Denumerable Sets in Hindi Context
Uploaded by
saswat sahooDenumerable Sets in Hindi Context
Uploaded by
saswat sahooMST-001
-
Foundation in
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences Mathematics and
Statistics
Block
1
FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS-I
UNIT 1
Introduction to Sets 7
UNIT 2
Functions 27
UNIT 3
Progressions 49
UNIT 4
Techniques of Counting 65
Curriculum and Course Design Committee
Prof. K.R. Srivathsan Prof. Rahul Roy
Pro-Vice Chancellor Maths and Stat. Unit
IGNOU, New Delhi Indian Statistical Institute, New Delhi
Prof. Parvin Sinclair Dr. Diwakar Shukla
Pro-Vice Chancellor Department of Mathematics and Statistics
IGNOU, New Delhi Dr. Hari Singh Gaur University, Sagar (MP)
Prof. Geeta Kaicker Prof. G.N. Singh
Director, School of Sciences Department of Applied Mathematics
IGNOU, New Delhi I.S.M. Dhanbad
Prof. R.M. Pandey Prof. Rakesh Srivastava
Department of Bio-Statistics Department of Statistics
All India Institute of Medical Sciences M.S. University
New Delhi Vadodara (Gujarat)
Prof. Jagdish Prasad Dr. Gulshan Lal Taneja
Department of Statistics Department of Mathematics
University of Rajasthan, Jaipur M.D. University, Rohtak
Faculty Members, School of Sciences, IGNOU
Statistics Mathematics
Dr. Neha Garg Dr. Deepika
Dr. Nitin Gupta Prof. Poornima Mital
Mr. Rajesh Kaliraman Prof. Sujatha Varma
Dr. Manish Trivedi Dr. S. Venkataraman
Block Preparation Team
Content Writer Language Editor
Mr. Rajesh Kaliraman Dr. Parmod Kumar
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
School of Sciences School of Humanities, IGNOU
IGNOU, New Delhi
Formatted By
Content Editor
Mr. Rajesh Kaliraman
Dr. Gulshan Lal Taneja School of Sciences, IGNOU.
Associate Professor
Department of Mathematics Secretarial Support
M.D. University, Rohtak Ms. Preeti
Course Coordinator: Mr. Rajesh Kaliraman
Programme Coordinator: Dr. Manish Trivedi
Block Production
Mr. Y. N. Sharma, SO (P), School of Sciences, IGNOU
CRC prepared by Mr. Rajesh Kaliraman, SOS, IGNOU and Ms. Preeti
Acknowledgement: We gratefully acknowledge Prof. Geeta Kaicker, Director, School of Sciences and
Prof. Parvin Sinclair, Director, NCERT for reading the course material and providing their valuable
suggestions to improve the Course.
March, 2012
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2012
ISBN – 978-81-266-5973-9
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other
means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the
University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director,
School of Sciences.
Printed at: Gita Offset Printers Pvt. Ltd., C-90, Okhla Indl. Area-I, New Delhi-20
FOUNDATION IN MATHEMATICS AND
STATISTICS
Whatever way is chosen in order to define the contents of the courses of this
programme, one cannot avoid the use of some elementary concepts of
mathematics. That is why first 10 units of this course are devoted to introduce
some mathematical terms used in the rest of the courses of this programme, in
particular course MST-003. In fact having being ‘Any graduate’ as a
qualification for this programme, it becomes necessary to thing about those
learners who don’t have mathematical background after matriculation. Having
these types of learners as a part of our target group, every care has been taken
in order to define mathematical terms. Most of the mathematical terms are
explained with the help of some practical/real life situations followed by a
large number of examples. It is tried to avoid derivations of mathematical
results unless otherwise it is necessary. The aim of this course, i.e. MST-001
(in particular first 10 units) is just to put the learners (in particular those having
no mathematical background after matriculation) in a position, so that
whenever these mathematical terms will be used, the basic idea can easily
grasped and feel comfortable. Last six units of this course are devoted to put a
foundation stone for all other courses of the programme, i.e. elementary part of
statistics such as defining statistics, development stages, very important
concept of measurement of scales, methods of collection of data, classification,
tabulation, diagrammatical and graphical presentation of data have been
discussed in last six units of this course.
This course is divided into four blocks of four units each.
In first block, sets, functions and their various types are introduced. Arithmetic
Progression (A.P.), Geometric Progression (G.P.), concept of summation,
permutation and combination also have been discussed in this block. Brief
introduction of binomial theorem is also included in this block.
The second block is devoted to concentrate on the four very much related and
useful topics namely, limit, continuity, differentiation and integration. Concept
of limit, continuity, differentiation, integration and some standard results on
limit, differentiation and integration also have been discussed in this block.
The third block is devoted to the study of matrices and determinants, different
types of matrices, and some simple properties of determinants. Origin,
development, definition, scope, uses, limitations of statistics also has been
briefly introduced. Measurement of scales–nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
are discussed in detail. Primary data, secondary data and their methods of
collection are also discussed in detail.
Block four discusses classification, tabulation, diagrammatical presentation
and graphical presentation of data. Box plot, stem and leap plot are discussed in
detail.
Although the material is self contained and self explained in nature. Even
though if some learners are interested to gain more and want to study the
contents in greater depth/more detail, it is a friendly advice for you to put a lot
of practice to attempt all the exercises given in the relevant chapters of the
below listed books.
1. Mathematics Textbook for Class XI, first addition (2006), reprinted
December, 2009 (NCERT) (Chapters 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 13)
2. Mathematics Textbook for Class XII, first edition (2006), reprinted
December, 2009 (NCERT) (Chapters 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7)
3. SCHAUM’S OUTLINE OF Theory and Problems of Discrete
Mathematics, Second Edition by Seymour Lipschutz and Marc Lars
Lipson [Chapters 1, 3, 5, 6], Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited
4. SCHAUM’S OUTLINE OF Theory and Problems of STATISTICS
Third Edition by Murray R. Spiegel and Larry J. Stephens [Chapters 1,
2], Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited
5. SCHAUM’S OUTLINE OF Theory and Problems of ELEMENTS OF
STATISTICS Differential Statistics and Probability Third Edition by
Stephen Bernstein and Ruth Bernstein [Chapters 6, 7], Tata McGraw-
Hill Publishing Company Limited
6. Grinstead and Snell’s ‘Introduction to Probability, 2 nd Edition’, by
Charles M. Grinstead and J. Laurie Snell, American Mathematical
Society (2006) (Chapter 3)
7. Fundamentals of Mathematical Statistics by S.C. Gupta and V.K.
Kapoor (1994), Sultan Chand & Sons (Chapter 1)
8. MARKETING RESEARCH An Applied Orientation, Sixth Edition
(Chapter 10) by Naresh K. Malhotra and Satyabhusan Dash, Prentice
Hall
9. Fundamentals of STATISTICS, volume one by A. M. Goon, M. K.
Gupta, B. Dasgupta, Calcutta the world press private LTD. 1987
(Chapter 4, 5, 6)
10. BASIC STATISTICS, Fifth Edition, By B.L. Agarwal, New Age
International (P) Limited, Publishers (Chapter 1, 2, 22)
11. Business Statistics by J. S. Chandan, Prof. Jagjit Singh and K. K.
Khanna, Vikas Publishing House Pvt LTD, 1994 (Chapter 1, 3, 4)
12. Elements of Statistics (Part one) by B. N. Asthana, Chaitanya
Publishing House, Allahabad, 1988 (Chapter 1, 2, 4, 5)
13. Fundamentals of Statistics by Late D. N. Elhance, Kitab Mahal, 1956,
(Chapter 1, 3, 4, 5, 6)
Unit wise you may refer the books as given below:
Unit Serial No of Unit Serial No of the Book
Number the Book Number
1 1, 3 9 2, 3
2 1, 2, 3 10 2, 3
3 1 11 1, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13
4 1, 3, 6 12 8, 9, 10, 11, 13
5 1, 2 13 4, 9, 10, 11, 13
6 1, 2 14 4, 10, 13
7 2 15 4, 10, 12, 13
8 2 16 5
BLOCK 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF
MATHEMATICS-I
This is the first block of the course MST-001. The aim of the block is to put a
foundation stone for the next block of this course and will provide a platform to
the learners (especially for non mathematical background) to understand the
basic ideas of probability theory i.e. course MST-003. The flow of this block is
maintained by the following four units.
Unit 1: Introduction to Sets
This unit will explain what we mean by sets, various types of sets, hierarchy of
sets, different operations on sets, Venn-diagrams (i.e. pictorial representation of
sets) and some simple applications of sets.
Unit 2: Functions
This unit will explain the very important term ‘function’ with the help of very
good real life example of daughters and mothers in a very simple and logical
way. Some particular and commonly used functions and three important and
useful types one-one, onto, one-one correspondence of functions are also
explained with the help of a number of examples. Geometrical interpretation of
one-one, onto and one-one correspondence is also explained.
Unit 3: Progressions
This unit will throw the light on two very frequently encountered progressions
known as Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) and Geometric Progression (G.P.).
How, n th term and sum of first n terms of an A.P. or G.P. are evaluated, are
explained with a variety and large number of examples. Some simple
applications of A.P. and G.P. are also discussed. Concept of summation and
formulae for the sum of some special sequences are also introduced. How these
formulae are applied on numerical problems, is explained with the help of
some examples.
Unit 4: Techniques of Counting
Last unit of this block is devoted to two very powerful techniques of counting,
which provides us how many options/possibilities are there for a real life
situation. Such as how many different sequences of answers of an objective
type test are possible or how many different lottery numbers for a particular
lottery are possible or how many different pin code of 4 digits can be provided
to the customers of a particular bank. Binomial theorem is also introduced in
this unit.
Notations and Symbols
n A : cardinality of the set A i.e. number of elements in the set A
: is a sub set of or is contained in
AB : symmetric difference of two sets A and B
n
pr : total number of permutations of n things taken r 1 r n at a
time
n
Cr : total number of combinations of n things taken r 1 r n at a
time
: is a super set or contains
: is not subset of or is not contained in
: is proper subset of
: empty set or null set or void set
P(A) : power set of the set A
l I : length of the interval I
f :X Y : f is a function from X to Y
x : modules of x or absolute value of x
A. P. : arithmetic progressions
G. P. : geometric progression
a n : a sequence whose nth term is a n
a n or t n : nth term of an A. P. or G. P.
Sn : sum of first n term of an A. P. or G. P.
n! or n : n factorial
A c or A ' : complement of the set A
(a, b) : open interval
[a, b] : closed interval
(a, b] : left open and right closed interval
[a, b) : left closed and right open interval
: union
: intersection
: belong to
: does not belong to
= : is equal to
: is not equal to
: is less than
> : is greater than
~ : is equivalents to
Greek Alphabets
alpha psi pi
beta xi rho
gamma (cap. gamma) eta sigma (cap. sigma)
delta (cap. delta) zeta tau
epsilon lambda chi
i iota kappa
theta mu omega (cap. omega)
phi nu
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO SETS Introduction to Sets
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Sets
1.3 Types of Sets
1.4 Hierarchy of Sets
1.5 Venn Diagrams
1.6 Set Operations
1.7 Some Useful and Important Laws
1.8 Summary
1.9 Solutions/Answers
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Sometimes, we deal with some types of collections e.g.
i) Collection of books in a library of a university.
ii) Collection of natural numbers which are factors of say, 80 or any other
natural number.
Set is also a collection of objects but it is a well defined collection (we will By well defined
learn more about this in Sec 1.2). Consider the collection of states in India. We collection, we mean
know that presently there are 28 states in India and this figure is exactly 28 that given any object
(neither one less nor one more). Also if any number of persons (having a we must be able to
general knowledge of states in India) are asked to write the names of the states know as to whether it
then final list of every body will contain the same 28 names (order in which belongs to the
they write the names of the states does not matter). Such type of a well defined collection or does not
collection is known as set. belong to the
collection.
In this unit, we will introduce the notations and terminology used for sets. The
unit defines set, its various types, discusses hierarchy of sets, Venn diagrams,
various operations on sets and finally the unit is closed by giving an idea of
some important and commonly used laws. Concept related to sets is very
elementary and it is used directly or indirectly in the rest of our courses. So
you must understand the concepts discussed in this unit before you proceed
further in the course.
Objectives
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
define a set;
write a set in different forms;
explain the types of sets;
draw Venn diagrams.
apply the operations on sets;
get the idea of super sets and subsets; and
get an idea of some important laws related to sets like associative, De-
Morgan’s laws, etc.
7
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I 1.2 SETS
A well defined collection of distinct objects is called a set. A set is generally
denoted by capital letters such as A, B, C, X, Y, Z, etc. and the objects which
A set remains the same belong to the set are known as elements or members of the set and are
if some or all of its generally denoted by small letters a, b, c, x, y, z, etc.
elements are repeated
or rearranged. If ‘a’ is an element of a set A then we write a A (read it as ‘a’ belongs to A).
If ‘a’ is not an element of A then we write aA (read as ‘a’ does not belong to
For example, if a set A).
contains the elements
0, 1, – 1 and another Following example illustrates the term “well defined collection” or “set”.
set contains the
Example 1: Consider the following collections and state reasons whether they
elements – 1, – 1, 1, 0,
form set or not.
0, 0, 1, 0, 1, then these
two sets are nothing (i) Collection of good cricketers in India.
but represent the same (ii) Collection of honest students in a particular university in India.
set having three
(iii) Collection of natural numbers which are less than 5.
elements 0, 1, – 1.
(iv) Collection of rich persons in India.
(v) Collection of letters of the word “ASSIGNMENT”
Solution:
(i) This collection does not form a set, because a given player may be good
according to some person but the same player may not be good according
to some other person.
(ii) This collection does not form a set, because a student may be honest
according to some person but the same student may not be honest
according to some other person.
(iii) Yes, this collection forms a set and elements of this set are 1, 2, 3, 4.
(iv) Richness is not a well defined property, because according to someone, a
person may be rich while he/she may not be rich in view of some other
person. So this collection does not form a set.
(v) It is a set and elements of this set are A, S, I, G, N, M, E, T.
Now, you can try the following exercise:
E1) Give reasons whether the following collections are sets or not.
(i) Collection of intelligent students in a particular school.
(ii) Collection of good hockey players in India.
(iii) Collection of good actors in India.
(iv) Collection of vowels in the word “INDIA”.
Methods of Representing a Set
A set is generally represented by two methods as given below.
1. Roster Method
Dictionary meaning of ‘Roster’ is ‘a list showing persons who perform their
duties in turn’. As its meaning suggests, in this method each and every element
is listed and put, separating by commas, in curly brackets. This method is also
known as Tabular Form or Listing Method.
8
For example,
Introduction to Sets
(i) If A is the set of vowels of English alphabets, then A = {a, e, i, o, u}
(ii) If N is the set of natural numbers, then N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …} Three dots ‘…’ are
read as “and so on”
(iii) If W is the set of whole numbers, then W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …} which means all the
(iv) If Z is the set of integers, then Z = {… , – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…} elements following
this pattern are also
(v) If E is the set of even natural numbers, then E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, …} included in the set.
(vi) If O is the set of odd natural numbers, then O = {1, 3, 5, …}
(vii) If P is the set of prime numbers, then Prime number: A
P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, …} natural number (> 1)
is called a prime
Remark 1: Throughout the course, we use N, W and Z for the sets of natural number if and only if
numbers, whole numbers, and integers, respectively. it has only two
divisors 1 and itself.
2. Set-Builder Method For example, 2 is a
In this method, we consider one or more properties that are exclusive to the prime number as its
elements of a set so that no other elements can be the member of the set. This only divisors are 1
and the number
method is also known as Property Method or Rule Method.
itself.
For example,
But 15 is not a prime
(i) Let A = {x : x is a vowel of English alphabet}, then elements of A are a, e, number because it
i, o, u and having exclusive property of being a vowel no other alphabet has 3 and 5 as its
can be considered as an element of set A. factors other than 1
(ii) Let A = {x : x is a natural number and x is a multiple of 3}, then elements and the number
of A are 3, 6, 9, 12, … which have the exclusive property of being itself.
multiple of 3 and no other element can be consider as an element of A.
(iii) Let A = {x : x is a factor of 10 and x > 0}, then elements of A are 1, 2, 5, Rational number: A
10 and having exclusive property of being a factor of 10 and no other number which can be
element can be consider as an element of A. expressed in the form
p p
such that
(iv) If Q is the set of rational numbers then Q = x : x , p, q Z, q 0 q
q
p, q Z, q 0 is
Remark 2:
known as rational
(i) In terminology of set the symbol “:” used in each part above is read as number. For
“such that”. example,
(ii) Throughout the course the sets of rational numbers, irrational numbers and 2 4
, , etc.
real numbers will be denoted by Q, I and R, respectively. 3 13
Note: Advantage of the second method, i.e. Set-Builder method lies in the fact Irrational number:
that sometimes (or in some situations) we cannot list the elements of the set or A number which
even if we can list them, it may not be practical or feasible to do so. cannot be expressed
p
For example, consider the set {x: x is a person who born in 2010 in India}. in the form where
Obviously you will be more comfortable with property method in this q
example. p, q are integers and
q 0, is called an
Consider another set {x : x is a real number and 1 < x < 4}. This set cannot be irrational number.
described by listing method, because number of elements in this set is For example,
uncountable.
2, 5, 3 10, etc.
Thus, above two examples show that in some situations either it is too difficult
to describe the set by listing method or it is impossible to describe it.
No doubt, there are some examples in which listing method has its advantage
For example, consider the set {28, Bihar, India}.
9
It is a set having three elements 28, Bihar and India.
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I
Let us now consider some examples to make the ideas of two methods
discussed above more clear.
Real number: A Example 2: Write the following sets by roster method:
number which is
(i) A = {x : x is a letter of the word “FUNCTION”}
either rational or
irrational is called (ii) B = {x : 2x + 5 < 17, x N}
real number. (iii) C = {x : x2 – x – 12 = 0, x N}
(iv) D = {x : x2 – 4x – 21 = 0, x2 – 49 = 0, x N}
Solution:
(i) A = {F, U, N, C, T, I, O} [Repeated elements are written once only]
(ii) B = {x : 2x < 17 – 5 , x N} = {x : 2x < 12 , x N}
= {x : x < 6 , x N} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
(iii) C = {x : x2 – x – 12 = 0, x N}= {x : x2 – 4x + 3x – 12 = 0, x N}
= {x : x( x – 4) + 3(x – 4) = 0, x N}= {x : ( x – 4) (x + 3) = 0, x N}
= {x : x = 4, – 3, x N} = {4} [ 3 N]
2 2
(iv) D = {x : x – 4x – 21 = 0, x – 49 = 0, x N}
= {x : x2 – 7x + 3x – 21 = 0, x2 – 7 2 = 0, x N}
= {x : x (x – 7) + 3(x – 7) =0, (x – 7) (x + 7) = 0, x N}
= {x : (x – 7)(x + 3) = 0, x = 7, – 7, x N}
= {x : x = 7, – 3, x = 7, – 7, x N}
here are two properties one says x 7, 3and second says
= {7} x 7, 7 but in case we have more than one properties, we
take common element(s) between them and in our case it is 7.
