Elasticity

Unit

7
Elasticity
Interatomic Forces (i) When two atoms are at very large distance, the potential energy
is negative and becomes more negative as r is decreased.
The forces between the atoms due to electrostatic interaction (ii) When the distance between the two atoms becomes r , the
between the charges of the atoms are called Interatomic forces. These forces potential energy of the system of two atoms becomes minimum (i.e. attains
0

are electrical in nature and these are active if the distance between the two maximum negative value). As the state of minimum potential energy is the
atoms is of the order of atomic size i.e. 10 metre.
–10

state of equilibrium, hence the two atoms at separation r will be in a state

0

(1) Every atom is electrically neutral, the number of electrons of equilibrium.

(negative charge) orbiting around the nucleus is equal to the number of
protons (positive charge) in the nucleus. So if two atoms are placed at a ( U 0  7 . 2  10 19 Joule for hydrogen).
very large distance from each other then there will be a very small (iii) When the distance between the two atoms is further decreased
(negligible) Interatomic force working between them. (i.e. r < r ) the negative value of potential energy of the system starts
0

(2) When two atoms are brought closer to each other to a distance decreasing. It becomes zero and then attains positive value with further
of the order of 10 m, the distances between their positive nuclei and
–10 decrease in r (as shown in the figure).
negative electron clouds get disturbed, and due to this, attractive Intermolecular Forces
Interatomic force is produced between two atoms.
The forces between the molecules due to electrostatic interaction
(3) This attractive force increases continuously with decrease in r
between the charges of the molecules are called intermolecular forces. These
and becomes maximum for one value of r called critical distance,
forces are also called Vander Waal forces and are quite weak as compared
represented by x (as shown in the
to inter-atomic forces. These forces are also electrical in nature and these
Repulsion

figure). Beyond this the attractive force

are active if the separation between two molecules is of the order of
starts decreasing rapidly with further F
decrease in the value of r. molecular size i.e.  10 m.
–9

x (1) It is found that the force of attraction between molecules varies

(4) When the distance between O r
the two atoms becomes r , the r0 inversely as seventh power of the distance between them i.e.
0

Interatomic force will be zero. This Attraction 1 a

Fatt  or Frep  7
distance r is called normal or
0
r7 r
equilibrium distance.
U The negative sign indicates that the force is attractive in nature.
(r = 0.74 Å for hydrogen).
0
(2) When the distance between molecules becomes less than r , the 0

(5) When the distance between forces becomes repulsive in nature and is found to vary inversely as ninth
the two atoms further decreased, the O r power of the distance between them i.e.
Interatomic force becomes repulsive in r0
nature and increases very rapidly with 1 b
Frep  or Frep  .
decrease in distance between two atoms. r9 r9
(6) The potential energy U is Therefore force between two molecules is given by
related with the Interatomic force F by a b
the following relation. F  Fatt  Frep  7  9
r r
dU
F The value of constants a and b depend upon the structure and
dr
nature of molecules.

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 Elasticity

(3) Intermolecular forces between two molecules have the same (iv) Both the forces are attractive up to certain distance between
general nature as shown in the figure for Interatomic forces. atoms/molecules and become repulsive when the distance between them
becomes less than that value.
(4) Potential Energy: Potential energy can be approximately
(2) Dissimilarities
A B
expressed by the formula U  n  m (i) Interatomic force depends upon the distance between the two
r r
atoms, whereas the intermolecular force depends upon the distance between
A the two molecules as well as their relative orientation.
Where the term represents repulsive contribution and term
rn (ii) Interatomic forces are about 50 to100 times stronger than
B intermolecular forces.
represents the attractive contribution. Constants A, B and numbers m
rm (iii) The value of r for two atoms is smaller than the corresponding
0

and n are different for different molecules. value for the molecules. Therefore one molecule is not restricted to attract
only one molecule, but can attract many molecule. It is not so incase of
For majority of solids n = 12 and m = 6. atoms, since the atoms of one molecule cannot bind the atoms of other
molecules.
A B
So potential energy can be expressed as U   6
r 12
r States of Matter
Comparison between Interatomic and
The three states of matter differ from each other due to the
Intermolecular Forces following two factors.
(1) Similarities (1) The different magnitudes of the Interatomic and intermolecular forces.
(i) Both the forces are electrical in origin. (2) The extent of random thermal motion of atoms and molecules of a
(ii) Both the forces are active over short distances. substance (which depends upon temperature).
(iii) General shape of force-distance graph is similar for both the forces.

