is, an increase in real
power causes an increase in the reactive power needed to maintain V2.
 The change is proportional to (R/X), which is normally small.
 It is seen that voltage can be controlled by the injection into the network of reactive power of
the correct sign.
 Other methods of a more obvious kind for controlling voltage are the use of tap-changing
transformers.

The Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power:

Synchronous Generators:
 Synchronous generators can be used to generate or absorb reactive power.
 An over-excited machine generates reactive power and an under-excited machine absorbs it.
 Synchronous generators are the main source of supply to the power system of both positive
and negative VArs.
 Reactive power generation (lagging power factor operation) is limited by the maximum
excitation voltage allowable before the rotor currents lead to overheating.
 The ability to absorb reactive power is determined by the short-circuit ratio (1/synchronous
reactance) as the distance between the power axis and the theoretical stability-limit line is
proportional to the short-circuit ratio.
 In modern machines the value of the short-circuit ratio is made low for economic reasons, and
hence the inherent ability to operate at leading power factors (absorbing VArs) is not large.
For example, a 200 MW 0.85 p.f. machine with a 10% stability allowance has a capability of
absorbing 45 MVAr at full power output.
 The VAr absorption capacity can be increased by the use of continuously acting voltage
regulators.

Overhead Lines and Transformers:

 When fully loaded, overhead lines absorb reactive power.
 With a current I amperes flowing in a line of reactance per phase X(Ω) the VArs absorbed are
I 2 X per phase.

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
 On light loads the shunt capacitances of longer lines may become dominant and high voltage
overhead lines then become VAr generators.
 Transformers always absorb reactive power.
 A useful expression for the quantity may be obtained for a transformer of reactance XT p.u.
and a full load rating of 3VɸIrated

Cables:
 Cables are generators of reactive power owing to their high shunt capacitance.
 A 275 kV, 240 MVA cable produces 6.25–7.5 MVAr per km;
 a 132 kV cable roughly 1.9 MVAr per km; and a 33 kV cable, 0.125 MVAr per km.
Loads:
 A load at 0.95 power factor implies a reactive power demand of 0.33 kVAr per kW of power,
which is more appreciable than the mere quoting of the power factor would suggest.
 In planning a network, it is desirable to assess the reactive power requirements to ascertain
whether the generators are able to operate at the required power factors for the extremes of load to be
expected.

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)

Relation between Voltage, Power, and Reactive Power at a Node:

The voltage V at a node is a function of P and Q at that node, that is.
V=f(P,Q)
The total differential of V,

____________ 1

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
It can be seen from equation-1that the change in voltage at a node is defined by the two quantities

As an example, consider a line with series impedance (R + jX) and zero shunt admittance as shown
in Figure

----------------------------------------2

where V1, the sending-end voltage, is constant, and V, the receiving-end voltage, depends on P and
Q.
From Equation 2

For constant V and ΔV, RdP + XdQ=0 and dQ =-(R/X) dP, which is obtainable directly from
Equation

𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑉 be found experimentally using a load-flow calculation by the injection of a known quantity
of VArs at the node in question and calculating the difference in voltage produced can be found

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
experimentally using a load-flow calculation by the injection of a known quantity of VArs at the
node in question and calculating the difference in voltage produced.
From the results obtained,

 proved for a single line, it is evident that the smaller the reactance associated with a node, the
larger the value of 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑉 for a given voltage drop, that is, the voltage drop is inherently small.
 The greater the number of lines meeting at a node, the smaller the resultant reactance and the
larger the value of 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑉.
 Obviously, 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑉 depends on the network configuration, but a high value would lie in the
range 10–15 MVAr/kV.
 If the natural voltage drop at a point without the artificial injection of VArs is, say, 5 kV, and
the value of 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑉 at this point is 10 MVAr/kV, then to maintain the voltage at its no-load
level would require 50 MVAr.
 Obviously, the greater the value of 𝜕𝑄/𝜕𝑉 ,the more expensive it becomes to maintain voltage
levels by injection of reactive power.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SGBIT, Belagavi.

 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SGBIT, Belagavi.

 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)

Methods of Voltage Control:

(a) Injection of Reactive Power:
 In transmission systems with X > R, busbar voltages can be controlled by the injection or
absorption of reactive power.
 Controlling network voltage through reactive power flow is less effective in distribution
networks where the higher circuit resistances lead to the reactive power flows having less effect
on voltage and causing an increase in real power losses.
 Although reactive power does no real work, it does lead to an increase in the magnitude of
current in the networks and hence real power losses.
 Electricity suppliers often penalize loads with a poor power factor by applying charges based
on kVAh (or even kVArh) in addition to kWh or even basing part of the charge on peak kVA
drawn.
 The provision of static capacitors to improve the power factors of factory loads has been long
established.
 The capacitance required for the power-factor improvement of loads for optimum economy is
determined as follows.