Example 3: Express the following sets in the set-builder form:
(i) A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, …}
(ii) B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}
(iii) C = {5, 25, 125, 625, …}
1 1 1 1 1
(iv) D = {1, , , , , }
3 9 27 81 243
(v) E = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100}
Solution:
(i) Here we see that elements in this set are multiple of 3 so in set-builder form
it can be written as A = {x: x is a multiple of 3, x N}.
Similarly, by observing the pattern obeyed by the elements of other parts
we can write them as given below.
(ii) B = {x: x is a factor of 30, x N}
(iii) C = {x: x = 5 n , n N}
1
(iv) D = {x: x = , 0 n 5, n W}
3n
(v) E = {x : x = n 2 , 1 n 10 , n N}
10
Here are some exercises for you.
Introduction to Sets
E 2) Describe the following sets by roster method:
(i) A = {x: x = 2n + 3, n W} (ii) B = {x : x = 7n, 0 n 3, n N}
(iii) C = {x : x N and x W} (iv) D = {x : x W and x Q }
E 3) Express the following sets in set-builder form:
1 1 1
(i) {5, 10, 15, 20, …} (ii) 1, , , , ... (iii) {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, …}
2 3 4
1.3 TYPES OF SETS
We have seen that set is a well defined collection of distinct objects. Also
repetition of elements in a set is not allowed. So once a set is defined,
automatically number of elements contained by it has also become fixed. In
this section, we shall discuss the different names given to a set on the bases of
the number of elements contained by the set. Equivalent and equal sets are also
defined in this section.
Null Set
Consider a collection of those sons having their ages more than their respective
fathers. Of course we will find no such son in this world. This type of
collection is nothing but simply known as null set or empty set or void set in
the terminology of sets.
Let us now formally define null set.
A set is said to be null (or empty or void) if it has no element in it. Null set is
denoted by or { }.
For example, A = {x : x is a natural number, 1 < x < 2 } is a null set as there is
no natural number between 1 and 2.
Singleton Set
Consider the collection of mothers of a baby. Obviously a baby has only one
mother. This type of collection having a single element is known as singleton
set in the terminology of sets. Thus, a singleton set is defined as follow.
A set is said to be singleton set if it contains only one element.
For example, A = {x : x is an even prime number} is a singleton set as there is
only one even prime number, i.e. 2 .
Finite Set
A set is said to be finite set if either it is an empty set or it has a finite number
of elements.
For example,
(i) A = {2, 5, 7, 15} is a finite set because it contains 4 elements, i.e. finite
number of elements.
(ii) B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …} is not a finite set as the number of elements in it are
infinitely many.
(iii) C = {x : x +1 = 0, x N} = {x : x = – 1, x N}= { } is an empty set. So, it
is a finite set.
11
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I
Cardinal Number of a Finite Set
The number of elements in a finite set say A is called its cardinality and is
denoted by n(A).
For example,
(i) If A = {x, y, z}, then n(A) = 3, i.e. cardinality of A is 3.
(ii) If B = {14, 2, 3, 9, 15}, then n(B) = 5, i.e. cardinality of B is 5.
Infinite Set
A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite.
For example, A = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, …} is an infinite set.
Remark 3: Infinite sets are either countable or uncountable. We shall discuss
it in Sec. 2.6 of Unit 2 of this block.
Equivalent Sets
Two finite sets A and B (say) are said to be equivalent if number of elements
in both the sets are equal in numbers, i.e. n(A) = n(B) and we denote it by
A ~ B (read as A is equivalent to B).
For example, if A = {a, b, c, d} and B= {2, 3, 5, 7}, then
A~B [ n(A) = n(B) = 4 ]
Equal Sets
Two sets A and B are said to be equal if every element of A is in B and every
element of B is in A and is written as A = B.
For example, if A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {c, b, d, a}, then A = B as order of
elements does not matter.
If two sets A and B are not equal then we write A B.
Example 4: Give reasons whether the following statements are true or false:
(i) If A = {x : x is a vowel of English alphabet} and
B = {x : x is a natural number, 7 < x < 13}, then A = B
(ii) If A = {x : x2 = 9, x z) and B = {3, – 3}, then A = B
(iii) If A = {x, y, z, w} and B = {d, e, 7, 9}, then A ~ B
(iv) If A = {x, x, y, z} and B = {x, y, z, w}, then A ~ B
Solution:
(i) Here, A = {a, e, i, o, u} and B = {8, 9, 10, 11, 12}.
Clearly, A B (as there elements are not same). Hence, the given
statement is false.
we know that if x 2 a then x a
(ii) Here, A = {3, – 3} and 2
x 9 x 9 3
all the elements of A are in B and
B = {3, – 3}, Clearly, A = B
all the element of B are in A.
the statement is true.
(iii) Here, n(A) = 4, n(B) = 4 A ~ B, therefore, it is a true statement.
(iv) Here, A = {x, x, y, z} = {x, y, z} [As repetition in a set is not allowed]
and B = {x, y, z, w}, so n(A) = 3, n(B) = 4.
A ~ B, is false because n(A) n(B).
12
Here is an exercise for you.
Introduction to Sets
E 4) Give reasons whether the following statements are true or false:
(i) If A = {2, 9, 7, 7, 5}, B = {5, 2, 2, 9, 7}, then A = B
(ii) If A = { , , } , B = { , , }, then A ~ B
(iii) If A = {4, – 4, 5, 5}and
B = {x : either x 2 = 16 or x 2 x 20 0, x Z}, then A = B
(iv) If A = {a, a, b, b, b, c} and B = {d, e, e, f, g, h}, then A ~ B
1.4 HIERARCHY OF SETS
For given any two real numbers a and b, you know that either a = b or a < b or
a > b. This section will focus on how this type of association is setup in case of
sets. Actually, here, we consider the sets contained in some other sets and
define them with their appropriate designations.
Subset
Suppose A be the set of all working ladies and B be the set of all ladies then
obviously all working ladies are ladies first. That is all the members of the set
A are members of the set B. If it is so, then in the terminology of the sets A is
known as subset of B.
Now, let us formally define the term subset.
Let A and B be two sets. Then A is said to be subset of B (or B is super set of
A) if every element of A belongs to B and is denoted by A B .
“A B ” read as A is contained in B or A is a subset of B.
If we write it as “B A” then we read it as B contains A and we call B is a
super set of A.
Remark 4: From above definition of subset, we see that a set A(say) will not
be subset of another set B(say) if there is at least one element in A which is not
in B. And it is denoted by A B (read as A is not a subset of B or A is not
contained in B).
For example,
(i) If N = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}, W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …},
p
Z = {…, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ,…}, Q = { : p, q Z, q 0 },
q
then N W, W Z, Z Q, i.e. N W Z Q.
(ii) If A = {1, 2, 4}, B = {1, 2, 4, 7, 9}, then A B
(iii) If A a , b, c, B b, c, d, e, then A B a A but a B
Proper Subset
Let A and B be two sets. Then A is said to be proper subset of B if all the
elements of A are in B and B has at least one element other than elements of
A and is denoted by A B.
For example, if A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
all the elments of A are in Band B
then A B. has two extra elements, i.e.4 and 5.
13
Remark 5:
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I
(i) Empty set is subset of every set, i.e. A for any set A.
(ii) Every set is a subset of itself, i.e. A A for every set A.
Power Set
Let us first consider some examples:
(i) If A = { }, then is only subset of A.
That is, there is only 1 (= 2 0 ) subset of A.
(ii) If A = {a}, then possible subsets of A are , {a}.
That is, there are only 2 (= 21 ) subsets of A.
(iii) If A = {a, b}, then possible subsets of A are , {a}, {b}, {a, b}.
That is, there are only 4 (= 2 2 ) subsets of A.
(iv) If A = {a, b, c}, then possible subsets of A are , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b},
{a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}.
That is, there are only 8 (= 2 3 ) subsets of A.
(v) Similarly, if A has n elements then total number of subsets of A are 2 n.
Now, let us define what we mean by power set of a set.
Let A be any set. Then set of all subsets of A is known as power set of A and is
denoted by P (A).
For example, in above discussed cases (i) to (iv) power set of A is given by
(i) P (A) = { }
(ii) P (A) = { , {a}}
(iii) P (A) = { , {a}, {b}, {a, b}}
(iv) P (A) = { , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}
Here is an exercise for you.
E 5) If A = {a, b, c, d}, then write P(A).
Universal Set
In IGNOU there are 21 schools such as school of humanities (SOH), school of
social sciences (SOSS), school of sciences (SOS), etc. (source IGNOU dairy
2011). If U is the set of all faculties of IGNOU and A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , ... , A 21 are sets
representing the faculties of 21 schools. Then, of course, faculties of all these
21 schools are faculties of IGNOU. That is, all the members of these 21
schools are present in the set U. Here U plays the role of universal set for the
sets A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , ... , A 21 .
Now, let us formally define the universal set.
A set U is said to be universal set if all the sets under study are subsets of U.
For example,
(i) If A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, C = {3, 5, 7}, D = {8, 9, 10},
then U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} can play the role of universal set.
(ii) If in a study, only integers are involved as the elements of the sets, then Z,
the set all integers, is the universal set.
14
You can now solve the following exercise.
Introduction to Sets
E 6) If A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8}, C = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23},
and D = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25}, then what will be the smallest universal set?
1.5 VENN DIAGRAMS
As we know that examples play an important role to understand the concepts
of theory/definitions. Similarly a diagram speaks more than the words that we
may use and they also make the ideas simple and easy to understand even for a
fresh reader. Euler (1707-1783), a Swiss mathematician was the first who took
the step to represent the sets diagrammatically. Then John Venn (1834-1923), a
British mathematician, moving a step ahead simplifying the ideas and made it
more user friendly. That is why diagrammatical representation of sets is also
known as Venn-Euler diagram. But usually they are known as Venn-diagrams.
In Venn diagrams, sets are represented by enclosed areas in a plane as
described below:
Notations Used in Venn Diagrams
1. Universal Set
Universal set U is represented by the interior of a rectangle as shown in
Fig. 1.1
U
Fig. 1.1
2. Subsets
Subsets of U are described by the interior of closed curves (known as
circular discs) within the rectangle, representing the universal set U.
Fig. 1.2 shows the case when A and B have no common element,
while Fig.1.3 shows the case when A and B have some common elements.
Fig. 1.4 shows the case when A B, and Fig. 1.5 shows the case when
B A.
U U
A B A B
If A B = If A B
Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3
U U
B A
A B
If A B If B A
Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5
Remark 6:
(i) In general when nothing is mentioned about the common elements of A
and B, presentation of Fig. 1.3 is used.
(ii) Sizes that we use to present A and B do not matter.
15
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I 1.6 SET OPERATIONS
In school days, a child first learns counting numbers and then he/she learns
how operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are used on
two numbers.
A similar type of approach is being used here. In sections 1.2 and 1.3 of this
unit you have become familiar with the definition and types of sets
respectively. In this section, we will learn about some commonly used
operations on sets.
Union
Let A be a set containing the persons getting salary (in Rs) between 10000 and
100000 per month and another set B containing the persons getting salary (in
Rs) between 5000 and 20000 per month. For this example, if we are interested
in finding those persons who are getting the salary within the range 10000-
100000 or 5000-20000 then such persons will be those having salary between
5000 and 100000. The set of such persons is nothing but the union of two sets
A and B.
Now, let us formally define the union of two sets.
Let A and B be two sets then union of A and B is denoted by A B and is
defined as
A B = {x: either x A or x B}.
i.e. A B contains all the elements of A as well as of B (see Fig. 1.6).
Fig. 1.6
For example,
(i) If A = {2, 3, 5}, B = {3, 5, 7, 11}, then A B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11}.
(ii) If A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {d, e, f}, then A B = {a, b, c, d, e, f}.
(iii) If Q = set of all rational numbers and I = set of all irrational numbers, then
Q I = R = set of all real numbers.
That is, if all rational and irrational numbers are mixed then that mixture
will be the set of real numbers.
Now, you can do the following exercises.
E 7) If A = {3}, B = {a, b, c}, then write A B.
E 8) If A = {a, b}, B = {e, f}, then write A B.
E 9) If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, C = {3, 6, 7}, then write A B C.
Intersection
Let us again consider the example given above. For this example, if we are
interested in finding those persons who are getting the salary within the
common range then such persons will be those having salary between 10000
and 20000. The set of such persons is nothing but the intersection of two sets A
and B.
16
Now, let us formally define the intersection of two sets.
Introduction to Sets
Let A and B be two sets then intersection of A and B is denoted by A B and
is defined as
A B = {x: x A and x B }.
i.e. A B contains common elements of A and B ( see Fig. 1.7).
Fig. 1.7
For example,
(i) If A = {a, b, c}, B = {b, c, d, e}, then A B = {b, c}.
(ii) If A = {5, 7, 9}, B = {10, 11, 18}, then A B = { } = = empty set,
as there is no common element in the two sets.
Note: If A B = then we say that two sets A and B are disjoint.
Here are some exercises for you.
E 10) If A = { }, B = {1, 4, 7}, then write A B.
E 11) If A = {2, 4, 6, 8}, B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}, then write A B.
Complement of a Set
Suppose we have set of persons of a locality having voting right. Then set of
those persons of the locality who do not have voting right is its complement, if
the set of all persons of that locality is considered as a universal set.
Now, let us formally define complement of a set.
Let U be the universal set, then complement of a set A (where A U) is
U
denoted by A c or A or A' and is defined as
A ' = {x U: x A} .
That is A ' contains those elements of U which are not in A, i.e. A' contains all
the elements of U other than A (see Fig. 1.8.).
Fig. 1.8
For example, if U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 10},
then A ' = {3, 5, 6, 8}, i.e. those elements of U which are not in A.
Here is an exercise for you.
E 12) If U = {x: x is an English alphabet} and
A = {x : x is an vowel of English alphabet}, then write A ' .
17
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I
Difference of Two Sets
Let A and B be two sets then difference of A and B is denoted by A – B and is
defined as
A – B = {x: x A but xB}. See Fig. 1.9
Fig. 1.9
For example,
(i) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7}, then A – B = {1, 2, 3}
(ii) If A = {a, b, c}, B = {a, b, c, d, e}, then A – B = { }
Now, you can do the following exercise.
E 13) If W = set of whole numbers and N = set of natural numbers then write
W – N.
Symmetric Difference of Two Sets
Let A and B be two sets, then symmetric difference of A and B is denoted by
A B and is defined as
A B = (A– B) (B– A). See Fig. 1.10
Fig. 1.10
For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, then A – B = {1, 2},
B – A = {5, 6, 7}
A B = (A – B) (B – A) = {1, 2} {5, 6, 7} = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7}.
Example 5: With the help of the Venn diagrams, show the following sets:
(i) A (ii) A' (iii) A B (iv) A – B (v) B – A (vi) A B (vii) A B (viii) B A
Solution:
(i) (ii)
(iii) (iv)
18
(v) (vi)
Introduction to Sets
(vii) (viii)
U U
B A
A B
Now, you can try the following exercise.
E 14) With the help of the Venn diagram justify the following
(i) A A B (ii) B A B (iii) A B A (iv) A B B
(v) (A B)' = A' B' (De-Morgan’s law) (vi) A B B' A '
1.7 SOME USEFUL AND IMPORTANT LAWS
Some commonly used laws of sets are listed below.
1. Idempotent Laws
For any set A
(i) A A = A (ii) A A = A
2. Identity Laws
For any subset A of the universal set U
A = A, A U = A, where is empty set
3. Commutative Laws
For any two sets A and B
(i) A B = B A (ii) A B = B A
4. Associative Laws
If A, B, C are any three sets then
(i) ( A B) C = A (B C)
(ii) (A B) C = A (B C)
5. Distributive Laws
If A, B, C are any three sets then
(i) A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
(ii) A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
6. De-Morgan’s Laws
For any two sets A and B
(i) (A B) ' A ' B '
(ii) (A B) ' A ' B '
Example 6: If A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {3, 5, 7, 9}, C = {2, 6, 8, 9} are subsets of
the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} then verify
(i) De-Morgan’s laws and
(ii) Distributive laws
19
Solution:
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I
(i) De-Morgan’s laws state that
(a) (A B)' A' B'
(b) (A B)' A' B'
To verify (a)
A B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
(A B)' {2, 6, 8}
A' = {2, 6, 7, 8, 9}, B' = {1, 2, 6, 8}
A' B' {2, 6, 8}
We see that here (A B)' A' B' .
Hence verified.
To verify (b)
A B {3, 5}
(A B)' = {1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9} and
A' B' = {1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9}
We see that here (A B)' A' B' .
Hence verified.
(ii) Distributive laws state that
(a) A (B C) (A B) (A C)
(b) A (B C) (A B) (A C)
To verify (a)
B C = {9}
A (B C) = {1, 3, 5, 9}
A B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, A C = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9}
(A B) (A C) = {1, 3, 5, 9}
We see that here A (B C) (A B) (A C) .
Hence verified.
To verify (b)
B C = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
A (B C) = {3, 5}
A B = {3, 5}, A C = {}
(A B) (A C) = {3, 5}
We see that here A (B C) (A B) (A C)
Hence verified.
Now, you can do the following exercise.
E 15) If the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and A = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7},
B = {5, 6, 7, 8}, C = {1, 5, 7, 8}are subsets of U, then verify
(i) commutative laws and (ii) associative laws
Application of Sets
Venn diagrams are helpful in establishing many important relations between
different sets, some of them are mentioned as under which are helpful in
solving many practical problems too.
1. n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A B)
2. n(A B) = n(A – B) + n(A B) + n(B – A)
20
3. n(A – B) = n(A) – n(A B)
Introduction to Sets
4. n(B – A) = n(B) – n(A B)
5. n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A B) – n(A C)
– n(B C) + n(A B C)
Let us consider an example based on above formulae.