Comparison Chart of Solid, Liquid and Gaseous States

Property Solid Liquid Gas
Shape Definite Not definite Not definite
Volume Definite Definite Not definite
Density Maximum Less than solids but more than Minimum
gases.
Compressibility Incompressible Less than gases but more than Compressible
solids.
Interatomic or intermolecular Constant Not constant Not constant
distance
Relation between kinetic energy K and K<U K> U K >> U
potential energy (U)
Intermolecular force Strongest Less than solids but more than Weakest
gases.
Freedom of motion Molecules vibrate about their Molecules have limited free motion. Molecules are free to move.
mean position but cannot move
freely.
Effect of temperature Matter remains in solid form Liquids are found at temperatures These are found at temperatures
below a certain temperature. more than that of solid. greater than that of solids and
liquids.

Note:  The fourth state of matter in which the Elastic Property of Matter
medium is in the form of positive and negative ions, is known as plasma. (1) Elasticity: The property of matter by virtue of which a body tends
Plasma occurs in the atmosphere of stars (including the sun) and in to regain its original shape and size after the removal of deforming force is
discharge tubes. called elasticity.
Types of Solids (2) Plasticity: The property of matter by virtue of which it does not
regain its original shape and size after the removal of deforming force is
A solid is that state of matter in which its constituent atoms or called plasticity.
molecules are held strongly at the position of minimum potential energy
and it has a definite shape and volume. The solids can be classified into two (3) Perfectly elastic body: If on the removal of deforming forces the
categories, crystalline and glassy or amorphous solids. body regain its original configuration completely it is said to be perfectly
elastic.

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 Elasticity

A quartz fibre and phosphor bronze (an alloy of copper containing Force F
4% to 10% tin, 0.05% to 1% phosphorus) is the nearest approach to the Stress  
Area A
perfectly elastic body.
(4) Perfectly plastic body: If the body does not have any tendency to Unit: N / m 2 (S.I.) , dyne / cm 2 (C.G.S.)
recover its original configuration, on the removal of deforming force, it is Dimension: [ML 1 T 2 ]
said to be perfectly plastic.
Stress developed in a body depends upon how the external forces
Paraffin wax, wet clay are the nearest approach to the perfectly are applied over it.
plastic body.
On this basis there are two types of stresses: Normal and Shear or
Practically there is no material which is either perfectly elastic or perfectly tangential stress
plastic and the behaviour of actual bodies lies between the two extremes.
(1) Normal stress: Here the force is applied normal to the surface.
(5) Reason of elasticity: In a solids, atoms and molecules are
arranged in such a way that each molecule is acted upon by the forces due It is again of two types: Longitudinal and Bulk or volume stress
to neighbouring molecules. These forces (i) Longitudinal stress
are known as intermolecular forces.
(a) It occurs only in solids and comes in to picture when one of the
For simplicity, the two molecules in
three dimensions viz. lengths, breadth, height is much greater than other
their equilibrium positions (at inter-
two.
molecular distance r = r ) are shown by
0