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)

 One of the obvious places for the artificial injection of reactive power is at the loads
themselves.
 In general, four methods of injecting reactive power are available, involving the use of:
1. static shunt capacitors;
2. static series capacitors;
3. synchronous compensators;
4. static VAr compensators and STATCOMs.
[Link] Capacitors and Reactors:
 Shunt capacitors are used to compensate lagging power factor loads, whereas reactors
are used on circuits that generate VArs such as lightly loaded cables.
 The effect of these shunt devices is to supply or absorb the requisite reactive power to
maintain the magnitude of the voltage.
 Capacitors are connected either directly to a busbar or to the tertiary winding of a main
transformer.
 In the USA they are often installed along the routes of distribution circuits to minimize
the losses and voltage drops.
 Unfortunately, as the voltage reduces, the VArs produced by a shunt capacitor or
absorbed by a reactor fall as the square of the voltage; thus, when needed most, their
effectiveness drops.
 Also, with light network load when the voltage is high, the capacitor output is large
and the voltage tends to rise to excessive levels, requiring some capacitors or cable circuits to
be switched out by local overvoltage relays.
2. Series Capacitors:
 Capacitors can be connected in series with overhead lines and are then used to reduce the
inductive reactance between the supply point and the load.
 One major drawback is the high overvoltage produced across the capacitor when a short-
circuit current flows through the circuit, and special protective devices need to be
incorporated (e.g. spark gaps) and non-linear resistors.

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
 The phasor diagram for a line with a series capacitor is shown in Figure (b)

 The comparison between shunt and series capacitors are as follows:

1. If the load VAr requirement is small, series capacitors are of little use.
2. With series capacitors the reduction in line current is small; hence if thermal considerations
limit the current, little advantage is obtained and shunt compensation should be used.
3. If voltage drop is the limiting factor, series capacitors are effective; also, voltage fluctuations
due to arc furnaces, and so on, are evened out.
4. If the total line reactance is high, series capacitors are very effective in reducing voltage
drops and stability is improved.
3. Synchronous Compensators:
 A synchronous compensator is a synchronous motor running without a mechanical load
and, depending on the value of excitation, it can absorb or generate reactive power.
 As the losses are considerable compared with static capacitors, the power factor is not
zero.
 When used with a voltage regulator the compensator can automatically run overexcited
at times of high load and under excited at light load.
 A typical connection of a synchronous compensator is shown in Figure

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)

 The compensator is run up as an induction motor in 2.5 min and then synchronized.
 A great advantage is the flexibility of operation for all load conditions.
 Although the cost of such installations is high, in some circumstances it is justified, for
example at the receiving-end busbar of a long high-voltage line where transmission at power
factors less than unity cannot be tolerated.
 Being a rotating machine, its stored energy is useful for increasing the inertia of the
power system and for riding through transient disturbances, including voltage sags .

(b) Tap-Changing Transformers:

 By changing the transformation ratio, the voltage in the secondary circuit is varied.
 Hence voltage and reactive power control is obtained.
 In distribution circuits, tap-changing transformers are the primary method of voltage control.
 In a distribution transformer, the tap-changer compensates for the voltage drop across the
reactance of the transformer but also for the variations in the voltage applied to the primary
winding caused by changes of load within the high voltage network.
 In transmission circuits reactive power is dispatched by altering the taps of transformers and
this, in turn, controls the network voltages.

Combined Use of Tap-Changing Transformers and Reactive-Power Injection:

 A common practical arrangement is shown in Figure where the tertiary winding of a three-
winding transformer is connected to a VAr compensator.

,
 For given load conditions it is proposed to determine the necessary transformation ratios with
certain outputs of the compensator.
 The transformer is represented by the equivalent star connection and any line impedance from
V1 or V2 to the transformer can be lumped together with the transformer branch impedances.
 Here, VN is the phase voltage at the star point of the equivalent circuit. The secondary
impedance (XS) is usually approaching zero and hence is neglected.
 Resistance and losses are ignored.

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)

Phase-Shift Transformer:
 A quadrature phase shift can be achieved by the connections shown in Figure(a)

 The booster arrangement shows the injection of voltage into one phase only;
 it is repeated for the other two phases. In Figure (b), the corresponding phasor diagram is
shown and the nature of the angular shift of the voltage boost VYB indicated.

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 Power System Operation and Control (2018 Scheme)
 By the use of tappings on the energizing transformer, several values of phase shift may be
obtained.

Voltage Collapse :
 Voltage collapse is an important aspect of system stability.

 Consider the circuit shown in Figure (a).

 If VS is fixed (i.e. an infinite busbar), the graph of VR against P for given power factors is as
shown in Figure (b).
 In Figure (b), Z represents the series impedance of a 160 km long, double-circuit, 400 kV, 260
mm2 conductor overhead line.
 The fact that two values of voltage exist for each value of power is easily understood by
considering the analytical solution of this circuit.
 At the lower voltage a very high current is taken to produce the power.
 The seasonal thermal ratings of the line are also shown, and it is apparent that for loads of
power factor less than unity (lagging) the possibility exists that, before the thermal rating is
reached, the operating power may be on that part of the characteristic where small changes in
load cause large voltage changes and voltage instability will have occurred.
 In this condition the action of tap-changing transformers is interesting.
 If the receiving-end transformers ‘tap up’ to maintain the load voltage, the line current
increases, thereby causing further increase in the voltage drop.
 It would, in fact, be more profitable to ‘tap down’, thereby reducing the current and voltage
drop.
 It is feasible therefore for a ‘tapping-down’ operation to result in increased secondary voltage,
and vice versa.
 The possibility of an actual voltage collapse depends upon the nature of the load.
 If this is stiff (constant power), for example induction motors, the collapse is aggravated

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