Example 7: In a group of 500 persons, 400 can speak Hindi and 150 can speak
English. Then how many can speak
(i) both Hindi and English
(ii) Hindi only
(iii) English only
Solution: Let A and B denote the set of persons who can speak Hindi and
English, respectively. Then in usual notations, we are given
n(A B) = 500, n(A) = 400, n(B) = 150
(i) We know that
n(A B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A B)
500 = 400 + 150 – n(A B n(A B) = 550 500 = 50
number of persons who can speak both Hindi and English = 50
(ii) We know that
n(A – B) = n(A) – n(A B) = 400 50 = 350
number of persons who can speak Hindi only = 350
(iii) We know that
n(B – A) = n(B) – n(A B) = 150 50 = 100
number of persons who can speak English only = 100
Here is an exercise for you.
E 16) Out of the 50 students in a class, 24 play cricket, 15 play hockey, 18
play football, 6 play cricket and hockey, 8 play cricket and football, 5
play hockey and football and 10 students do not play any of the three
games. Then how many play (i) all the three games, (ii) hockey but not
football and (iii) cricket and football but not hockey.
1.8 SUMMARY
Let us now summarise what we have covered in this unit.
1) Definition of a set with examples.
2) Two methods of writing a set.
3) Definition of various types of sets including empty set, singleton set, finite
set, infinite set, equivalent sets, and equal sets.
4) Definition of subsets, proper subset, super set, universal set, power set.
5) Introduction of Venn diagrams.
6) Various operations on sets.
7) Idempotent, identity, commutative, associative, distributive and De-
Morgan’s laws.
21
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I 1.9 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS
E 1) (i) It is not a set, because a student may be intelligent according to
someone while the same student may not be intelligent according to
some other person.
(ii) It is not a set because a hockey player may be good in someone’s
view while the same player may not be good in view of some other
person.
(iii) It is not a set because an actor may be good in someone’s point of
view while the same actor may not be good in the view of some
other person.
repetition of elements
(iv) It is a set having elements I, N, D, A
in a set is not allowed.
E 2) (i) x = 2n + 3, n W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …}
Values are obtained on putting
n 0,1, 2,... in x 2n 3
x = 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, …
e.g. when we put n 0, we get
x 2(0) 3 3
And, therefore, A = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11,…}
(ii) B = 7 0 ,71 ,7 2 ,7 3 = {1, 7, 49, 343}
(iii) N = {1, 2, 3, 4,…} and W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…}
if x N and x W then the elements which satisfy both
are 1, 2, 3, 4, … and hence
C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …}.
(iv) W = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}and Q = set of rational numbers,
the elements which are common to both are 0, 1, 2, 3, … as no
other rational number is a whole number and hence
D = {0, 1, 2, 3,…}.
E 3) (i) {x N : x = 5n, n N }
1
(ii) {x : x = , n N }
n
(iii) {x N : x = 2n, n N }
E 4) (i) A = {2, 9, 7, 5}, B = {5, 2, 9, 7} as repetitions in a set are not
allowed.
We see that all the elements of A are in B and all the elements of B
are in A.
A = B. Hence the statement is true.
(ii) Here, n(A) = 3, n(B) = 3 and so the statement A ~ B is true.
(iii) A = {4, – 4, 5}, B = {x: x 2 = 16, x 2 + x – 20 = 0, x Z}
= {x: x = 4, ( x 5)(x 4) 0, x Z}
= {x: x = 4 , x = – 5, 4, x Z} = {4}
Here, – 4 A but – 4B
A B, hence the statement is false.
(iv) Here, A = {a, b, c}, B = {d, e, f, g, h}.Thus, n(A) = 3, n(B) = 5.
A ~ B is false because n(A) n(B).
22
E 5) P(A) ={ , {a},{b}, {c},{d}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c},{b, d},
Introduction to Sets
{c, d},{a, b, c}, {a, b, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d}, {a, b, c, d}}
Notice that it has 2 4 16 elements.
E 6) Smallest universal set is
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 23, 25}.
E 7) A B = {3, a, b, c}.
E 8) A B = {a, b, e, f}.
E 9) A B C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
E 10) A B = { } = .
E 11) A B = {2}.
E 12) A' = {x: x is a consonant of English alphabet}.
E 13) We know that
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …} and N = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
W – N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…} – {1, 2, 3, 4, …}= {0}
E 14) (i)
L.H.S. R.H.S.
Two Venn diagrams justify the relationship A A B.
(ii)
L.H.S. R.H.S.
Two Venn diagrams justify the relationship B A B.
(iii)
L.H.S. R.H.S.
Two Venn diagrams justify the relationship A B A.
23
(iv)
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I
L.H.S. R.H.S.
Two Venn diagrams justify the relationship A B B.
(v)
Two Venn diagrams justify the relationship (A B)' = A' B' .
(vi)
U U
B B
A
A
L.H.S. R.H.S.
B' A'
Two Venn diagrams justify the relationship A B B' A ' .
E 15) (i) Commutative laws state that
(a) A B = B A
(b) A B = B A
To verify (a)
A B = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7} {5, 6, 7, 8} = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}
B A = {5, 6, 7, 8} {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}= {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}
we see that here A B = B A.
Hence verified.
To verify (b)
A B = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7} {5, 6, 7, 8} = {5, 6, 7}
and B A = {5, 6, 7, 8} {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}= {5, 6, 7}
We see that here A B = B A
Hence verified.
24
(ii) Associative laws state that
Introduction to Sets
(a) (A B) C = A (B C)
(b) (A B) C = A (B C)
To verify (a)
A B = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}
(A B) C = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}
B C = {5, 6, 7, 8} {1, 5, 7, 8} = {1, 5, 6, 7, 8}
A (B C) = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7} {1, 5, 6, 7, 8}= {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}
We see that here (A B) C = A (B C).
Hence verified.
To verify (b)
A B = {5, 6, 7}
(A B) C = {5, 6, 7} {1, 5, 7. 8} = {5, 7}
B C = {5, 6, 7, 8} {1, 5, 7, 8} = {5, 7, 8}
A (B C) = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7} {5, 7, 8}= {5, 7}
We see that here (A B) C = A (B C).
Hence verified.
E 16) Let C, H, F, denote the set of students who play cricket, hockey and
football respectively. Then in usual notations, we are given.
n(C) = 24, n(H) = 15, n(F) = 18, n(C H) = 6, n(C F) = 8,
n(H F) = 5, n( C' H ' F' ) = 10
(i) Before finding the required number of students, we are to first obtain
the number of students who play at least one of the three games
which is given as
= n(C H F) = 50 – n( C' H ' F' ) = 50 – 10 = 40
Now, we know that
n(C H F) = n(C) + n(H) + n(F) – n(C H) – n(C F) – n(H F)
+ n(C H F)
40 = 24 + 15 + 18 – 6 – 8 – 5 + n(C H F)
40 = 57 19 + n(C H F) = 38 + n(C H F)
n(C H F) = 40 – 38 = 2
number of students who play all the three games = 2
(ii) We know that
n(H – F) = n(H) – n(H F)
= 15 – 5 = 10
H U
C
number of students who play hockey but not football = 10
25
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I
(iii) n((C F) H) n (C F) n ((C F) H) = 8 – 2 = 6
n (A B) n (A ) n (A B)
Here A C F, B H
number of students who play cricket and football but not
hockey = 6
26
UNIT 2 FUNCTIONS Functions
Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Quantity
2.3 Interval
2.4 Function
2.5 Classification of functions
2.6 Types of functions
2.7 Summary
2.8 Solutions/Answers
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Many times, we observe the association of the elements of one set with the
elements of another set. For example, roll numbers of students in an
examination of a university are associated with their corresponding marks.
Such type of associations are discussed under the heading “Function”. In this
unit, we will focus on definition of function, its classification and various
types.
In this unit, we will use some concepts related to sets discussed in the
preceding unit.
Objectives
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
define constant quantity, variable, interval, give some examples of each;
define function, some particular functions;
evaluate the value of some particular functions at given points;
get an idea of one-one, onto and one to one correspondence and their
geometrical interpretation; and
define countable and uncountable sets.
2.2 QUANTITY
Before defining function, let us first explain what we mean by quantity,
constant, variable and intervals. See Fig. 2.1
Quantity
Here, by quantity we mean those things on which four basic mathematical
operations addition, subtraction, multiplication and division can be applied.
For example, temperature, height, weight, and time all these are quantities but
they are continuous in nature, where as books in a library, number of trees,
number of balls is discrete in nature.
Note 1: If the nature of the quantity is such that it can take any possible value
between two certain limits then such a quantity is known as continuous in
nature.
27
Fundamentals of Let us consider the following example:
Mathematics-I
Suppose at the time of birth, height of a baby was 1.5 ft and after 15 years, the
height of the same baby is 5 ft, then we know that height of this baby took all
possible values between 1.5ft. to 5ft. That is, this is not the case that at the time
of birth the height was 1.5 ft and in the next moment it reached to1.6 ft and in
successive moment to 1.7 ft. In fact, there are infinitely many values between
1.5 ft and 1.6 ft and all these values were taken by the height of that baby.
Note 2: If the nature of the quantity is such that it can take at most countable
values between two certain limits then such a quantity is known as discrete in
nature. Countable set is defined in Sec. 2.6 of this unit.
Let us consider an example:
Number of children per family in a locality is an example of discrete quantity.
Quantity
Constant Quantity Variable Quantity
Fixed Arbitrary Continuous Discrete
Constant Constant Variable Variable
Fig. 2.1
Constant Quantity
A quantity which remains same (unchanged) throughout a particular
investigation is known as a constant quantity.
Fixed Constant
Those types of constants which always remain same (unchanged) independent
of the purpose of user, place and time are known as fixed constants.
For example,
3
(i) 2, 5, , 13, 17, , etc.
2
(ii) quotient of circumference of a circle and its diameter which is always
equal to .
Arbitrary Constants
Those types of constants which remain same in one problem but may vary from
problem to problem are known as arbitrary constants and are generally denoted
by a, b, c, l, m, n, , , , etc.
For example, heights of the houses constructed by the different owners of the
plots in a locality as per their own choice, is an example of arbitrary constant
because heights of the houses vary from house to house as it depends on the
choice of the owners.
28
Variable Functions
A quantity which may change its value even in a particular problem is known
as variable.
For example, blood pressures of a person as it vary time to time.
2.3 INTERVAL
Let R be the set of all real numbers. Then a set I R is said to be an interval if
whenever a , b I and a < x b then x I
For example, the set of all real numbers satisfying 2 x 3 is an interval
where x can take any real value between 2 and 3 including 2 and 3.
Open Interval
An open interval I R with end points a and b (a < b) is denoted by (a, b) and
is defined by
(a, b) = x R : a x b
i.e. an open interval contains each value between the end points but does not
include the end points.
For example, open interval (2, 5) contains each real number lying between 2
and 5 but does not contain 2 and 5.
Closed Interval
A closed interval I R with end points a and b (a < b) is denoted by [a, b] and
is defined by
[a, b] = {x R : a x b}
i.e. a closed interval contains each value between and including extreme
values.
For example, closed interval [2, 5] contains each real number lying between 2
and 5. It also contains its end points. i.e.
x [2,5] x , 2 < x < 5 and
also 2 [2,5], 5 [2, 5]
Left Open and Right Closed Interval
A left open and right closed interval I R with end points a and b (a < b) is
denoted by (a, b] and is defined as
(a, b] = {x R : a x b}
In this case x (a, b], x , a x b and a (a, b], but b (a, b]
Left Closed and Right Open Interval
A left closed and right open interval I R with end points a and b (a < b) is
denoted by [a, b) and is defined as
[a, b) = {x R : a x b}
In this case x [a , b), x , a x b and a [a, b), but b [a, b)
Length of an Interval
Length of each of the intervals (a, b), [a, b], (a, b], [a, b) is defined
as b a, a b
i.e. length of the interval = difference of the end points
29
Fundamentals of For example, if I = (2, 7) then l (I) = 7 – 2 = 5, where l (I) denotes the length of
Mathematics-I the interval I.
Finite Interval
An interval is said to be finite if its length is finite.
For example, if I = (– 3, 5) then l (I) = 5 – (– 3) = 5 + 3 = 8 which is finite.
interval I is finite.
Infinite Interval
An interval is said to be infinite interval if its length is not finite.
For example,
(i) The set {x R : x a , a R} is an infinite interval and is denoted by (a, )
(ii) The set {x R : x a, a R} is an infinite interval and is denoted by
(– , a )
Similarly, infinite intervals [a, ), (– , a ] are defined as
[a, ) = { x R : x a} , where a is a fixed real number
(– , a ] = { x R : x a}, where a is a fixed real number
Remark 1:
(i) Each interval contains infinitely many elements.
(ii) Each interval is an infinite set but an infinite set may or may not be an
interval. For example N, W, Z, Q are infinite sets but are not intervals.
(iii) A set may or may not be an interval.
(iv) R, set of real numbers, is an infinite interval given by R = ( , )
(v) Remember that and are not included in the set of real numbers.
Also, if extreme value is or , then open bracket is used on the side
having extreme value.
(vi) When we say that x is a finite number/real number it means that
x
Now we are in a position to define function.
2.4 FUNCTION
Definition of Function
Let X and Y be two sets. Then a rule which associates each element of X to a
There are two
unique element of Y is called a function.
conditions for a
rule to be a X is called domain of the function.
function. Y is called co-domain of the function and set of only those values of Y for
(i) Each element of which function is defined is called range of the function.
X must be That is, subset { y Y : y f (x ) for some x X} of Y is called range of the
associated to some
element of Y. function.
(ii) There is unique Notation:
element of Y
corresponding to (i) A function is generally denoted by f, g, h, etc., in the case of above
each element of X. definition we write f: X Y and read as f is a function from X to Y.
(ii) A function f: X Y is generally described by writing
y f (x ), x X, where f ( x ) is an expression in terms of x .
30
Pictorial Presentation of a Function Functions
A function can be presented diagrammatically. As shown in the example of
mothers and daughters discussed below.
To get a clear cut idea of the definition of a function without cramming and for
a long time memory. Let us consider a real life example.
Let X = set of daughters and Y = set of mothers
Then consider the following situations given in (a), (b), (c) and (d) with the
help of the diagrams.
(a)
f
X Y
x1 y1
x2 y2
x3 y3
y4
Fig. 2.2
The rule f shown in Fig. 2.2 is a function because each daughter has
unique mother. [i.e. both conditions mentioned in the box are satisfied] and
domain of the function f set of all daughters = X = { x 1 , x 2 , x 3 }
co-domain of this function = set of all mothers = Y = { y1 , y 2 , y 3 , y 4 }
range of this function = set of those mothers who has at least one daughter
= {y1 , y 2 , y 3 }
Note 3: One point which may come in your mind is that if y 4 is a mother
then there should be at least one daughter of y 4 . But as we know that to
become a mother it is not necessary that there should be a daughter. A
mother may have only one son or only two sons or more than two sons
without a daughter.
(b) f
X Y
x1 y1
x2
y2
y3
Fig. 2.3
The rule f shown in Fig. 2.3 is not a function because x 1 has two mothers
y1 , y 2 which is not possible. [i.e. condition (ii) given in the box is not
satisfied]
31
Fundamentals of (c) f
Mathematics-I X Y
x1 y1
x2 y2
x3
Fig. 2.4
The rule f shown in Fig. 2.4 is not a function because daughter x 3 has no
mother. If x 3 came in this world then there should be some mother of x 3 .
[i.e. condition (i) given in the box is not satisfied]
(d) f
X Y
x1 y1
x2 y2
x3 y3
y4
Fig. 2.5
The rule f shown in Fig. 2.5 is a function because each daughter has
unique mother. We see that x1 , x 2 both have same mother, no problem it is
possible. Further mothers y 3 , y 4 have no daughters again no problem it is
also possible. In this case:
domain of the function f {x 1 , x 2 , x 3 } X set of all daughters,
co-domain of the function f {y1 , y 2 , y 3 , y 4 } Y set of all mothers and
range of the function f {y1 , y 2 } set of only those mothers who have at
least one daughter.
Some more Concepts Related to Function are given as under
(i) If f : X Y is a function given by y f ( x ) then x is known a pre image
of y and y is known as image of x .
(ii) If y f ( x ) is a function then values of y depend on values of x . So, y is
known as dependent variable and x is known as independent variable.
Let us now take up some examples which will enable you to distinguish as to
whether a rule is a function or not.
For example,
(a) f
X Y
x1 y1
x2 y2
x3
x4 y3
Fig. 2.6
32
The rule f shown in Fig. 2.6 is a function because it satisfies both Functions
conditions i.e.
(i) Each element of X is associated to some element of Y
(ii) There is unique element of Y corresponding to each element of X.
i.e. y 1 is unique element of Y corresponding to x1 X
y 2 is unique element of Y corresponding to both x 2 , x 3 X
y 3 is unique element of Y corresponding to x 4 X
Here domain of f = { x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 }
Co-domain of f = { y1 , y 2 , y 3 } and range of f = { y1 , y 2 , y 3 }
(b) f
X Y
x1 y1
x2 y2
x3
Fig. 2.7
The rule f shown in Fig. 2.7 is not a function because x 3 X, but it is not
associated to the element of Y.
out of two restriction for a rule to be a
function, first is that each element of X
must be associated to some element of Y.
(c) f
X Y
x1 y1
x2
y2
y3
Fig. 2.8
The rule f shown in Fig. 2.8 is also not a function because x 1 X is not
associated to unique element of Y.
for a rule to be a function it is must that each
element of X is associated to a unique elemeny of Y.
(d) f
X Y
x1 y1
x2 y2
x3 y3
y4
Fig. 2.9
The rule f shown in Fig. 2.9 is a function because it satisfies both the
conditions for a rule to be a function, i.e.
33
Fundamentals of (i) Each element of X is associated to some element of Y.
Mathematics-I
(ii) There is unique element of Y corresponding to each element of X.
Here domain of the function f {x1 , x 2 , x 3 } X
Co-domain of the function f {y1 , y 2 , y 3 , y 4 } Y
Range of the function f {y1 , y 2 , y 3 } Y
Some Examples of Functions
Example 1: Let f : N N defined by
f(n) = 3n, n N
Express the function diagrammatically. Also write domain, range and co-
domain of the function.
Solution: f : N N defined by
f ( x ) 3n , n N
f (1) 3, f(2) 6, f(3) 9 and so on. See Fig. 2.10
Fig. 2.10
Domain of the function f {1, 2, 3, ...} N
Range of the function f = Set of only those values for which function is define
= {3, 6, 9, …}
Co-domain = Set of all values of Y = {1, 2, 3, …}= N
Example 2: If f : R R be a function defined by
f (x) 3x , x R, then obtain (i) Domain of f (ii) Range of f
Solution: f : R R is defined by
f (x) 3x , xR
(i) Since f ( x ) is defined for all x R
domain of f R set of all real numbers
(ii) We Know that
3x 0 xR
i.e. f ( x ) 0 xR
range of f = 0,
Example 3: Find the domain of the function f : R R , defined by
f ( x ) ( x 3)(5 x ) , xR
Also evaluate f(3), f(4), f(5).