connecting them with a spring. (b) Deforming force is applied parallel to the length and causes increase
in length.
In fact, the spring connecting the
two molecules represents the inter- (c) Area taken for calculation of stress is the area of cross section.
molecular force between them. On applying the deforming forces, the
molecules either come closer or go far apart from each other and restoring (d) Longitudinal stress produced due to increase in length of a body
forces are developed. When the deforming force is removed, these restoring under a deforming force is called tensile stress.
forces bring the molecules of the solid to their respective equilibrium
(e) Longitudinal stress produced due to decrease in length of a body
position (r = r ) and hence the body regains its original form.
0
under a deforming force is called compressive stress.
(6) Elastic limit: Elastic bodies show their property of elasticity upto
a certain value of deforming force. If we go on increasing the deforming (ii) Bulk or Volume stress
force then a stage is reached when on removing the force, the body will not (a) It occurs in solids, liquids or gases.
return to its original state. The maximum deforming force upto which a
body retains its property of elasticity is called elastic limit of the material of (b) In case of fluids only bulk stress can be found.
body.
(c) It produces change in volume and density, shape remaining same.
Elastic limit is the property of a body whereas elasticity is the
property of material of the body. (d) Deforming force is applied normal to surface at all points.
(7) Elastic fatigue: The temporary loss of elastic properties because (e) Area for calculation of stress is the complete surface area
of the action of repeated alternating deforming force is called elastic fatigue. perpendicular to the applied forces.
Due to elastic fatigue: (f) It is equal to change in pressure because change in pressure is
(i) Bridges are declared unsafe after a long time of their use. responsible for change in volume.
(ii) Spring balances show wrong readings after they have been used (2) Shear or tangential stress : It comes into picture when successive
for a long time. layers of solid move on each other i.e. when there is a relative displacement
(iii) We are able to break the wire by repeated bending. between various layers of solid.

(8) Elastic after effect: The time delay in which the substance (i) Here deforming force is applied tangential to one of the faces.
regains its original condition after the removal of deforming force is called (ii) Area for calculation is A F
elastic after effect. It is the time for which restoring forces are present after the area of the face on which force
the removal of the deforming force; it is negligible for perfectly elastic is applied.
substance, like quartz, phosphor bronze and large for glass fibre.
(iii) It produces change in
Stress shape, volume remaining the same. Fixed face

When a force is applied on a body, there will be relative

displacement of the particles and due to property of elasticity, an internal
restoring force is developed which tends to restore the body to its original Difference between Pressure and Stress
state.
Pressure Stress
The internal restoring force acting per unit area of cross section of
the deformed body is called stress. Pressure is always normal to the Stress can be normal or
area. tangential.
At equilibrium, restoring force is equal in magnitude to external
force, stress can therefore also be defined as external force per unit area on Always compressive in nature. May be compressive or tensile in
a body that tends to cause it to deform. nature.

If external force F is applied on the area A of a body then,

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 Elasticity

Strain elongation) we get the curve as shown in figure. From this curve it is clear
that:
The ratio of change in configuration to the original configuration is
called strain. Elastic region
Plastic region
Being the ratio of two like quantities, it has no dimensions and units. Breaking
Strength
Strain are of three types :
B
(1) Linear strain: If the deforming force produces a Elastic limit A
change in length alone, the strain produced in the body is E C
called linear strain or tensile strain. l P

Change in length( l)

Linear strain 
Original length( l)

Stress
l
Linear strain in the direction of deforming force is called 
longitudinal strain and in a direction perpendicular to F
force is called lateral strain. O Strain
(2) Volumetric strain: If the deforming force
(1) When the strain is small (< 2%) (i.e., in region OP) stress is
produces a change in volume alone the strain
proportional to strain. This is the region where the so called Hooke’s law is
produced in the body is called volumetric strain.
obeyed. The point P is called limit of proportionality and slope of line OP
Change in volume( V ) (V – V)
Volumetric strain  gives the Young’s modulus Y of the material of the wire. If  is the angle of
Original v olume( V )
OP from strain axis then Y = tan .

(3) Shearing strain: If the (2) If the strain is increased a little bit, i.e., in the region PE, the
deforming force produces a change in the x stress is not proportional to strain. However, the wire still regains its
shape of the body without changing its F original length after the removal of stretching force. This behaviour is
volume, strain produced is called shearing  shown up to point E known as elastic limit or yield-point. The region OPE
strain. L   represents the elastic behaviour of the material of wire.
It is defined as angle in radians (3) If the wire is stretched beyond the elastic limit E, i.e., between
Fixed face
through which a plane perpendicular to EA, the strain increases much more rapidly and if the stretching force is
the fixed surface of the cubical body gets removed the wire does not come back to its natural length. Some
turned under the effect of tangential force. permanent increase in length takes place.
x (4) If the stress is increased further, by a very small increase in it a
 very large increase in strain is produced (region AB) and after reaching
L
point B, the strain increases even if the wire is unloaded and ruptures at C.
In the region BC the wire literally flows. The maximum stress corresponding
Note :  When a beam is bent both compression strain as
to B after which the wire begins to flow and breaks is called breaking or
well as an extension strain is produced. ultimate tensile strength. The region EABC represents the plastic behaviour
of the material of wire.
Stress-strain Curve (5) Stress-strain curve for different materials are as follows:
If by gradually increasing the load on a vertically suspended metal
wire, a graph is plotted between stress (or load) and longitudinal strain (or