Solution: Given function is
34
f (x) (x 3)(5 x), x R Functions
For f ( x ) to be real, the quantity under the square root should be non negative
and hence
( x 3)(5 x ) 0
( x 3)( x 5) 0
(x 3)(x 5) 0 3 5
Now, when we take x less then 3, the L.H.S. comes out to be
(–ve) (–ve) = + ve hence does not satisfy the inequality.
Also, if we take x greater than 5, the L.H.S. comes out to be
(+ ve) (+ ve) = + ve and hence this value does not satisfy the inequality.
But, if we take 3 < x < 5, the L.H.S. becomes (+ ve) (–ve) = –ve and hence
satisfies the inequality.
x [3, 5]
domain of f [3, 5]
Also f (3) (3 3)(5 3) = 02 0 0
f ( 4) ( 4 3)(5 4) = 1 1 = 1
f(5) = (5 3)(5 5) = 2 0 0 0
Now, you can try the following exercises.
E 1) Find the domain and range of the function f: R R given by
1
f(x) = 4x + 5, x R. Also, evaluate f(0), f .
2
E 2) Find the domain and range of the function f: R R given by
1
f(x) = , x R. Also, evaluate f(1), f 3, f (5) .
x2
E 3) Find the domain and range of the function f: R R given by
1
f(x) = , x R . Also, evaluate f(0), f (2), f (3) if possible.
x3
2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS WITH
THEIR GRAPHS
In previous Sec. we have seen that function is a rule (satisfying two conditions
mentioned in the box at page number 30) which associates the elements of one
set to the elements of another set. Based on the nature of classification a
function may be given some particular names. In this section you will meet
some of these commonly used names, their definitions followed by some
examples.
Constant Function
Let X, Y R , then a function f : X Y is said to be a constant function if it
is defined as
f ( x ) a , x R , where a is a real constant.
i.e. a function is constant if range is a singleton set.
i.e. all elements of the domain are associated to a single element of the co-
domain of the function.
For example,
35
Fundamentals of (i) f : N N defined by
Mathematics-I f ( x ) 3, n N
is a constant function because all elements of the domain are associated to
the single element 3 as shown in the Fig. 2.11
Fig. 2.11
(ii) f : R R defined by
f (x) 2, x R
is also a constant function and its graph is given below in Fig. 2.12.
Y
y = f (x) = 2
2
1
X' O X
1 2 3
Y' Fig. 2.12
Identity Function
Let X R , a function f : X X is said to be an identity function if it is
defined as
f ( x) x, x X
i.e. a function is said to be identity function if each element is associated to
itself.
For example,
(i) f : N N defined by
f (n ) n, n N
is an identity function as shown in the Fig. 2.13.
f
N
N
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
. .
. .
. .
Fig. 2.13
(ii) Function f : R R defined by
36
f (x) x, x R Functions
is also an identity function and its graph is given in Fig. 2.14.
Fig. 2.14
Polynomial Function
A function f : R R is said to be a polynomial function of degree n if it is
defined as
f ( x ) a 0 x n a 1 x n 1 a 2 x n 2 ... a n 1 x a n , x R
where a 0 , a 1 , a 2 ,..., a n 1 , a n R, a 0 0 are constants
e.g. f(x) = 2 x 3 x 2 x 5 , is a polynomial function of degree 3.
Linear Function (Polynomial Function of Degree 1)
A function f : R R is said to be linear function if it is defined as
f ( x ) ax b, x R , where a, b R, a 0 are real constants.
Graph of the function f : R R defined by
f (x) 2x 3, xR
is given in Fig. 2.15.
y = f (x) = 2x 3
y = 2x 3
x 0 1 2
y 3 5 7
Fig. 2.15
37
Fundamentals of Logarithm Function
Mathematics-I
A function f : R R is said to be logarithm function
if it is defined as
y f ( x ) log a x , x R set of all positive real numbers.
where a > 0 and a 1
If a m n then in terms of logarithm we write it as log a n m
i.e. 23 8 log 2 8 3
2 4 16 log 2 16 4
4 3 64 log 4 64 3
3
3
16 4 8 log16 8
4
Graph of y = log a x, a 0, a 1, x 0 is given in Fig. 2.16 a, b.
Fig. 2.16
Domain of logarithm function is R and range of logarithm function is R.
Laws of Logarithm
1. log a mn log a m log a n
In mathematics
number e is m
denoted by the 2. log a log a m log a n
n
sum of an infinite
series 3. log a m n n log a m
1 1 1 log a m
1 ... 4. a m
1 2 3
5. log a a 1
In general,
expansion for e x is 1
6. log a b
given by log b a
x 2 x3
1 x ... log n b
2 3 7. log a b this is known as base change formula, infact we can take
log n a
where 2 read as 2
any base in place of n.
factorial, etc.
Factorial and its Remark 2:
notations have (i) If base of the logarithm is 10 then it is known as common logarithm.
been discussed in
(ii) If base of the logarithm is e then it is known as natural logarithm and
Sec. 4.2 in Unit 4
some time is written as In x instead of log x.
of this block.
(iii) When we write log x it means base is e. That is, in most of the cases base
is mentioned only when it is other than e.
38
Exponential Function Functions
A function f : R R defined by
f (x) a x , x R, a 0, a 1
is called exponential function.
i.e. in case of exponential function there is a constant in the base and variable
in the exponent.
Variable
i.e. nature of exponential function = Constant
For example, f ( x ) 2 x is an exponential function.
Graph of the exponential function is shown in Fig. 2.17 (a), (b).
Fig. 2.17
Absolute Value Function or Modulus Function
A function f : R R defined by
x, x 0
y = f (x) x , where x R and x
x, x 0
is called absolute value function and graph of this function is given in Fig. 2.18
Domain of this function = R and range of this function = [0, ) .
Fig. 2.18
Let us see how we calculate the value of modulus function at some particular
point with the help of following example.
Example 4: If f ( x ) x 3 then evaluate f (2), f (2), f (3), f ( 3), f ( 7).
Solution:
2 0, so by definition of
f ( 2) 2 3 2 3 1
modulus function 2 2
2 0,so by definition of
f ( 2) 2 3 ( 2) 3 2 3 1
modulus function 2 (2)
39
Fundamentals of f (3) 3 3 3 3 0
Mathematics-I
f ( 3) 3 3 ( 3) 3 3 3 0
f ( 7 ) 7 3 ( 7 ) 3 7 3 4
Here is an exercise for you.
E 4 If f ( x ) 5 x 3 then evaluate f (2), f (2), f (6), f ( 5), f (12).
Even Function
A function f ( x ) is said to be even function if it satisfies
f ( x) f (x), for all points x of the domain of the function f.
i.e. the value of function remains unchanged on changing x to – x.
For example,
(i) f ( x) x 2 x 4
f ( x ) ( x ) 2 ( x ) 4 = x 2 x 4 = f ( x )
it is an even function.
(ii) f ( x ) x
f ( x ) x = (1)( x ) = (1) x = (1) x as 1 = – (–1) = 1
= x
= f (x)
it is an even function
(iii) f (x) x 2 x 3
f ( x) ( x)2 ( x) 3 = x 2 x 3 f (x)
it is not an even function.
Odd Function
A function f ( x ) is said to be odd function if it satisfies
f ( x) f (x), for all points x of the domain of the function f
i.e. the value of the function becomes – ve on changing x to –x.
For example,
(i) f ( x) x 3 x
f ( x ) ( x) 3 ( x ) x 3 x = (x 3 x ) = f ( x )
it is an odd function.
1
(ii) f ( x )
x3
1 1 1
f ( x) 3
3
3 f ( x)
( x ) x x
it is an odd function.
(iii) f ( x) x 2 x 3
f ( x ) ( x ) 2 ( x ) 3 x 2 x 3 ( x 3 x 2 ) f ( x )
it is not an odd function
We see that if f ( x) x 2 x 3 then neither f ( x ) f (x ) nor f( x) f(x)
f ( x ) x 2 x 3 is neither even nor odd function.
40
2.6 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS Functions
One-One Function
A function f : X Y is said to be 1-1 or injective function if distinct elements
of X are associated to distinct elements of Y under f .
i.e. if x1 , x 2 X be s.t.
f ( x1 ) f (x 2 ) x1 x 2
Or if x1 , x 2 X and x1 x 2 , then f (x1 ) f (x 2 ).
If we compare this definition with example of daughters and mothers then one-
one function means each daughter must have different mother, i.e. there cannot
be two daughters having same mother for a function to be one-one.
For example,
(i) f
X
Y
x1 y1
x2
x3 y2
Fig. 2.19
The function f shown in Fig. 2.19 is not one-one functions because two
different elements x1 , x 2 of X have the same image y1.
(ii) f
X Y
x1 y1
x2 y2
x3 y3
y4
Fig. 2.20
The function f shown in Fig. 2.20 is one-one function because all the three
elements of X have distinct images in Y.
Remark 3: If we want to show that a function f ( x ) is one-one then
we take x1 , x 2 X s.t.
f ( x1 ) f (x 2 ) and we have to show that x1 x 2 .
For example,
(i) Show that the function f : R R defined by f ( x ) 7 x 5 is 1-1 function.
Solution: Let x 1 , x 2 be s.t.
f ( x1 ) f (x 2 ) 7x 1 5 7 x 2 5 7x 1 7x 2 x1 x 2
f is 1-1 function
(ii) Check whether the function f : R R defined by f ( x ) x 2 is 1-1 or not.
Solution: f ( x ) x 2
41
Fundamentals of Let x1 2, x 2 2 then x1 x 2
Mathematics-I
But f ( x 1 ) f (2) ( 2) 2 4 and f ( x 2 ) f ( 2) ( 2) 2 4
f (2) f (2) , i.e. f ( x1 ) f (x 2 ) but x1 x 2
f is not 1-1 function.
Onto Function
A function f : X Y is said to be onto or surjective if each element of Y has
at least one pre image in X.
i.e. for each y Y , there exists at least one x X such that
f ( x) y
If we compare this definition with example of daughters and mothers then onto
function means each mother must have at least one daughter.
For example,
(i) f
X Y
x1 y1
x2 y2
x3 y3
y4
Fig. 2.21
The function f shown in Fig. 2.21 is not onto function because y 4 Y but
there is no x X such that
y 4 f (x )
(ii) f
X Y
x1 y1
x2 y2
x3
x4
x5
Fig. 2.22
The function f shown in Fig. 2.22 is onto function because each element
of Y has at least one pre image, i.e. y1 has two pre images and y 2 has
three pre images.
Remark 4: If we want to show that a function f (x ) is onto then first we take an
element y in Y and we have to show that there exists an element x is X such
that f ( x ) y
For example, show that the function f : R R defined by f ( x ) 7 x 5 is
onto function.
Solution: Here X = R, Y = R
42
y5 Functions
Let y Y R , then X R s.t.
7
y 5 y 5
f 7 5 ( y 5) 5 = y
7 7
f is an onto function.
One-One and Onto Function
A function f : X Y is said to be one-one and onto or bijective or one-one
correspondence if
(i) f is one-one
(ii) f is onto
If we compare this definition with example of daughters and mothers then one-
one and onto function means each mother have exactly one daughter and there
is no mother who does not have any daughter. The function f shown in Fig.2.23
represents a situation of one-one and onto function.
f
X Y
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
Fig. 2.23
Also the function f : R R defined by
f ( x ) 7 x 5, xR
is one-one and onto (already shown)
f is one-one and onto function.
Geometrical Meaning of Injective, Surjective and Bijective
Functions
One-One Function
If a function is 1-1 then geometrically it will satisfy the following condition.
Each horizontal line either does not intersect the graph of the function or if it
intersects it will intersect exactly at one point.
For example,
(i) Graph shown in Fig. 2.24 (b) is the graph of a one-one function because
each horizontal line either does not intersect the graph or if it intersects, it
will intersect exactly at one point, i.e. each horizontal line above x-axis
will intersect the graph exactly at one point and each horizontal line
below x- axis not intersect the graph at all.
(ii) Graph shown in the Fig. 2.24 (c) is also the graph of a one-one function
because each horizontal line intersects the graph exactly at one point.
(iii) But the graph shown in the Fig. 2.24 (a) is not the graph of a one-one
function because if we draw any horizontal line below the x-axis, then it
will intersect the graph at two points. Similarly graph shown in Fig. 2.24
(d) is also not a one-one function.
43
Fundamentals of
Mathematics-I
Fig. 2.24
Onto or Surjective Function
If a function is onto then geometrically it will satisfy the following condition.
Each horizontal line must intersect the graph of the function at least at one
point.
For example,
(i) Graph shown in the Fig. 2.24 (d) is the graph of an onto function because
each horizontal line intersect the graph of the function at least at one
point. Graph shown in Fig. 2.24 (c) is also onto function because each
horizontal line intersects the graph exactly at one point.
(ii) But the graph shown in the Fig. 2.24 (b) is not the graph of a surjective
function because if we draw any horizontal line below the x-axis, then it
will not intersect the graph.
(iii) Similarly the graph shown in the Fig. 2.24 (a) is not the graph of an onto
function because if we draw any horizontal line above the x-axis, then it
will not intersect the graph.
Bijective Function
If a function is bijective or one-one and onto or one-one correspondence, then
each horizontal line must intersect the graph of the function exactly at one
point.
For example,
(i) Graph shown in the Fig. 2.24 (c) is the graph of a bijective function
because each horizontal line intersects the graph of the function exactly
at one point.
(ii) But the graphs shown in the Fig. 2.24 (a) and (b) are not the graphs of a
bijective function because they are not onto.
(iii) Similarly the graph shown in the Fig. 2.24 (d) is not the graph of a
bijective function because it is not one-one.
44
Countable Sets Functions
Equivalent Sets: Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if either there
exists a one- one correspondence from A to B or from B to A and is denoted by
A ~ B.
For example, let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 4, 9, 16}, then A ~ B because
there exists a one-one correspondence f : A B defined by
f ( x ) x 2 , x A between A and B as shown in Fig. 2.25
f
A B
1 1
2 4
3 9
4 16
Fig. 2.25
Enumerable Set: A set E is said to be enumerable, if it is equivalent to the set
of natural numbers, i.e. if N ~ E
i.e. if there exists a one- one correspondence between N and E.
An enumerable set is also known as denumerable set or countably infinite set.
For example,
1 1 1
(i) Let E = {1, , , ,...}
2 3 4
Define a map f : N E by
1
f (n ) , n N
n
Then f is both 1–1 and onto as shown in Fig. 2.26.
N ~ E E is enumerable.
f
N N
1 1
1
2 2
1
3
3
1
4
. 4
. .
. .
.
Fig. 2.26
(ii) Let A = {3, 6, 9, 12, …}
Define a map f : N A by
f (n ) 3n , nN
Then f is both 1–1 and onto as shown in Fig. 2.27.
N ~ A A is enumerable.
45
Fundamentals of
Mathematics-I f
N A
1 3
2 6
3 9
4 12
. .
. .
. .
Fig. 2.27
Here is an exercise for you.
E 5 Show that
(i) A = {5, 25, 125, 625,…} (ii) B = {1, 5, 25, 125, 625,…}
(iii) C = {1, 4, 7, 10, 13,…}
all are enumerable sets.
Countable Set: A set is said to be countable if either it is finite or enumerable
For example,
(i) A = {} = , which is a finite set so it is countable.
(ii) B = {a, b, c}, which is a finite set and hence countable.
1 1 1
(iii) C = {1, , , ,...}, which is an enumerable set (already shown), so it is a
2 3 4
countable set.
Remark 5: In the fifth unit of Course-3, i.e. MST-003, you will meet the word
countable in the definition of the discrete random variable. So it becomes very
important to understand what we mean by countable set.
We close this unit by summarising the topics that we have discussed in this
unit:
2.7 SUMMARY
In this unit we have covered following topics:
1) Quantity, constant quantity, variable.
2) Interval, open interval, closed interval, semi-open and closed interval, finite
and infinite intervals.
3) Function and its classification with examples and their graphs.
4) Types of functions, i.e.1-1, onto and one-one correspondence with their
geometrical interpretation.
5) Equivalent sets, enumerable sets and countable sets.
46
2.8 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS Functions
E 1) Since f(x) takes real values for all x R.
domain of f = R
Also, as x vary, over R, then 4x + 5 also vary over R, so range of f = R
1 1
Now, f (0) 4(0) 5 5 and f 4 5 2 5 7
2 2
E 2) Here f(x), takes real values for all x R , except at x = 2
i.e. f(x) is defined for all real values of x, except at x = 2
domain of f = R – {2} and
f(x) cannot be zero at any real number,
range of f = R – {0}
1 1 1 1
Also, f (1) 1, f (3) 1 and
1 2 1 32 1
1 1 1
f ( 5)
52 7 7
E 3) Here f(x) takes real values for all x R , except at x = –3
domain of f = R – {– 3}
and f(x) cannot takes zero values at any real number,
range of f = R– {0}
1 1 1 1
Also, f (0) , f (2)
03 3 23 5
f(– 3) is not defined because x = 3 is not a point of the domain of f.
E 4) f ( x ) 5 x 3
f ( 2) 5 2 3 5 1 5 ( ( 1)) 5 1 4
f ( 2) 5 2 3 5 5 5 ( ( 5)) 5 (5) 5 5 0
f (6 ) 5 6 3 5 3 5 3 2
f ( 5) 5 5 3 5 8 5 ( ( 8)) 5 (8) 5 8 3
f (12) 5 12 3 5 9 5 9 4
E 5) (i) Define a map f : N A by
f (n ) 5 n , n N
f is both 1–1 and onto as shown in Fig. 2.28.
N~A
A is enumerable.
f
N A
1 5
2 25
3 125
4 625
. .
. .
. .
Fig. 2.28
47
Fundamentals of (ii) Define a map f : N B by
Mathematics-I
f (x) 5n 1 , n N
f is both 1–1 and onto as shown in Fig. 2.29.
N ~ B B is enumerable.
N B
1 1
2 5
3 25
4 125
. .
. .
. .
Fig. 2.29
(iii) Define a map f : N C by
f ( x ) 3n 2, n N
f is both 1–1 and onto as shown in Fig. 2.30.
N ~ C C is enumerable.
f
N C
1 1
2 4
3 7
4 10
. .
. .
. .
Fig. 2.30
48
Progressions
UNIT 3 PROGRESSIONS
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Sequence
3.3 Arithmetic Progresses (A.P.)
3.4 Geometric Progression (G.P.)
3.5 Sum of Infinite G.P.
3.6 Concept of Summation
3.7 Sum of some Special Sequences
3.8 Summary
3.9 Solutions/Answers
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In day to day life many times people use the word sequence. So we are familiar
with the dictionary meaning of the word sequence, in fact to put the things in a
particular order means we have put the things in a particular sequence. For
example, natural numbers which are multiple of 5 can be put in the following
sequence.
5, 10, 15, 20, 25, …
In Unit 2 of this block, we have defined functions. In this unit we will define
sequence mathematically and it will be interesting to know that sequences are
also special types of functions. Then we will see arithmetic progression (A.P.)
and geometric progression (G.P.) are special types of sequences. In fact in this
unit we will focus on the n th term of A.P and G.P., and sum of first n terms of
A.P. and G.P. Finally, we will discuss what we mean by summation and how
the initiation (origin) of summation can be changed.
Objectives
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
define sequence;
define and recognize arithmetic progression (A.P.);
give formula for n th term and sum of first n terms of on A.P.;
define geometric progression (G.P.);
give formula for n th term and sum of n terms of a G.P.;
find sum of infinite G.P.; and
become familiar with the concept of summation.
3.2 SEQUENCE
In the introduction of this unit we have indicated that sequences are special
types of functions. So let us first give a mathematical definition of sequence.
49
Fundamentals of Sequence: A sequence is a function whose domain is the set of all natural
Mathematics-I numbers and range may be any set. A sequence is generally denoted by writing
a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ,..., a n ,...
Or simply by { a n } or a n , where a n denotes the n th term of the sequence,
i.e. a 1 is first term of the sequence, a 2 is second term of the sequence, a 3 is
third term of the sequence, and so on.
For example, define a function f : N R by
1
f (n ) , nN
n
1 1 1
This function represents a sequence which can be written as 1, , , ,...
2 3 4
f
N R
1 1
1
2 2
1
3
3
1
4
. 4
. .
. .
.
Fig. 4.1
Remark 1:
(i) Sequences are special types of functions because here domain always
remains set of natural numbers whereas in case of real functions domain
may be any subset of real numbers.
(ii) If range of a sequence is subset of R, then we say that sequence is real.
(iii) Here we will discuss only real sequences.
(iv) Here geometrical representation of the sequence is given just to realize you
that sequences are special types of functions. In future we will not give
geometrical representation and it is neither required.
Next question which may strike your mind is that what are the commonly used
methods to represent a sequence? This question is addressed in the following
discussion:
Ways of Representing a Sequence
A sequence may be represented by any of the following ways:
(a) One of the ways of representing a sequence is writing down the first
few terms of the sequence till a definite rule for writing down other
terms becomes clear.
For example,
1 1 1 1
(i) 1, , , ,... ; is a sequence having n th term 2 .
4 9 16 n
50
(ii) 5, 10, 15, 20,…; is a sequence having n th term 5n. Progressions
(b) A sequence can also be represented by giving a formula for its
n th term.
For example,
(i) If a n n 2 , then this represents the sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, …
n 1 2 3 4
(ii) If a n , then this represents the sequence , , , ,...
n 1 2 3 4 5
(c) Recursive Relation: A sequence can also be represented by writing its first
few terms and a formula to write down the other terms of the sequence.
Such way of representing a sequence is known as recursive relation.
For example, if a 1 a 2 1 , and a n 1 a n a n 1 , n 2
then terms of this sequence are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,…
i.e. each term (except first and second) is equal to the sum of its preceding
two terms. This sequence is known as Fibonacci sequence.
(d) Sometimes, the nature of the sequence is such that it cannot be
represented by giving a single formula for its n th term. So, to avoid this
difficulty we have another way of representing a sequence by writing
more than one relation for its n th term.
n 1
2 , if n 1, 3, 5, ...
For example, if a n
n , if n 2, 4, 6, ...
2
then terms of this sequence are 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3,…
We have discussed different methods of representing a sequence, so it is the
right place to provide an example to obtain some terms of the sequence given
by using either of the ways.
Example 1: For the given sequences write down the given terms:
(i) a n n 2 2n 2, find a 1 , a 2 , a r .
1 (1) n
(ii) a n , find a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 .
2
(iii) a 1 2, a 2 3, a n 2a n 1 4a n 2 , n 3, find a 3 , a 4 .
n 2 , n 1, 3, 5, ...
(iv) a n 1 , find a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 , a 5 , a 6 .
, n 2, 4, 6, ...
n 1
(n 1)(n 2)
(v) a n , find a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 .
2(n 1)
Solution:
(i) a n n 2 2n 2
For n = 1, 2, r, we have
a 1 = (1) 2 2 1 2 1 , a 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 , a r r 2 2r 2
51
Fundamentals of 1 (1) n
Mathematics-I (ii) a n
2
For n = 1, 2, 3, 4, we have
1 (1)1 1 1 0 1 (1) 2 1 1 2
a1 0, a2 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 4
1 (1) 11 0 1 (1) 11 2
a3 0, a4 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
(iii) a 1 2, a 2 3
a n 2a n 1 4a n 2 , n 3
For n = 3, 4, we have
a 3 2a 2 4a 1 2 3 4 2 6 8 14
a 4 2a 3 4a 2 2 14 4 3 28 12 40
(iv) For n 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, we have
1 1
a 1 (1) 2 1 , a 2 , a 3 (3) 2 9
2 1 3
1 1 1 1
a4 , a 5 (5) 2 25 , a 6
4 1 5 6 1 7
(v) For n = 1, 2, 3, 4, we have
(1 1)(1 2) 0 ( 2 1)(2 2) 0
a1 0, a 2 0
2(1 1) 4 2( 2 1) 6
(3 1)(3 2) 2 1 (4 1)(4 2) 6 3
a3 , a4
2(3 1) 8 4 2(4 1) 10 5
Here is an exercise for you.
E 1) (i) If a n 2n then find a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 .
2
(ii) If a n then find a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 , a 8 .
n
2 n 3n
(iii) If a n then find a1 , a 2 , a 3 .
2n 3n
3.3 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (A.P.)
Some sequences follow certain pattern. Arithmetic progression (A.P.) is also a
sequence which follows a particular pattern as defined below.
Arithmetic progression (A.P.): A sequence {a n } or a n is said to be
arithmetic progression (A.P.) if
a n 1 a n d, n, n 1, 2, 3, ... where d is a fixed constant known as common
difference of the A.P.
i.e. difference of any term to its preceding term always remains constant.
For example, 7, 11, 15, 19, … is an A.P. with first term = 7 and common
difference = 11 – 7 = 4.
52
Remark 2: Progressions
(i) If a sequence is given by listing its first few terms and we want to know
whether it is an A.P. or not, for this first of all we calculate
a 2 a1 , a 3 a 2 , a 4 a 3 , etc.
If a 2 a 1 a 3 a 2 a 4 a 3 ... d , then we say that it is an A.P. with d
as common difference, otherwise it is not an A.P.
(ii) If a sequence is given by writing its n th term a n then we calculate
a n1 a n . If this difference is independent of n, it represents A.P. and if the
differences a n 1 a n involve n then it is not an A.P.
Following example is based on the two points discussed in the Remark 2 given
above.
Example 2: In which of the following cases given sequence is an A.P.:
1 1 1
(i) 1, , , ,... (ii) 1, 4, 9, 16,… (iii) 1, 4, 7, 10,…
2 3 4
1 2
(iv) 8, 7 , 6 , 6, ... (v) a n 4 n 5 (vi) a n n 2 n
3 3
Solution:
1 1 1 1 2 3 1
(i) a 2 a 1 1 ; a3 a2
2 2 3 2 6 6
a 2 a 1 a 3 a 2 it is not an A.P.
(ii) a 2 a 1 4 1 3 ; a 3 a 2 9 4 5
a 2 a 1 a 3 a 2 it is not an A.P.
(iii) a 2 a 1 4 1 3 ; a 3 a 2 7 4 3 ; a 4 a 3 10 7 3
and so on
a 2 a1 a 3 a 2 a 4 a 3 ... 3( constant)
it is an A.P. with first term 1 and common difference 3.
1 22 22 24 2
(iv) a 2 a 1 7 8 8
3 3 3 3
2 1 20 22 2
a3 a2 6 7
3 3 3 3 3
2 20 18 20 2
a 4 a3 6 6 6
3 3 3 3
and so as
2
a 2 a1 a 3 a 2 a 4 a 3 ... ( constant)
3
2
it is an A.P. with first term 8 and common difference = .
3
(v) a n 4n 5
Replace n by n+1, we get
a n 1 4(n 1) 5 4n 9
a n 1 a n 4n 9 ( 4n 5)
= 4n 9 4n 5
= 4 which is independent of n
it is an A.P. with first term 9 and common difference = 4.
53
Fundamentals of (vi) a n n 2 n
Mathematics-I
Replacing n by n+1, we get
a n 1 ( n 1) 2 ( n 1) n 2 2n 1 n 1 n 2 3n 2
a n 1 a n n 2 3n 2 ( n 2 n ) n 2 3n 2 n 2 n
= 2n + 2 which is not free from n
it is not an A.P.
Here is an exercise for you.
a2 a3
E 2) Show that sequence log a , log , log 2 , form an A.P.
b b
So far in this section we have defined A.P. and also learned how to check
whether a given sequence is an A.P. or not? But now question arise can we find
any term of a given A.P.? and second question can we find the sum of any
number of terms of an A.P.? Answers of both the questions are yes and we will
discuss these questions separately in two subsections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2.
3.3.1 Standard A.P. and its General Term
A sequence defined by a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d,… … (1)
is known as standard A.P. with first term = a and common difference = d.
Standard A.P.: A.P. defined by (1), i.e.
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d,…
is known as standard A.P.
General Term: From standard A.P. given by (1) we see that
First term = a1 T1 a a (1 1)d
Second term = a 2 T2 a d a (2 1)d
Third term = a 3 T3 a 2d a (3 1)d
Forth term = a 4 T4 a 3d a ( 4 1)d
…
…
…
n th term = a n Tn a (n 1)d
Remark 3: Keep this formula always in mind and is known as formula for nth
term or general term of an A.P. with first term ‘a’ and common difference ‘d’.
Example 3: Find indicated term(s) in each case:
(i) If a = 4, d = 3, find Tn , T17 .
(ii) Find Tn of the A.P. 5, 5 3 , 5 2 3 ,5 3 3 , ...
1 1 3
(iii) 20,19 ,18 ,17 ,....Find T20 of this A.P.
4 2 4
(iv) Which term of the of the A.P. 43, 38, 33, 28,…is – 457?
1 1
(v) Which term of the A.P. 17, 16 ,16,15 ,... is the first negative term?
2 2
(vi) If 7 th and 31st terms of an A.P. are 29, 125 respectively, then find the
A.P.
54
Solution: Progressions
(i) Tn a (n 1)d 4 (n 1)3 3n 1
For n = 17, T17 = 3 17 1 51 1 52
(ii) Here, a = 5, d = 5+ 3 5 3
Tn a (n 1)d 5 ( n 1) 3
1 77 3
(iii) Here, a = 20, d = 19 20 20
4 4 4
3 80 57 23 3
T20 a 19d 20 19 = 5
4 4 4 4
(iv) Here a = 43, d = 38 43 5
Let Tn 457
a (n 1)d 457
43 (n 1)(5) 457
43 5n 5 457
5n 457 48 = – 505
n 101
1 33 1
(v) Here a = 17, d = 16 17 17
2 2 2
Let Tn 0
1
a (n 1)d 0 17 (n 1) 0
2
n 1 n 1
17 0 17
2 2 2 2
n 35 n 35
x a x a Or x a x a
2 2 2 2
n 35 n 36
36 is the first negative term of this A.P.
(vi) Let a, d be the first term and common difference, respectively, of the
given A.P.
According to the problem,
T7 29 a 6d 29 ... (1)
T31 125 a 30d 125 ... (2)
(2) – (1) gives
24d = 96 d 4
Putting d = 4 in (1), we get
a + 24 = 29 a 5
given A.P. is 5, 9, 13, 17, …
Here is an exercise for you.
E 3) (i) If 5k + 1, 6k + 5 and 10k + 3 are three consecutive terms of an A.P.
then find k.
(ii) Is 121 a term of the sequence 3, 9, 15, 21, …?
1 1 5
(iii) How many terms are there in the A.P. 1, , , ,..., 14 ?
4 2 4
55
Fundamentals of 3.3.2 Sum of n Terms of an A.P.
Mathematics-I
Standard A.P. is a, a d, a 2d, a 3d , ...
We know that Tn a (n 1)d
Tn 1 a ( n 2) d
Let Sn denotes the sum of first n terms of the above A.P., then
S n T1 T2 ... Tn 1 Tn
Or S n a (a d) ... [a (n 2)d] [a (n 1)d] … (1)
Writing the terms of R.H.S. in reverse order we get
S n [a (n 1)d] [a (n 2)d] ... (a d) a … (2)
(1) + (2) gives
2Sn [2a (n 1)d] [2a (n 1)d] ... [2a (n 1)d] [2a (n 1)d]
n times
2S n n[2a (n 1)d]
n
Sn [2a ( n 1)d ]
2
Remark 4:
(i) This formula can also be written as
n n
S n [a a (n 1)d ] (a l), where l = a (n 1)d = last term
2 2
(ii) Keep this formula always in mind and is known as formula for sum of first
n terms of an A.P. with first term ‘a’ and common difference ‘d’.
Example 4: Find the following sums:
(i) 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + … to 40 terms
(ii) 0.8 + 0.81 + 0.82 + … to 101 terms
(iii) 3 + 7 + 11 + … + 79
Solution:
(i) Here a = 1, d = 4 –1 = 3, n = 40
We know that
n
Sn [2a (n 1)d]
2
40
S 40 [ 2 1 (40 1)3] 20(2 117) 2380
2
(ii) Here a = 0.8, d = 0.81 – 0.8 = 0.01, n = 101
We know that
n
S n [2a ( n 1)d ]
2
101 101
S101 [2 0.8 (101 1) 0.01] [ 2 0.8 100 0.01]
2 2
101 101
[1.6 1] 2.6 101 1.3 131.3
2 2
(iii) Here a = 3, d = 7 – 3 = 4, Tn 79
We know that
Tn a (n 1)d a (n 1)d 79 3 (n 1)4 79
4n 1 79 4n 80 n 20
56
Now, we also know that Progressions
n
S n (a l), where l is last term
2
20
S 20 (3 79) 10 82 820
2
Alternatively
n
S n [ 2a ( n 1)d ]
2
20
S 20 [2 3 (20 1) 4] 10(6 76) 820
2
3.4 GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (G.P.)
A sequence {a n } is said to be geometric progression (G.P.) if
a n 1
r n N
an
i.e. ratio of any term to its preceding term is same (remains constant).
where r is non zero fixed constant and is known as common ratio
6 12 24 48
For example, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, … is G.P. 3 6 12 24 ... 2
Remark 5:
(i) In case of G.P. neither a n (for all n) nor r can be zero.
i.e. a n 0, n N and r 0
(ii) If a sequence is given by listing its first few terms and we want to know
whether it is a G.P. or not, for this first of all we calculate
a 2 a3 a4
, , , etc.
a1 a 2 a 3
a a a
If 2 , 3 , 4 ... r , then we say that it is a G.P. with common ratio r,
a1 a 2 a 3
otherwise it is not a G.P.
For example, we have seen just before Remark 5 that the sequence 3, 6, 12,
24, 48, … is a G.P. by using this procedure.
So far in this section we have defined G.P. and also learned how to check
whether a given sequence is a G.P. or not? But now question arise can we find
any term of a given G.P.? and second question can we find the sum of any
number of terms of G.P.? Answers of both the questions are yes and we will
discuss these questions separately in two subsections 3.4.1 and 3.4.2.
3.4.1 Standard G.P. and its General Term
A sequence defined by a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , ... … (1)
is known as standard G.P. with first term = a and common ratio = r.
Standard G.P.: G.P. defined by (1), i.e.
a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , ...
is known as standard G.P.
57
Fundamentals of General Term: From standard G.P. given by (1) we see that
Mathematics-I First term = a1 T1 a ar11
Second term = a 2 T2 ar ar 2 1
Third term = a 3 T3 ar 2 ar 31
Forth term = a 4 T4 ar 3 ar 41
…
…
…
n th term = a n Tn ar n 1
Remark 6: Keep this formula always in mind and is known as formula for nth
term or general term of the G.P. with first term ‘a’ and common ratio ‘r’.
Example 5: Which of the following sequences are G.P.. If a sequence is a
G.P., write its first term, common ratio and n th term.
(i) 2, 6, 18, 54,…
1 1 1
(ii) , , ,1,..
8 4 2
(iii) 2, 3 2, 6 2, 12 2, ...
Solution:
T2 6 T3 18 T 54
(i) 3, 3, 4 3, …
T1 2 T2 6 T3 18
T T T
2 3 4 ... 3
T1 T2 T3
it is a G.P with first term = a = 2 and common ratio r = 3.
n th term Tn ar n 1 2(3) n 1
T2 1/ 4 T 1/ 2 T 1
(ii) 2, 3 2, 4 2 , …
T1 1/ 8 T2 1/ 4 T3 1 / 2
T T T
2 3 4 ... 2
T1 T2 T3
1
it is a G.P. with first term = a = and common ratio = r = – 2.
8
1
n th term Tn ar n 1 (2) n 1
8
T2 3 2 T 6 2
(iii) 3, 3 2
T1 2 T2 3 2
T T
2 3
T1 T2
it is not a G.P.
Here is an exercise for you.
E 4) (i) Find the 10th term of the G.P. 128, 32, 8, 2, …
(ii) 4th and 7th terms of a G.P. are 24 and 192 respectively. Find the G.P.
58
3.4.2 Sum of n Terms of a G.P. Progressions
Standard G.P. is a , ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , ...
We know that
Tn ar n 1
Tn 1 ar n 2
Let S n denotes the sum of first n terms of the above G.P., then
S n T1 T2 ... Tn 1 Tn
Sn a ar ar 2 ... ar n 2 ar n 1 … (1)
Multiply on both sides by r, we get
rSn ar ar 2 ... ar n 1 ar n … (2)
(1) – (2) gives
(1 r )S n a ar n [All other terms cancel out in pairs]
a (1 r n )
Sn
1 r
By taking negative sign common from numerator as well as denominator we
can also write the above formula as
(1)a (r n 1) a (r n 1)
Sn
(1)(r 1) r 1
So, you can use either form of the formula for S n result will be same, but we
will use the formula depending on the value of common ratio r as given in the
box below.
a (1 r n )
Sn , r 1
1 r
a (r n 1)
Sn , r 1
r 1
Remark 7: Keep this formula always in mind and is known as formula for sum
of first n terms of a G.P. with first term ‘a’ and common ratio ‘r’.