Brittle material Ductile material Elastomers

C
E C E
C
Stress

Stress

Stress

P P

O Strain O Strain O Strain

The plastic region between E and C is small for The material of the wire have a good plastic Stress-strain curve is not a straight line within
brittle material and it will break soon after the range and such materials can be easily changed the elastic limit for Elastomers and strain
elastic limit is crossed. into different shapes and can be drawn into produced is much larger than the stress
Example: Glass, cast iron. thin wires applied. Such materials have no plastic range
Example. Mild steel and the breaking point lies very close to elastic
limit. Example rubber

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 Elasticity

Hooke’s law and Modulus of Elasticity FL Mg (L / 2) MgL L2 dg

 Elongation l   = 
AY AY 2 AY 2Y
According to this law, within the elastic limit, stress is proportional [As mass (M) = volume (AL) × density (d)]
to the strain.
(iv) Thermal stress: If a rod is fixed between two rigid supports, due
stress to change in temperature its length will change and so it will exert a normal
i.e. stress  strain or  constant  E
strain stress (compressive if temperature increases and tensile if temperature
decreases) on the supports. This stress is called thermal stress.
The constant E is called modulus of
elasticity. L
F F
(1) It’s value depends upon the nature of

Stress
material of the body and the manner in which the
body is deformed.
(2) It's value depends upon the temperature l
O Strain As by definition, coefficient of linear expansion  
of the body. L 
(3) It’s value is independent of the l
 Thermal strain   
dimensions (length, volume etc.) of the body. L
There are three modulii of elasticity namely Young’s modulus (Y), So thermal stress = Y  [As Y = stress/strain]
Bulk modulus (K) and modulus of rigidity () corresponding to three types And tensile or compressive force produced in the body = YA 
of the strain.

Young's Modulus (Y)

Note:  In case of volume expansion Thermal stress
= K
It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to longitudinal strain
Where K = Bulk modulus,  = coefficient of cubical expansion
within limit of proportionality.
(v) Force between the two rods : Two rods of different metals,
Normal stress F / A FL having the same area of cross section A, are placed end to end between two
Y    massive walls as shown in figure.
longitudin al strain l/L Al L1 L2
The first rod has a length L , 1 1 2
If force is applied on a wire of radius r by hanging a weight of mass coefficient of linear expansion  1

and young’s modulus Y . The Y1 Y2

M, then 1

corresponding quantities for second

MgL rod are L ,  and Y . If the
Y  2 2 2

r 2 l temperature of both the rods is now raised by T degrees.

Increase in length of the composite rod (due to heating) will be
(i) If the length of a wire is doubled, equal to
change in length( l) l1  l2  [L1 1  L 2 2 ] T [As l = L  ]
Then longitudinal strain =
initial length( L) and due to compressive force F from the walls due to elasticity,
decrease in length of the composite rod will be equal to
final length  initial length 2 L  L
  1  L1 L2  F
Initial length L  FL 
    As l  AY 
 Y1 Y 2  A  
stress
 Young’s modulus =  Y = stress as the length of the composite rod remains unchanged the increase
strain
in length due to heating must be equal to decrease in length due to
[As strain = 1]
So young’s modulus is numerically equal to the stress which will F  L1 L 2 
compression i.e.     [ L11  L 2 2 ] T
double the length of a wire. A  Y1 Y 2 
FL  FL 
(ii) Increment in the length of wire l   As Y  Al  A[ L11  L 2 2 ]T
r 2 Y   or F
 L1 L2 
So if same stretching force is applied to different wires of same   
 Y1 Y 2 
L
material, l  2 [As F and Y are constant] (vi) Force constant of wire : Force required to produce unit
r
elongation in a wire is called force constant of material of wire. It is denoted
L by k.
i.e., greater the ratio , greater will be the elongation in the wire.
r2 F
(iii) Elongation in a wire by its own weight: The weight of the wire  k …(i)
l
Mg acts at the centre of gravity of the wire so that length of wire which is
stretched will be L/2. but from the definition of young’s modulus
F YA
 …(ii)
l L