Let us evaluate the sum of a given G.P. with the help of above formula in the
following example.
Example 6: Find the sum of the following, G.P.:
2 4
(i) 2, 4, 8, 16, …to 10 terms (ii) 1 ... to 8 terms
3 9
Solution:
4
(i) Here a = 2, d = 2, n = 10
2
We know that
a (r n 1)
Sn , as r 2 1
r 1
2(210 1)
S10 2(1024 1) 2046
2 1
2/3 2
(ii) Here a = – 1, r = , n 8
1 3
We know that
59
Fundamentals of a (1 r n ) 2
Mathematics-I Sn , as r 1
1 r 3
2 8
( 1) 1 1 256
S8 3 6561
2 2
1 1
3 3
(6561 256) 6305 3 1261
=
32 6561 5 2187
6561
3
Here is an exercise for you.
2 2
E 5) Find the sum 2 6 ... 486 .
9 3
3.5 SUM OF INFINITE G.P.
A geometric progression (G.P.) is said to be infinite G.P. if number of terms in
it are infinite. That is, G.P. given by
a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 , ... to … (1)
is an infinite G.P.
We note that sum of an infinite G.P. will be finite if common ratio is less than 1
in magnitude. Let S denotes the sum of the infinite G.P. given by (1)
i.e. S a ar ar 2 ar 3 ... to … (2)
Multiplying on both sides of (2) by r (common ratio), we get
rS ar ar 2 ar 3 ... to … (3)
(2) (3) gives
(1 r)S a, 1< r 1, i.e r 1 [All other terms cancel out in pairs]
a
S , 1< r 1, i.e. r 1
1 r
If you are interested to know the details related to the above formula, refer the
remark given below.
Remark 8:
(i) If n approaches to infinity, i.e. n , then behaviour of x n is given below
, if x 1
0, if x 1
x n 1, if x 1
1, if x 1and n is even
1, if x 1and n is odd
But 1 is not defined
For example, let x = 4, then for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … we have
41 4, 4 2 16, 4 3 64, 4 4 256, 4 5 1024, ...
That is, we observe that as n increases then x n increases very fast and
hence we write x n , as n .
60
Similarly, let x = 0.2, then for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … we have Progressions
( 0.2)1 0.2, (0.2) 2 0.04, ( 0.2) 3 0.008, ( 0.2) 4 0.0016, (0.2) 5 0.00032, ...
That is, we observe that as n increases then x n decreases very fast and
reaches nearer and nearer to zero and hence we write x n 0, as n .
And if x = 1, then we define x n = 1 for finite values of n = 1, 2, 3, . . ., < .
whereas x n is not defined in the case n , and we handle this type of
situation by using some results from limit, etc.
a (1 r n )
(ii) S n , if – 1 < r < 1, then
1 r
a (1 r n ) a lim r n 0 as discussed
S Lim S n Lim = n
n n 1 r 1 r in part (i)
(iii) Concept of limit will be discussed in Unit 5 of this course, i.e. MST-001.
Example 7: Find the following sums:
1 1 1 1 1 1
(i) 1 ...to (ii) 1 ...to
2 4 8 5 25 125
Solution:
1/ 2 1
(i) Here a = 1, r = 1
1 2
a 1 1 a
S =
1 r 1 1/ 2 1 / 2
2 sum of infinite G.P. = 1 r
1/ 5 1
(ii) Here a = 1, r =
1 5
r 1 , so sum of infinite G.P. is given by
a 1 1 1 5
S
1 r 1 1/ 5 1 1/ 5 6 / 5 6
Here is an exercise for you.
1 1 1
1/ 4 1/ 8 1 / 16 1 / 32 3 9 27
E 6) Prove that (i) 4 .4 .4 .4 ...to 2 (ii) 5 .5 .5 ...to 5
3.6 CONCEPT OF SUMMATION
3.6.1 Series: If a1 , a 2 , a 3 ,... to is a sequence then expression
a 1 a 2 a 3 ...to is known as series.
This series in the form of summation is written as an
n 1
i.e. a n = a 1 a 2 a 3 ...to
n 1
In case of finite expression x1 x 2 x 3 ... x n
n
We write as x i x 1 x 2 ... x n
i 1
61
Fundamentals of Remark 9:
Mathematics-I
(i) The symbol is the Greek letter pronounced as sigma.
(ii) The letters n and i used above are known as dummy variables. These letters
have nothing special other letters like m, r, s, k, j, etc. can also be used.
3.6.2 Change of Origin of Summation
A given series can be written in different ways in terms of summation
i.e. series x 0 x1 x 2 ...to
can be written in any of the following ways
xn or xn2 or x n 10 or x nr
n 0 n2 x 10 nr
i.e. origin of the summation xn is at n = 0 and if we want to shift the origin
n 0
at n = k then we have to subtract k from the suffixes of terms within
summation.
n
In Case of Finite Terms: Origin of the summation x i is at i = 0 and if we
i 0
want to shift the origin at i= k then we have to subtract k from the suffixes of
the terms within summation and we also have to add k in range of the
summation
n nk
i.e. x i = x ik
i 0 i k
3.7 SUM OF SOME SPECIAL SEQUENCES
Following are given sum of some special sequences as they will be helpful at
various occasions during study of the programme. Keep these always in mind
n
n (n 1)
(1) n k 1 2 3 ... n = sum of first n natural numbers.
k 1 2
n
n (n 1)(2n 1)
(2) n 2 k 2 12 2 2 32 ... n 2 6
k 1
= sum of squares of first n natural numbers.
n 2
n(n 1)
(3) n3
k 1
k 3 13 23 .. n 3
2
= sum of cubes of first n natural numbers.
3.8 SUMMARY
Let us summarise the topics that we have covered in this unit:
1) Definition of sequence.
2) Ways of representation a sequence.
3) Arithmetic progression (A.P.).
4) Geometric progression (G.P.).
5) Sum of infinite G.P.
6) Concept of summation and change of initiation of summation.
7) Sum of some special sequences.
62
Progressions
3.9 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS
E 1) (i) a n 2n
For n = 1, 2, 3, 4, we have
a 1 2 1 2 , a 2 2 2 4 2
a3 23 6 , a4 2 4 8 2 2 2 2 2
2
(ii) a n
n
For n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, we have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a1 2 , a2 2
1 1 2 2 2 2
2 2 3 2 3 2 2
a3 , a4 1
3 3 3 3 4 2
2 2 1 1 2 2
a8
8 2 2 2 2 2 2
n n
2 3
(iii) a n
2 n 3n
For n = 1, 2, 3, we have
21 31 6 22 32 36 2 3 33 8 27 216
a1 1 1 , a 2 2 2 , a3 3
2 3 5 2 3 13 2 3 3 8 27 35
a2 a2 1 a m
E 2) a 2 a 1 log log a = log = log log m log n log
b b a b n
a3 a2 a3 b a
a 3 a 2 log 2 log = log 2 2 = log [Same reason]
b b b a b
and so on
a
a 2 a1 a 3 a 2 ... log
b
it is an A.P.
E 3) (i) Since 5k + 1, 6k + 5 and 10k + 3 are three consecutive terms of an
A.P.
(6k + 5) – (5k + 1) = (10k + 3) – (6k + 5) T2 T1 T3 T2
k + 4 = 4k – 2 6 = 3k k 2
(ii) Here a = 3, d = 9 – 3 = 6
Let Tn 121 a (n 1)d 121 3 (n 1)6 121
124 62
3 6n 6 121 6 n 3 121 6 n 124 n
6 3
2
n 20
3
This is not possible because value of n is always a natural number.
121 cannot be a term of this A.P.
1 1 3
(iii) Here a = –1, d = ( 1) 1
4 4 4
3
Let Tn 14 a (n 1)d 14 1 ( n 1) 14
4
63
Fundamentals of 3 3 3 3 3 63
Mathematics-I –1+ n 14 n 14 1 n n 21
4 4 4 4 4 4
number of terms = 21. That is 14 is the 21st term of the given A.P.
32 1
E 4) (i) Here a = 128, r
128 4
We know that
Tn ar n 1
10 1 9
1 1 27 1 1
T10 128 2 7 18 11
4 4 2 2 2048
(ii) Let a, r be the first term and common ratio of the given G.P.
respectively.
According to the problem
T4 24 ar 3 24 ...(1)
6
T7 192 ar 192 ...(2)
(2) (1) gives
192
r3 8 r 3 23 r 2
24
Putting r = 2 in (1), we get
8a = 24 a = 3
G.P. is 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, …
2 2/3 2 9
E 5) Here a = , r 3
9 2/9 3 2
2 9
Tn 486 ar n 1 486 3n 1 486 3n 1 486
9 2
n 1 n 1 7
3 = 243 9 3 3 n 1 7 n 8
We know that
a(r n 1)
Sn , as r 3 1
r 1
2 2
[(3) 8 1] [6561 1]
9 9 6560
S8
3 1 2 9
1 1 1
( .. . to )
1/ 4 1/ 8 1 / 16 1 / 32
E 6) (i) L.H.S. = 4 .4 .4 .4 ... to = 4 4 8 16
1/ 4
a 1 1
11 / 2
4 sum of infinite G.P. 1 r here a 4 and r 2
1 1
2 2
= 42 (2 ) 2 R .H.S.
1 1 1
( ...to )
(ii) L.H.S. = 5 3 9 27
1/ 3
a 1 1
5 11/ 3 sum of infinite G.P. 1 r here a 3 and r 3
1/ 3
5 2/3 =
51 / 2 5 R.H.S.
64
UNIT 4 TECHNIQUES OF COUNTING Techniques of Counting
Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Factorial and its Notations
4.3 Fundamental Principles of Counting
4.4 Permutation
4.5 Combination
4.6 Selection of Permutation or Combination
4.7 Some Important Results
4.8 Binomial Theorem
4.9 Summary
4.10 Solutions/Answers
4.1 INTRRODUCTION
Suppose a boy/girl has number lock in his/her cycle having 3 wheels each
containing 10 digits from 0 to 9. Suppose the boy/girl forgets his/her 3 digits lock
number. Then is there any technique which helps him/her to open the lock without
breaking the lock? The answer is yes. This answer is provided by the techniques of
counting. In case of above situation, techniques of counting tell us how many
different locking options ( the three digits codes) are possible with 3 wheels each
containing 10 digits from 0 to 9. Out of these options, there is only one correct
option. If the boy/girl starts to try them definitely at some stage, lock will get
opened (because total number of options is finite in number). In our day to day
life, there are many situations, where we need to count the number of ways a
particular event can take place.
In this unit, we will discuss two such techniques known as permutation and
combination based on fundamental principles of counting. We will introduce
concept of factorial and binomial theorem also in this unit.
Objectives
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
get the idea of factorial and its notations;
get the logic of fundamental principles of addition and multiplication;
define linear permutation and solve simple problems based on it;
define circular permutation and solve simple problems based on it;
define combination and solve simple problems based on it; and
get an idea of binomial theorem.
4.2 FACTORIAL AND ITS NOTATIONS
The product of first n natural numbers is denoted by n! or n and read as ‘n
factorial’.
i.e n! = n (n –1) … 3 2 1
If n = 0, then we define 0! = 1
65
Fundamentals of Remark: We see that n! = n (n–1) (n–2) … 3 21
Mathematics-I = n n 1
= n (n–1) n 2 and so on.
Let us now consider some examples.
Example 1: Evaluate the following
10!
(i) 8! (ii) (4!) (3!) (iii) (iv) 5! + 4! (v) 6! – 4!
8!.4!
Solution:
(i) 8! = 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 40320
(ii) (4!) (3!) = (4 3 2 1)(3 2 1) = 24 6 144
10! 10.9.8! 10.9 15
(iii) =
8! 4! 8!(4 3 2 1) [Link] 4
(iv) 5! + 4! = 120 + 24 = 144
(v) 6! – 4! = 720 – 24 = 696
Example 2: Express the following in terms of factorial:
(i) [Link].9.10 (ii) [Link].20.24
(iii) [Link].9.11 (iv) 2n.4n.6n.8n
Solution:
[Link].[Link].9.10 10!
(i) [Link].9.10 = =
[Link] 4!
(ii) [Link].20.24 = 4 6 ([Link].5.6) = 4 6 (6!)
[Link].[Link].9.10.11 11! 11!
(iii) [Link].9.11 = = 5
[Link].10 2 ([Link].5) 32(5!)
(iv) 2n.4n.6n.8n = (2n)4([Link]) = (2n)4(4!)
Example 3: Solve for n, n N
1 1 n 2.( n!) ( n 1)!
(i) (n+2)! = 42.n! (ii) = (iii) , n 1, 2
8! 9! 10! ( n 2)! ( n 1)!
Solution:
(i) (n+2) (n+1) (n!) = 42(n!) (n+2) (n+1) = 42
n 2 3n 2 42 0 n 2 3n 40 0
n 2 8n 5n 40 0 n (n 8) 5(n 8) 0
(n 8)(n 5) 0
n 8, 5
But n N , therefore n = 5
1 1 n 1 1 n 1 n
(ii) = 1
8! 9! 10! 8! 9.8! 10.9.8! 9 90
10 n 10 90
n 100
9 90 9
n = 100
2.n.(n 1).(n 2)! (n 1).n.(n 1)!
(iii)
(n 2)! (n 1)!
66
2 n (n 1) (n 1)n Techniques of Counting
2 2 2
2n 2n n n n 3n 0
n (n 3) 0 n 0, 3
But n N
n 3
Now, you can try the following exercises.
E 1) Evaluate the following
22!
(i)
19!
15!
(ii)
10! 5!
E 2) Express the following in terms of factorial.
(i) [Link].15
(ii) [Link].11.12
E 3) Solve for n, n N
(i) (n – 2)! = 12 (n – 4)!
(ii) n! = 72 (n–2)!
4.3 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF
COUNTING
There are two fundamental principles of counting. These two principles solve the
problems of counting. So it becomes necessary for us first to define what is the
counting problem? According to Grinstead and Snell (2006) it is defined as if you
“Consider an experiment that takes place in several stages and is such that the
number of outcomes m at the nth stage is independent of the outcomes of the
previous stages. The number m may be different for different stages. We want to
count the number of ways that the entire experiment can be carried out.”
Let us take an example.
Example 4: Statistics discipline wanted to book the lunch in the IGNOU guest
house for the experts during an expert committee meeting. The incharge of the
guest house explain the lunch menu like this:
(a) there are two choices for appetizers: soup and juice
(b) there are two choices for main course: veg and non-veg
(c) there are three choices for dessert: sponge rashgulla, gulab jamun and ice
cream.
How many options were there for statistics discipline for complete meal?
Solution: If we compare this situation with the counting problem we note that
(i) Entire experiment means complete meal.
(ii) Number of stages of the entire experiment are three in numbers.
(iii) Options (number of outcomes) for first, second, third stages are 2, 2,
3 respectively.
The above situation in the form of a tree diagram can be represented as shown on
the next page.
67
Fundamentals of
Mathematics-I
Fig 4.1 Tree Diagram of Guest House Menu
From the above tree diagram, we see that total number of options for complete
meal is given by:
(total choices at first stages) (total choices at second stage) (total choices at
third stage)
= 2 23
= 12
Hence there were 12 options for statistics discipline for complete meal. Each of
these 12 options is numbered from 1 to 12 in the right margin of the tree diagram.
For example option 7 is ‘juice followed by veg followed by sponge rashgulla’,
option 12 is ‘juice followed by non-veg followed by ice-cream’, etc.
Now we discuss the two fundamental principles of counting in coming two sub-
sections.
4.3.1 Fundamental Principle of Multiplication (FPM)
Suppose we want to complete two jobs, where first job can be done in m distinct
ways, second job can be done in n distinct ways then both jobs can take place (one
followed by other) in m n distinct ways.
In general, suppose we want to complete n jobs, where
first job can be done in m1 distinct ways,
second job can be done in m 2 distinct ways,
third job can be done in m 3 distinct ways,
and so on
n th job can be done in m n distinct ways.
Then these n jobs can take place (in succession) in m1 m 2 m 3 ... m n distinct
ways.
For example, suppose a teacher wants to select one boy and one girl student out of
a class having 15 boys and 10 girls students, then teacher can make such selection
in 15 10 150 distinct ways.
68
4.3.2 Fundamental Principle of Addition (FPA) Techniques of Counting
Suppose we want to complete one job out of two jobs, where
first job can be done in m distinct ways and second independent job can be done in
n distinct ways. Then one of the two jobs can take place in m + n distinct ways.
In general, suppose we want to complete one job out of n jobs, where
first job can be done in m 1 distinct ways, In case of ‘and’ we
multiply and in case
second job can be done in m 2 distinct ways, of ‘or’ we add
third job can be done in m 3 distinct ways,
and so on
nth job can be done in m n distinct ways.
Then one of the n jobs (any two or any three… or all of these can not occur
simultaneously) can take place in m1 m 2 m 3 ... m n distinct ways.
For example, suppose a teacher wants to select either a boy or a girl student
out of a class having 15 boys and 10 girls, then teacher can select either a boy or a
girl student in 15 + 10 = 25 distinct ways.
Now we take some examples based on these two principles of counting.
Example 5: In a college, there are 40 male and 30 female faculties. The principal
of that college wants to select one male and one female faculty to accompany with
the students of the college going for a picnic. In how many ways can principal do
this selection?
Solution: For this selection, principal has to complete two jobs:
(i) Selection of a male faculty
(ii) Selection of a female faculty
First job can be done in 40 ways and second job can be done in 30 ways.
by fundamental principle of multiplication required number of ways
= 40 30 =1200
Example 6: There are 40 male and 30 female faculties in a college. The principal
of the college wants to select one faculty (either male or female) for an
examination duty. In how many ways this selection can be done?
Solution: For this selection, principal of the college do either of the following two
jobs:
(i) Selection of a male faculty
(ii) Selection of a female faculty
First job can be done in 40 ways and second job can be done in 30 ways.
by fundamental principal of addition, required number of ways
= 40 + 30 = 70
Example 7: How many different number plates of vehicles are possible using two
different letters of English alphabet followed by four different digits 0 to 9?