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 Elasticity

from (i) and (ii) k 

YA Note :  If the force on the wire is increased from F 1

L
to F and the elongation in wire is l then energy stored in the wire
2

It is clear that the value of force constant depends upon the dimension 1 (F1  F2 )
(length and area of cross section) and material of a substance. U  l
2 2
(vii) Actual length of the wire : If the actual length of the wire is L,
then under the tension T , its length becomes L and under the tension T , its 1
1 1 2
 Thermal energy density = Thermal energy per unit volume = 
length becomes L . 2 2
T1 Thermal stress  strain
L1  L  l1  L1  L  …(i)
k 1 F l 1 1
= = (Y  )( ) = Y  2 ( )2
T 2 A L 2 2
and L 2  L  l 2  L 2  L  2 …(ii)
k Breaking of Wire
L1 T2  L 2 T1 When the wire is loaded beyond the elastic limit, then strain increases much
From (i) and (ii) we get L 
T2  T1 more rapidly. The maximum stress corresponding to B (see stress-strain
curve) after which the wire begin to flow and breaks, is called breaking
Work Done in Stretching a Wire stress or tensile strength and the force by application of which the wire
In stretching a wire work is done against internal restoring forces. breaks is called the breaking force.
This work is stored in the wire as elastic potential energy or strain energy. (i) Breaking force depends upon the area of
If a force F acts along the length L of the wire of cross-section A and cross-section of the wire i.e., Breaking force  A
stretches it by x then
 Breaking force = P × A
stress F / A FL YA
Y     F x Here P is a constant of proportionality and
strain x/L Ax L A
known as breaking stress.
So the work done for an additional small increase dx in length, F
(ii) Breaking stress is a constant for a given
YA material and it does not depend upon the dimension
dW  Fdx  x . dx
L (length or thickness) of wire.
Hence the total work done in increasing the length by l, (iii) If a wire of length L is cut into two or more parts, then again
l l l YA 1 YA 2 it's each part can hold the same weight. Since breaking force is independent
W  0 dW  0 Fdx  0 . x dx  l of the length of wire.
L 2 L
(iv) If a wire can bear maximum force F, then wire of same material
This work done is stored in the wire.
but double thickness can bear maximum force 4F
1 YAl 2 1  YAl  (v) The working stress is always kept lower than that of a breaking
 Energy stored in wire U   Fl  As F  L 
2 L 2   stress.

Dividing both sides by volume of the wire we get energy stored in breaking stress
So that safety factor = , may have large value.
unit volume of wire. working stress
1 F l 1 1 (vi) Breaking of wire under its own weight.
UV      stress  strain   Y  (strain )2
2 A L 2 2 Breaking force = Breaking stress  Area of cross section
1 Weight of wire = Mg = ALdg = PA [P =Breaking stress]
 (stress)2 [As AL = volume of wire]
2Y [As mass = volume  density = ALd]
Total energy stored in wire (U) Energy stored in per unit volume
of wire (U )
 Ldg  P L P
V dg
1 1 Fl This is the length of wire if it breaks by its own weight.
Fl
2 2 volume
Bulk Modulus
1 1 When a solid or fluid (liquid or gas) is subjected to a uniform
 stress  strain  volume  stress  strain
2 2 pressure all over the surface, such that the shape remains the same, then
there is a change in volume.
1 1
 Y  (strain )2  volume  Y  (strain ) 2 Then the ratio of normal stress to the volumetric strain within the
2 2
elastic limits is called as Bulk modulus. This is denoted by K.
1 1
 (stress) 2  volume  (stress ) 2 K
Normal stress
2Y 2Y volumetric strain
F/A  pV (V – V)
K 
 V / V V

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 Elasticity

where p = increase in pressure; V = original volume; V = change in Fractional Change in the Radius of Sphere
volume
A solid sphere of radius R made of a material of bulk modulus K is
The negative sign shows that with increase in pressure p, the surrounded by a liquid in a cylindrical container.
volume decreases by V i.e. if p is positive, V is negative. The reciprocal of
A massless piston of area A floats on the surface of the liquid.
bulk modulus is called compressibility.
4 m
1 V Volume of the spherical body V  R 3
C = compressibility =  3
K pV
S.I. unit of compressibility is Nm and C.G.S. unit is dyne cm .
–1 2 –1 2

V R
3
Gases have two bulk moduli, namely isothermal elasticity E and V R
adiabatic elasticity E .
R 1 V
(1) Isothermal elasticity (E) : Elasticity possess by a gas in   …(i)
isothermal condition is defined as isothermal elasticity. R 3 V
For isothermal process, PV = constant (Boyle’s law)
P
Differentiating both sides Bulk modulus K   V
V
PdV + VdP = 0  PdV = – VdP
dP stress V P mg
P   E  E = P    …..(ii)
(dV / V ) strain V K AK

i.e., Isothermal elasticity is equal to pressure.  mg 

 As P  A 
 
(2) Adiabatic elasticity (E) : Elasticity possess by a gas in adiabatic
condition is defined as adiabatic elasticity. V
Substituting the value of from equation (ii) in equation (i) we
For adiabatic process, 
PV = constant (Poisson’s law) V
R 1 mg
Differentiating both sides, get 
R 3 AK
P  V  1 dV  V  dP  0   PdV  VdP  0
Modulus of Rigidity
dP stress
P   E Within limits of proportionality, the ratio of tangential stress to the
  dV  strain shearing strain is called modulus of rigidity of the material of the body and
 
 V  Shearing stress
is denoted by , i.e.   x
E =  P Shearing strain
A F
Q Q
' R
i.e., adiabatic elasticity is equal to  times pressure. In this case the shape of a body 
changes but its volume remains unchanged.
Cp L  
[Where   ] Consider a cube of material fixed at
Cv Fixed face
its lower face and acted upon by a
tangential force F at its upper surface P S
Note:  Ratio of adiabatic to isothermal elasticity having area A. The shearing stress, then,
will be
E P
    1  E > E F
E P Shearing stress 
A
i.e., adiabatic elasticity is always more than isothermal elasticity. This shearing force causes the consecutive horizontal layers of the
cube to be slightly displaced or sheared relative to one another, each line
Density of Compressed Liquid
such as PQ or RS in the cube is rotated through an angle  by this shear.
If a liquid of density  , volume V and bulk modulus K is
The shearing strain is defined as the angle  in radians through which a
compressed, then its density increases.
line normal to a fixed surface has turned. For small values of angle,
m   V
As density   so  …(i) QQ ' x
V  V Shearing strain    
PQ L
But by definition of bulk modulus
shear stress F / A F
VP V P So    
K    …(ii) shear strain  A
V V K
     P Only solids can exhibit a shearing as these have definite shape.
From (i) and (ii)   [As  =   –  ]
  K

 P   1 
or     1   [1  CP]  As K  C 
 K   

7|Page
 Elasticity

Poisson’s Ratio Relation between Y, k,  and 

When a long bar is stretched by a force along its length then its Moduli of elasticity are three, viz. Y, K and  while elastic constants
length increases and the radius decreases as shown in the figure.
are four, viz, Y, K,  and . Poisson’s ratio  is not modulus of elasticity as
Lateral strain: The ratio of change it is the ratio of two strains and not of stress to strain. Elastic constants are
in radius or diameter to the original radius found to depend on each other through the relations :
L r r – dr
or diameter is called lateral strain.
L + dL Y  3 K (1  2 ) …(i)
Longitudinal strain: The ratio of
change in length to the original length is Y  2(1   ) …(ii)
called longitudinal strain.
F
Eliminating  or Y between these, we get
The ratio of lateral strain to
longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio (). 9 K
Y  …(iii)
3K  
Lateral strain
i.e.  
Longitudin al strain 3 K  2
  …(iv)
6 K  2
dr / r
  Torsion of Cylinder
dL / L
If the upper end of a cylinder is clamped and a torque is applied at
Negative sign indicates that the radius of the bar decreases when it is
the lower end the cylinder gets twisted by angle . Simultaneously shearing
stretched.
strain  is produced in the cylinder.
Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless and a unitless quantity. r P
(i) The angle of twist  is directly proportional Q
Relation between Volumetric Strain, Lateral to the distance from the fixed end of the cylinder.
Strain and Poisson’s Ratio l
At fixed end   0 o and at free end  =