Solution: In order to complete this job, we have to fill up six positions in
succession, where
First position can be filled up in 26 ways,
one letter has been
Second position can be filled up in 25 ways
used in first place
Third position can be filled up in 10 ways [With one of the digits from 0 to 9]
69
Fundamentals of With one of the 9 digits
Mathematics-I Fourth position can be filled up in 9 ways
leaving the one already used
With one of the 8 digits
Fifth position can be filled up in 8 ways
leaving the two already used
With one of the 7 digits
Sixth position can be filled up in 7 ways leaving the three already used
by fundamental principal of multiplication required numbers of ways
26 25 10 9 8 7
= 3276000
Note: If in the above example repetition of digits 0 to 9 is allowed (which in
practice happens) then required number of ways 26 25 (10 10 10 10 1)
1 is substracted because we have ignore
the case containg all zeros, i.e. 0000
Now, you can try the following exercises.
E 4) In an examination there are 10 multiple choice questions. First five
questions have 4 choices each and last five questions have 5 choices each.
How many sequences of answers are possible?
E 5) How many four-letter words can be formed by using letters a, b, g, h, k, if
(i) Repetition is not allowed (ii) Repetition is allowed
4.4 PERMUTATION
Permutation is related to the arrangement of things. Things arranged in a line
come under the heading of linear permutation, while arrangement of things in a
circle comes under the heading of circular permutation. Let us discuss these two
heading one by one.
4.4.1 Linear Permutation
Possible arrangements in a line of a number of things taken some or all at a time
are called the permutation. Before giving the general formula, let us consider an
example, where we are to arrange say three books of different colours (Red, Green
and Orange):
Permutations of three books when taken one at a time are R, G, W, i.e.
3!
the number of permutations = 3 = 3 P1 or P(3, 1)
(3 1)!
Permutations of three books when taken two at a time are
RG, GR, RW, WR, GW, WG, i.e.
3!
the number of permutations = 6 = 3 P2 or P(3, 2)
(3 2)!
Permutations of three books when taken all at a time are
RGW, RWG, GRW, GWR, WRG, WGR, i.e.
3!
the number of permutations = 6 = 3 P3 or P(3, 3)
(3 3)!
In general, the total number of permutations of n things taken r (1 r n ) at a time
is denoted by n P r or P(n, r) and is defined as
70
n n! Techniques of Counting
Pr= n(n – 1)(n – 2) …(n – (r –1))
(n r )!
n
i.e. n P r = n(n – 1) (n – 2) …up to r factors 1. We define P 0 = 1
2 Always remember the
For example, following result
(i) Total number of permutations of a, b, c taken 2 at a time are given by n n!
Pr = , 0rn
ab, ba, bc, cb, ca, ac. (n r )!
Also 3 P2 3.2 6
(ii) Total number of permutations of a, b, c taken all at a time are given
by abc, acb, bca, bac, cab, cba.
Also 3 P3 3.2.1 6
Example 8: Evaluate the following:
(i) 8 P2 (ii) 20
P5 (iii) P(10, 4) (iv) P(8, 8) (v) 5 P0
Solution:
8 8! 8! 8 7 6!
(i) P2 = = 8 7 56
(8 2)! 6! 6!
20 20! 20! 20 19 18 17 16 15!
(ii) P5 =
(20 5)! 15! 15!
20 19 18 17 16 1860480
10! 10! 10 9 8 7 6!
(iii) P(10, 4) =
(10 4)! 6! 6!
= 10 9 8 7 5040
8! 8! 40320
(iv) P(8, 8) = 40320
(8 8)! 0! 1
5 5! 5!
(v) P0 = 1
(5 0)! 5!
Example 9: Find n if n P5 30 n P3 .
n! 30.n!
Solution: n P5 30 n P3
(n 5)! (n 3)!
1 30 1 30
(n 5)! (n 3)! (n 5)! (n 3).(n 4).(n 5)!
1 30
(n 3)(n 4) 30
1 ( n 3)(n 4)
n 2 7n 12 30 n 2 7n 18 0
n 2 9n 2n 18 0 n (n 9) 2(n 9) 0
(n 9)(n 2) 0 n 9,2
But n cannot be – 2.
n 9
71
Fundamentals of Here are some exercises for you.
Mathematics-I
E6) Find n if 5 Pn 6 Pn1 .
E7) Evaluate the following
(i) 7 P4 (ii) n Pn (iii) n Pn 1 (iv) n P 1 (v) n P2 (vi) 16
P3
Example 10: How many different words, with or without meaning, can be formed
by using all the letters of the word ‘EQUATION’ (without repetition)?
Solution: There are 8 letters in the word ‘EQUATION’ which are all different.
possible number of words = number of arrangement of 8 letters taken
all at a time
8! 8!
= 8 P8 = = 8! = 40320 as 0!=1
(8 8)! 0!
Example 11: How many signals are possible with 4 flags each of different
colour?
Solution: Possible number of signals using one flag at a time = 4 P 1 = 4
Possible number of signals using two flags at a time = 4 P2 = 4.3 = 12
Possible number of signals using three flags at a time = 4 P3 = 4.3.2 = 24
Possible number of signals using all flags at a time = 4 P4 = 4! = 24
total number of signals = 4 + 12 + 24 + 24= 64
Here is an exercise for you.
E 8) In how many ways can 5 students stand in a queue?
Permutations of Things not all Distinct
So far we have discussed the permutations of things which were all distinct. But in
usual it is not always possible that things to be permuted are all distinct.
In case of repetition of things we use following result.
If out of n things p1 are of one kind, p 2 are of second kind, p 3 are of third kind
and so on p k are of kth kind then total number of possible permutations are given
by
n
, where p 1 + p 2 +…+ p k = n and p i 1, 1 i k
p1 p 2 p3 ... p k
Example 12: How many different words, with or without meaning, can be formed
by using all the letters of the word “BANANA”?
Solution: There are 6 letters in the word “BANANA”
Out of which A, N occur 3, 2 times respectively.
6! [Link]! 120
total number of permutations = = = 60
3! 2! 3! 2! 2
Here are some exercises for you.
E 9) How many different signals are possible with 3 red, 4 white and2 green
flags by using all at a time in a queue?
E10) How many words can be formed with or without meaning by using the
letters of the words AMAR?
72
Permutation when Repetition is Allowed Techniques of Counting
Example 13: Prove that total number of permutations of n things taken r at a time
any thing can repeat any number of times is given by n r .
Proof: In order to find out total number of permutations, we have to fill up r
positions, where
First position can be filled up in n ways,
Second position can also be filled up in n ways, [ repetition is allowed]
Third position can be filled up in n way, [Same reason]
And so on
r th position can be filled up in n ways.
required number of permutations = n n n ... n n r .
r times
Example 14: In how many ways 5 letters can be posted in 3 letter boxes?
Solution: Each of the 5 letters can be posted in 3 ways, i.e. each of 5 letters can
be posted by using any of the 3 letter boxes.
required number of ways = 3 3 3 3 3 =35 = 243
Here is an exercise for you.
E 11) In how many ways can 3 prizes be distributed among 5 students when
(i) No student gets more than one prize?
(ii) A student may get any number of prizes?
(iii) No student gets all the prizes?
4.4.2 Circular Permutation
Let us consider four letters A, B, C, D. Consider the following arrangements
ABCD, BCDA, CDAB, DABC these are 4 different arrangements when arranged
in a line. whereas this is a single arrangement when arranged in a circle, in
clockwise direction as shown in figure.
A in case of 4 letters, 4 linear arrangements = 1 circular arrangement
1
1 linear arrangement = circular arrangement
4
4!
So, 4! Linear arrangements = 3! circular arrangements.
4
In general, if anticlock wise and clock wise order of arrangements makes different
permutations then number of circular permutations of n distinct things = (n – 1)!
And if anti-clock wise and clock wise order of arrangements does not give
distinct permutations then total number of permutations of n distinct things
( n 1)!
=
2
For example, arrangements of flowers in a garland form the same permutation
in case of anti clock wise and clockwise order.
Example 15: In how many ways 10 students of a batch can be arrangements in a
(i) Line (ii) Circle
Solution:
(i) Total number of arrangements of 10 students in a line
10! = 3628800 [Linear permutation]
73
Fundamentals of (ii) Total number of arrangements of 10 students in a circle
Mathematics-I
(10 1)!= 9! = 362880 [Circular permutation]
Here is an exercise for you.
E 12 (i) How many different garlands are possible with 8 flowers?
(ii) In how many ways 20 members of the management of a college can sit
on a round table in a meeting, if president and vice president always sit
together.
4.5 COMBINATION
In Sec. 4.4 of this unit we have discussed permutation. We have seen that in case
of permutation we want to know the possible number of arrangements of n things
taken some or all at a time. But sometimes we are interested in forming only
groups or making selections or drawing items without bothering about the
arrangements. These are called combinations.
Before giving the general formula, let us consider an example, where we are to
form the groups of say three books of different colours (Red, Green, Orange).
Combinations of three books when taken one at a time are R, G, W, i.e.
3!
the number of combinations = 3 = 3 C1 or C(3, 1)
(3 1)! 1!
Combinations of three books when taken two at a time are RG, RW, GW, i.e.
3!
the number of combinations = 3 = 3 C 2 or C(3, 2)
(3 2)! 2!
Combination of three books when taken all at a time is RGW, i.e.
3!
the number of combination = 1 = 3 C3 or C(3, 3)
(3 3)! 3!
In general, the total number of combinations of n things taken r (1 r n ) at a
time is denoted by n C r or C(n, r) and is defined as
n n!
Cr=
(n r)! r!
For example,
(i) Total number of combinations of a, b, c taken 2 at a time are given
by ab, bc, ca
3! 3 2 1
Also 3 C 2 3
(3 2)! 2! 1 2
(ii) Total number of combinations of a, b, c taken all at a time are given
by abc,
3! 3!
Also 3 C3 1
(3 3)! 3! 1! 3!
In this section we shall discuss another important technique of counting known as
combination. Total number of groups that can be formed of n things taken
n
r(0 r n ) at a time is called combination, denoted by n C r or C(n, r) or and
r
is defined as
74
n n! Techniques of Counting
Cr =
r! (n r)!
For example, suppose there are six cricket teams and every team has to play one
match with each other team. Then total number of matches which are to be played
= combinations of six teams when taken two at a time
6! 65
= 6 C2 15
(6 2)! 2! 2
4.6 SELECTION OF PERMUTATION OR
COMBINATION
Following points help you in deciding which of the two permutation or
combination should be used in a given situation.
Permutation is used when the order of the selection also matters.
Combination is used when the order does not matter, but only the selection or
group formation or draw of items is taken into consideration. .
Example 16: Prove the following
n n 1
(i) C r n Cn r , 0 r n (ii) n
C r n C r 1 Cr
n
(iii) C0 n Cn 1 (iv) n C1 n C n 1 n
Solution:
n! n!
(i) R.H.S. = n C n r =
(n (n r))! (n r)! r! (n r)!
n!
= n C r L.H.S.
(n r )!.r!
n! n!
(ii) L.H.S. = n C r n C r 1 =
r!(n r )! (r 1)!(n r 1)!
n! n!
=
r.(r 1)!(n r )! (r 1)!(n r 1).(n r )!
n! 1 1 n! n r 1 r
= =
(r 1)!(n r)! r n r 1 (r 1)!(n r)! r (n r 1)
(n 1).n! (n 1)!
= = = n 1 C r = R.H.S.
r.(r 1)!(n r 1).(n r )! r!(n 1 r )!
n
(iii) C0 n Cn 1
I II III
n! n!
I = n C0 1 III as 0! 1
0!.(n 0)! n!
n! n! n!
II = n C n 1 III
n!.(n n ) n!.0! n!
n
(iv) C1 n C n 1 n
I II III
n n! n.( n 1)!
I = C1 n III
1!.(n 1)! ( n 1)!
75
Fundamentals of n! n.(n 1)! n n
Mathematics-I
II = n C n 1 n III
(n 1)!.(n n 1)! (n 1)! 1! 1! 1
Example 17: If four cards are chosen from a pack of 52 playing cards then find
the number of ways that all the four cards are
(i) of different suit
(ii) of same suit
(iii) face cards
(iv) either red or black
Solution: We know that in a pack of playing cards there are 4 suits namely, spade,
diamond, heart, and club each containing 13 cards.
(i) Required number of ways = 13 C1 13 C1 13 C1 13 C1
= 13 13 13 13 = 28561
13 13
(ii) Required number of ways = C4 +C 4 + 13 C 4 + 13 C 4
[Link].10
= 4 13 C 4 = = 2860
4!
(iii) We know that there are 12 face cards.
[Link]
required number of ways = 12 C 4 = = 495
4!
(iv) We know that there are 26 red and 26 black cards in a pack of
playing cards.
required number of ways = 26 C 4 + 26 C 4
[Link]
= 2 26 C 4 = 2 = 29900
4!
Example 18: A bag contains 4 red and 7 white balls. Find the number of ways in
which 2 red and 3 white balls can be drawn.
4.3
Solution: Out of 4 red balls 2 can be drawn in 4 C 2 ways = =6
2!
7.6.5
Out of 7 white balls 3 can be drawn in 7 C 3 ways = 35
3!
required number of ways = 4 C 2 7 C 3 = 6 35 = 210
Here is an exercise for you.
E 13) There are 21 cricket players including 11 batsmen, 7 bowlers and 3 wicket
keepers. In how many ways 11 players can be selected having 6 batsmen, 4
bowlers and 1 wicket keeper.
4.7 SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS
In this section, we will discuss some examples based on the following two
important results.
Result I Total number of permutations of n distinct things taken r at a time such
that
(i) s (0 < s < r) particular things are always included = n s Pr s r Ps
n s
(ii) s (0 < s < r) particular things are always excluded = Pr
76
Result II Total number of combination of n distinct things taken r at a time such Techniques of Counting
that
(i) s (0 < s < r) particular things are always included = n s C r s
n s
(ii) s (0 < s < r) particular things are always excluded = Cr
Example 19: Find the total number of ways of selection of 15 players out of 21
players such that
(i) 3 particular players are always included
(ii) 2 particular players are always excluded.
Solution:
(i) 3 particular players are always included we have to select 15 – 3 = 12
players out of 21 – 3 = 18 players.
18!
required number of ways = 18 C12
12!(18 12)!
18 17 16 15 14 13 12!
12! 6!
18 17 16 15 14 13
18564
6 5 4 3 2 1
Alternatively
Here n = 21, r = 15, s = 3
n s
required number of selections = C r s [Refer part (i) of Result II]
213
C153
18
C12 18564 [Already calculated]
(ii) 2 particular players are always excluded we have to select 15 players out
of 21 – 2 = 19 players
19!
required number of ways = 19 C15
15! (19 15)1
19 18 17 16 15! 19 18 17 16
3876
15! 4! 4 3 2 1
Alternatively
Here n = 21, r = 15, s = 2
n s
required number of selection = Cr [Refer part (ii) of Result II]
21 2
= C15
19
C15 3876 [Already calculated]
Example 20: How many 5 letters words are possible using 8 letters a, b, c, d, e, f,
g, h such that
(i) Two letters a, b are always included
(ii) Three letters a, c, d are always excluded
Solution: Here concept of permutation will be used, because we have to form
arrangement not groups.
(i) Here n = 8, r = 5, s = 2
n s
required number of words = Pr s r Ps [Refer part (i) of Result I]
77
Fundamentals of 8 2 P5 2 5 P2
Mathematics-I
6 P3 5 P2 120 20 2400
(ii) Here n = 8, r = 5, s = 3
n s
required number of words = Pr [Refer part (ii) of Result I]
8 3 5
P5 P5 120
Now, you can try the following exercises.
E 14) Find the total number of ways of selection of 11 players out of 15 players
such that
(i) captain and vice captain are always included
(ii) one particular injured players is always excluded.
E 15) How many 4 digits numbers are possible using 9 digits 1, 2, 3, …, 9 such
that
(i) Three digits 1, 6, 8 are always included
(ii) Two digits 3, 8 are always excluded.
4.8 BINOMIAL THEOREM
Following two sub-sections are devoted to the discussion of this theorem.
4.8.1 Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Index
From your school days, you are familiar what we mean by monomial, binomial,
trinomial and multinomial expressions. Let us recall your memory. An expression
having one term, two terms, three terms, more than three terms is known as
monomial, binomial, trinomial, multinomial respectively.
For example,
(i) 7, x, 9x, 3x 2 , 5y, x 2 y all are monomial, as there is only one term in each
expression.
(ii) a + b, a – b, 3a + 2b, a 2 3b, x – y, x – 4y all are binomial, as there are
only two terms in each expression.
(iii) a + b + c, x – 2y +z, 3x + 2y – z all are trinomial, as there are only three
terms in each expression.
(iv) a + b + c + d, x – 2y + 5z – w + 3u both are multinomial, as there are more
than three terms in each expression.
Let us recall another memory of your school days. You have met with the
identities:
( a b) 2 a 2 2ab b 2
( a b) 3 a 3 3a 2 b 3ab 2 b 3
In school days students cram these identities. But here you have become familiar
with the concept of combination in Sec. 4.5, using the knowledge of Sec. 4.5
these identities can be written in a systematic manner. In fact our aim of this
section is to obtain the expression for ( a b) n , n = 1, 2, 3,… known as binomial
theorem (for positive integral index).
Let us see how this very interesting expression can be generated by using the
knowledge what we know up to this point.
78
Obviously (a b)1 a b 1 C0 a 1 0 b 0 1 C1 a 11 b1 [1 C 0 1, 1 C1 1] Techniques of Counting
( a b) 2 a 2 2ab b 2 2 C 0 a 2 0 b 0 2 C1 a 21 b1 2 C 2 a 2 2 b 2
[2 C 0 1, 2 C1 2, 2 C 2 1 ]
( a b) 3 a 3 3a 2 b 3ab 2 b 3
3 C 0 a 30 b 0 3 C1 a 31 b1 3 C 2 a 3 2 b 2 3 C 3 a 33 b 3
3 C0 1 3 C3 , 3 C1 3 3 C2
( a b) 4 (a b)(a b) 3
(a b)(a 3 3a 2 b 3ab 2 b 3 )
a 4 3a 3 b 3a 2 b 2 ab 3 a 3 b 3a 2 b 2 3ab 3 b 4
a 4 4a 3 b 6a 2 b 2 4ab 3 b 4
4 C 0 a 40 b 0 4 C1 a 4 1 b1 4 C 2 a 4 2 b 2 4 C 3 a 4 3 b 3 4 C 4 a 4 4 b 4
4 C 0 4 C 4 1, 4 C1 4 C3 4, 4 C2 6
…
…
…
(a b) n n C0 a n 0 b 0 n C1 a n 1b1 n C 2 a n 2 b 2 n C3 a n 3 b3 ...
+ n C n 1 a n ( n 1) b n 1 n C n a n n b n
n C0 a n n C1 a n 1 b n C 2 a n 2 b 2 n C3 a n 3 b3 ...
+ n C n 1 ab n 1 n C n b n
Some important points related to the above expression which will help you to easily
remember it are given below.
1. n C 0 , n C1 , n C 2 ,..., n C n are known as binomial coefficients.
2. Exponents of a in successive terms are n, n – 1, n – 2, n – 3, …, 1, 0, i.e.
difference of super and sub subscript of C, i.e. exponent of a in the term
with binomial coefficient n C r will be n – r.
3. Exponents of b in successive terms are 0, 1, 2, 3, …, n – 1, n, i.e. equal
to the sub subscript of C, i.e. exponent of b in the term with binomial
coefficient n C r will be r.
4. Sum of the exponents of a and b in each term is equal to the actual
exponent of the given binomial expression.
5. If n = 0, then ( a b) 0 1 0 C 0 a 0 0 b 0 as 0
C0 1
To become user friendly with this expression, let us do some examples based on it.
6
1
Example 21: Expend x by binomial theorem.
x
6
1
Solution: Comparing x with ( a b) n , we get
x
1
a x, b ,n 6
x
by binomial theorem
79
6 0 2 3
Fundamentals of 1
6 6 1 6 5 1 6 4 1 6 3 1
Mathematics-I x = C 0 x C1 x C 2 x C3 x
x x x x x
4 5 6
1 1 1
+ 6 C 4 x 2 6 C 5 x 6 C 6
x x x
15 6 1
x 6 6x 4 15x 2 20 2 4 6
x x x
[ C 0 C6 1, C1 C5 6, 6 C 2 6 C 4 15, 6 C3 20]
6 6 6 6
Example 22: Expand (1 x)10 by binomial theorem.
Solution: Comparing (1 x )10 with ( a b) n , we get
a 1, b x , n 10
by binomial theorem
(1 x )10 = (1 ( x ))10
7 3
10 C0 (1)10 (x)0 10 C1 (1)9 ( x)1 10 C2 (1)8 (x)2 10 C3 1 x
6 4
10 C 4 1 x 10 C5 (1)5 ( x) 5 10 C6 (1) 4 ( x) 6 10 C7 (1)3 ( x) 7
10 C8 (1) 2 ( x)8 10 C9 (1)1 ( x)9 10 C10 (1)0 ( x)10
1 10x 45x 2 120x 3 210x 4 252x 5
210x 6 120x 7 45x 8 10x 9 x10
10 C0 10 C10 1, 10 C1 10 C9 10, 10 C 2 10 C8 45,
10 10 10 10 10
C3 C 7 120, C 4 C6 210, C5 252
Now you can try the following exercises.
E 16) Expand (1 2 ) 5 by binomial theorem.
E 17) Expand (3x y) 7 by binomial theorem.
4.8.2 Binomial Theorem for any Index
In subsection 4.8.1 we have discussed binomial theorem for index n, where n = 1,
2, 3, 4, …
But sometimes binomial expansion is needed for rational exponent. The aim of
this section is to provide an expression which works for rational exponent.
Let us consider the expansion for positive integral index discussed in previous sub
section 4.8.1
(a b) n n C0 a n n C1 a n 1 b n C2 a n 2 b 2 n C3 a n 3 b 3 ... n Cn 1 ab n 1
n Cn bn
In Sec. 4.5, you have seen that n C0 , n C1 , n C 2 , n C3 , etc. can be written as
n n ( n 1)
C 0 n C n 1, n C1 n C n 1 n , n C 2 n C n 2 ,
2!
n n(n 1)(n 2)
C 3 n C n 3 , etc.
3!
n(n 1) n 2 2 n(n 1)(n 2) n 3 3
(a b) n a n na n 1 b a b a b ... nab n 1
2! 3!
bn
80
Here we note that if n is not a positive integer, then this expression will never Techniques of Counting
terminate. Also powers of b are increasing term by term, so in case of infinite
expansion to get finite sum it becomes necessary that b 1 . In fact, in case of
rational exponent n the binomial expansion of (1 x ) n , where x 1 is given by
n(n 1) 2 n(n 1)(n 2) 3
(1 x) n 1 nx x x
2! 3!
n ( n 1)(n 2)...(n ( r 1)) r
... x ..
r!
and binomial expansion of ( a b) n is given by
n
b
(a b) n a n 1
a
2 3
b n(n 1) b n(n 1)(n 2) b b
a n 1 n ... ,if 1 and
a 2! a 3! a a
n
a
(a b) n b n 1
b
2 3
a n(n 1) a n(n 1)(n 2) a a
b n 1 n ... , if 1
b 2! b 3! b b
Let us do some examples based on it.
Example 23: Expand (5 3x ) 4 using binomial theorem for negative index.
4
4 4 3
Solution: (5 3x ) (5) 1 x
5
2 3
1 3 (4)(4 1) 3 (4)(4 1)(4 2) 3
1 ( 4) x x x ...
54
5 2! 5 3! 5
3 5
This expansion is valid if x 1, i.e. x
5 3
4 1 12 18 108 3 5
5 3x 1 x x2 x ... , if x
625 5 5 25 3
Example 24: Find expansion of ( 7 2 x ) 2 / 3 .
2/3
2
Solution: (7 2 x ) 2 / 3 7 2 / 3 1 x
7
2 2
1 2
2 2 3 3 2
7 2 / 3 1 x x ...
3 7 2! 7
2 7
This expansion is valid only if x 1, i.e. if x
7 2
2/3 4 4 2 7
7 2x 7 2 / 3 1 x x ... , if x
21 441 2
81
Fundamentals of Now, you can try the following exercise.
Mathematics-I
E 18) Expand (1 3x)1 / 2 .
4.9 SUMMARY
Let us summarise the topics that we have covered in this unit:
1) Concept of factorial.
2) Fundamental principles of multiplication and addition.
3) Definition and examples of permutation.
4) Permutation in different situations.
5) Circular permutation.
6) Definition and examples of combination.
7) Binomial theorem for integral index and for any index.
4.10 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS
22! 22 21 20 19!
E 1) (i) 22 21 20 9240
19! 19!
15! 15 14 13 12 1110! 15 14 13 12 11
(ii) 3003
10! 5! 10! 5 4 3 2 1 120
E 2) (i) [Link].15 = 35 ([Link].5) 3 5 (5!)
[Link].[Link].[Link] 12!
(ii) [Link].11.12
[Link].5.6 6!
E 3) (i) (n – 2)! = 12(n – 4)!
(n – 2) (n – 3) (n – 4)! = 12(n – 4)!
(n 2)(n 3) 12 n 2 5n 6 12 0
n 2 5n 6 0 n 2 6n n 6 0
n (n 6) 1(n 6) 0 (n 6)(n 1) 0
n 6, 1
But n cannot be negative
n 6
(ii) n! 72( n 2)!
n (n 1)(n 2)! 72(n 2)! n (n 1) 72
n 2 n 72 0 n 2 9n 8n 72 0
n (n 9) 8(n 9) 0 (n 9)(n 8) 0
n 9, 8
But n cannot be negative
n 9
E 4) In order to solve this problem, we have to perform 10 jobs, where
each of first five jobs can be done in 4 ways and each of last five
jobs can be done in 5 ways.
by fundamental principle of multiplication required possible
sequences of answers
= 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 = 4 5 55 = 3200000
82
E 5) (i) When repetition is not allowed. First, second, third and fourth Techniques of Counting
positions can be filled up in 5, 4, 3, 2 ways respectively.
total number of 4-letter words that can be formed be using the
letters a, b, g, h, k
= 5 4 3 2 = 120
(ii) When repetition is allowed. Each of first, second, third and fourth
positions can be filled up in 5 ways.
total number of 4-letter words that can be formed by using the letters a,
b, g, h, k
5 5 5 5 = 5 4 625
5 5! 6!
E 6) Pn 6 Pn1
(5 n )! (6 n 1)!
5! 6.5! 1 6
(5 n)! (7 n )! (5 n)! (7 n ).(6. n ).(5 n )!
(7 n )(6 n ) 6 42 13n n 2 6 n 2 13n 36 0
n 2 9n 4n 36 0 n (n 9) 4(n 9) 0
(n 9)(n 4) 0 n 9, 4
5
But if n = 9, then Pn 5 P9 becomes meaning less
selection of 9 things out of 5
does not make anysense.
n 4
7 7! n n!
E 7) (i) P4 = Pr
(7 4)! (n r )!
[Link].3!
[Link] 840
3!
n n! n! n!
(ii) Pn = n! as 0! = 1
(n n )! 0! 1
n! n! n!
(iii) n Pn 1 = n!
( n ( n 1))! 1! 1
n! n.(n 1)!
(iv) n P 1 = n
(n 1)! (n 1)!
n n! n(n 1)(n 2)!
(v) P2 = n (n 1)
(n 2)! (n 2)!
16 16! 16! 16! [Link]!
(vi) P3 = = 16.15.14 = 3360
(16 3)! (16 3)! 13! 13!
E 8) Possible number of ways = Total number of arrangement of 5 things taken
all at a time
5 5! 5! 5!
= P5 = = 120
(5 5)! 0! 1
E 9) Total number of flags = 3 + 4 + 2 = 9
Out of which 3 are of one kind, 4 are of second kind and 2 are of
83
Fundamentals of third kind.
Mathematics-I 9! [Link].5.4! [Link].5
required number of signals = = = 1260
4! 3! 2! 4! 6 2 12
E 10) There are 4 letters in the word “AMAR”. Out of which A occur
twice.
4! 4 3 2!
total number of permutations = 4 3 12
2! 2!
E 11) (i) First prize can be given to any of the 5 students. Second prize can
be given any of the remaining 4 students and similarly third prize
no student gets
can be given in 3 ways. more than one prize
required number of ways = 5 4 3 60
(ii) First prize can be given to any of the 5 students, i.e in 5 ways.
Second and third each can also be given in 5 ways.
a student may get any
number of prizes
required number of ways = 5 5 5 = 53 125
(iii) There are 5 ways that all the prizes come to the same student.
required number of ways = 125 – 5 = 120
(8 1)! 7!
E 12) (i) Possible number of garlands with 8 flowers =
2 2
5040
= 2520
2
(ii) Let P and V denote president and vice president respectively.
Therefore if we consider these two members as a single member then
we are left with 19 members. These 19 members can sit in a round table
in (19–1)! ways. But president and vice president can change their seats
in two ways (i.e. PV or VP).
required number of ways of sitting the members in a meeting
= (19 1)! 2! = (18!) (2!)
E 13)
11 Batsmen
7 Bowlers
3 Wicket keepers.
11
Out of 11 batsmen 6 can be selected in C 6 ways.
Out of 7 bowlers 4 can be selected in 7 C 4 ways.
Out of 3 wicket keepers 1 can be selected in 3 C1 ways.
11
required number of ways = C 6 7 C 4 3 C1
[Link].7.6 [Link]
= 3
6! 4!
= 48510
E 14) Here concept of combination will be used, because we have to form
possible groups not arrangement.
84
(i) Here n = 15, r = 11, s = 2 Techniques of Counting
n s
required number of ways = C r s [Refer part (i) of Result II]
15 2
C11 2
13 12 1110
13 C9 715
4!
(ii) Here n = 15, r = 11, s = 1
n s
required number of ways = C r [Refer (ii) of Result II]
14 13 12
151 C11 14 C11 364
3!
E 15) (i) Here n = 9 r = 4, s = 3
possible 4 digits numbers that can be formed using 9 digits 1 to 9
subject to the condition that three digits 1, 6, 8 are always included
= n s Pr s r Ps 9 3 P43 4 P3 6 P1 4 P3 6 4 24
(ii) Here n = 9, r = 4, s = 2
n s 92 7!
required possible numbers Pr P4 7 P4
(7 4)!
7 6 5 4 3!
840
3!
E 16) Comparing (1 2 ) 5 with ( a b) n , we get
a 1, b 2 , n 5
by binomial theorem
(1 2)5 5 C 0 (1)50 ( 2) 0 5 C1 (1) 51 ( 2)1 5 C 2 (1)5 2 ( 2) 2
5 C3 (1)5 3 ( 2)3 5 C 4 (1) 5 4 ( 2 ) 4 5 C 5 (1) 55 ( 2 ) 5
1 5( 2 ) 10(2) 10(2 2 ) 5(4) 1(4 2 )
5 C0 5 C5 1, 5 C1 5 C 4 5, 5 C 2 5 C3 10
1 5 2 20 20 2 20 4 2
= 41 29 2
E 17) Comparing (3x y ) 7 with ( a b) n , we get
a 3x , b y n 7
by binomial theorem
(3x y) 7 7 C 0 (3x ) 7 0 ( y ) 0 7 C1 (3x ) 7 1 ( y)1 7 C 2 (3x ) 7 2 ( y) 2
7 C 3 (3x ) 7 3 ( y) 3 7 C 4 (3x ) 7 4 ( y) 4 7 C 5 (3x ) 7 5 ( y) 5
+ 7 C 6 (3x ) 7 6 ( y) 6 7 C 7 (3x ) 7 7 ( y) 7
2187x 7 7(729x 6 )( y) 21(243x 5 )(y 2 ) 35(81x 4 )( y3 )
35( 27 x 3 )( y 4 ) 21(9 x 2 )( y 5 ) 7(3x )( y 6 ) y 7
7 C 0 7 C7 1, 7 C1 7 C6 7, 7 C2 7 C5 21, 7 C3 7 C 4 35
2187x 7 5103x 6 y 5103x 5 y 2 2835x 4 y3 945x 3 y 4 189x 2 y 5
21xy 6 y 7
85
Fundamentals of 1 1
Mathematics-I 1
1 2 2
E 18) (1 3x ) 1 (3x )
1/ 2
(3x ) 2
2 2!
1 1 1
1 2
2 2 2
(3x ) 3 ...
3!
1
This expansion is valid only if 3x 1, i.e. if x
3
1/ 2 3 9 27 3 1
1 3x 1 x x 2 x ... , if x
2 8 16 3
86
You might also like
- MST-001 - Foundation in Mathematics and StatisticsNo ratings yetMST-001 - Foundation in Mathematics and Statistics6 pages
- Formulae and Tables Booklet For PGDAST PDF100% (1)Formulae and Tables Booklet For PGDAST PDF102 pages
- STAT-205: Probability and Statistics PlanNo ratings yetSTAT-205: Probability and Statistics Plan6 pages
- Calcutta University B.Sc. Statistics SyllabusNo ratings yetCalcutta University B.Sc. Statistics Syllabus19 pages
- B.Sc. Statistics Syllabus: Descriptive StatsNo ratings yetB.Sc. Statistics Syllabus: Descriptive Stats52 pages
- Java Programming and Discrete Math CourseNo ratings yetJava Programming and Discrete Math Course49 pages
- B.Tech Computer Science Syllabus OverviewNo ratings yetB.Tech Computer Science Syllabus Overview8 pages
- Calcutta University Statistics SyllabusNo ratings yetCalcutta University Statistics Syllabus28 pages
- M.Com Statistics for Managerial DecisionsNo ratings yetM.Com Statistics for Managerial Decisions236 pages
- TN Class 11 Statistics English 2025 Edition-Www - Tntextbooks.inNo ratings yetTN Class 11 Statistics English 2025 Edition-Www - Tntextbooks.in344 pages
- STAT-205: Intro to Probability & StatisticsNo ratings yetSTAT-205: Intro to Probability & Statistics4 pages
- CBCSS Statistics Syllabus for B.Sc. MathematicsNo ratings yetCBCSS Statistics Syllabus for B.Sc. Mathematics7 pages
- Pondicherry University PG Diploma in StatisticsNo ratings yetPondicherry University PG Diploma in Statistics11 pages
- Business Mathematics & Statistics OverviewNo ratings yetBusiness Mathematics & Statistics Overview12 pages
- Probability Spaces in Engineering StatisticsNo ratings yetProbability Spaces in Engineering Statistics1 page
- Ebook Engineering Mathematics For Semesters III and IVNo ratings yetEbook Engineering Mathematics For Semesters III and IV217 pages
- First Year B.Sc. Computer Science Statistics SyllabusNo ratings yetFirst Year B.Sc. Computer Science Statistics Syllabus9 pages
- BS(Hons) Statistics Curriculum OverviewNo ratings yetBS(Hons) Statistics Curriculum Overview48 pages
- Statistical Methods For Applied Sciences (Manual)No ratings yetStatistical Methods For Applied Sciences (Manual)36 pages
- Statistical Methods For Applied Sciences (Manual)No ratings yetStatistical Methods For Applied Sciences (Manual)96 pages
- Statistical Methods For Applied Sciences (Manual)No ratings yetStatistical Methods For Applied Sciences (Manual)36 pages
- Probability and Statistics Course OutlineNo ratings yetProbability and Statistics Course Outline3 pages
- B.Sc. Statistics I Year Syllabus OverviewNo ratings yetB.Sc. Statistics I Year Syllabus Overview177 pages
- Ebook An Advanced Lifespan Odyssey For Counseling Professionals100% (7)Ebook An Advanced Lifespan Odyssey For Counseling Professionals203 pages
- Agniveer Women Military Police Recruitment 2024No ratings yetAgniveer Women Military Police Recruitment 202421 pages
- Mathematics Assignment M5 for ECE/CSE/MENo ratings yetMathematics Assignment M5 for ECE/CSE/ME2 pages
- Mental Health's Impact on Student PerformanceNo ratings yetMental Health's Impact on Student Performance3 pages
- Beatrice Haro: Composer & Audio ProducerNo ratings yetBeatrice Haro: Composer & Audio Producer1 page
- R-30iB Linetracking Operator Manual (B-83474EN 01)No ratings yetR-30iB Linetracking Operator Manual (B-83474EN 01)152 pages
- The Impact of Digital Detox On Mental Well-Being - A Study of Psychological Resilience in The Age of Social MediaNo ratings yetThe Impact of Digital Detox On Mental Well-Being - A Study of Psychological Resilience in The Age of Social Media11 pages
- Industrial Organization and Management InsightsNo ratings yetIndustrial Organization and Management Insights3 pages
- Cost Accounting Evaluation at Star EngineeringNo ratings yetCost Accounting Evaluation at Star Engineering12 pages
- Kohler 250REOZJE Generator SpecificationsNo ratings yetKohler 250REOZJE Generator Specifications4 pages
- Derivative Rules and Trigonometric IdentitiesNo ratings yetDerivative Rules and Trigonometric Identities2 pages
- Resonance and Molecular Geometry InsightsNo ratings yetResonance and Molecular Geometry Insights10 pages
- WEG Soft Starters Overview and BenefitsNo ratings yetWEG Soft Starters Overview and Benefits38 pages
- Present Perfect Continuous Tense ActivityNo ratings yetPresent Perfect Continuous Tense Activity6 pages