maximum.
If a long bar have a length L and radius r then volume V  r 2 L O
(ii) The value of angle of shear  is directly 
A B
Differentiating both the sides dV  r 2 dL   2rL dr proportional to the radius of the cylindrical shell.
At the axis of cylinder  = 0 and at the
Dividing both the sides by volume of bar outermost shell  = maximum.
dV r 2 dL  2rL dr dL dr (iii) Relation between angle of twist () and angle of shear ()
   2
V r 2 L r 2 L L r
r
AB = r = l   
 Volumetric strain = longitudinal strain + 2(lateral strain) l
(iv) Twisting couple per unit twist or torsional rigidity or torque
required to produce unit twist.
dV dL dL dL
   2  (1  2 )  r 4
V L L L C  C  r4  A2
2l
 dr / r dr dL 
 As   dL / L  r   L  (v) Work done in twisting the cylinder through an angle  is
 
1 r 4  2
1  dV  W  C 2 
or     1 2 4l
2  AdL  Elastic Hysteresis
[where A = cross-section of bar]
When a deforming force is applied on a body then the strain does not
dV dL change simultaneously with stress rather it lags behind the stress. The lagging
(i) If a material having  = – 0.5 then  [1  2 ] =0 of strain behind the stress is defined as elastic hysteresis. This is the reason
V L
why the values of strain for same stress are different while increasing the load
 Volume = constant or K =  i.e. the material is incompressible. and while decreasing the load.
Hysteresis loop : The area of the stress-strain curve is called the
(ii) If a material having  = 0, then lateral strain is zero i.e. when a hysteresis loop and it is numerically equal to the work done in loading the
substance is stretched its length increases without any decrease in diameter material and then unloading it.
e.g. cork. In this case change in volume is maximum.

(iii) Theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio 1    0 . 5 . For A For B

(iv) Practical value of Poisson’s ratio 0    0 . 5

Stress
Stress

O Strain O Strain

Sanyam Singh (+91-89-79-19-0203)

 Elasticity

If we have two tyres of rubber having different hysteresis loop then (4) For a given material there can be different moduli of elasticity
rubber B should be used for making the car tyres. It is because of the depending on the type of stress applied and resulting strain.
reason that area under the curve i.e. work done in case of rubber B is lesser
and hence the car tyre will not get excessively heated and rubber A should (5) The moduli of elasticity has same dimensional formula and units as
be used to absorb vibration of the machinery because of the large area of that of stress since strain is dimensionless.  Dimensional formula is
the curve, a large amount of vibrational energy can be dissipated.
[ ML 1 T 2 ] while units dyne/cm or Newton/m .
2 2

Factors Affecting Elasticity (6) Greater the value of moduli of elasticity more elastic is the
(1) Hammering and rolling : Crystal grains break up into smaller material. But as Y  (1/l), K  (1/V) and   (1/) for a constant stress, so
units by hammering and rolling. This results in increase in the elasticity of smaller change in shape or size for a given stress corresponds to greater
material. elasticity.
(2) Annealing: The metals are annealed by heating and then cooling
(7) The moduli of elasticity Y and  exist only for solids as liquids
them slowly. Annealing results in decrease in the elasticity of material.
and gases cannot be deformed along one dimension only and also cannot
(3) Temperature: Intermolecular forces decreases with rise in sustain shear strain. However K exist for all states of matter viz. solid, liquid
temperature. Hence the elasticity decreases with rise in temperature but the or gas.
elasticity of invar steel (alloy) does not change with change of temperature.
(8) Gases being most compressible are least elastic while solids are
(4) Impurities: Due to impurities in a material, elasticity can most i.e. the bulk modulus of gas is very low while that for liquids and
increase or decrease. The type of effect depends upon the nature of solids is very high. K > K > K
solid liquid gas

impurities present in the material.

(9) For a rigid body l, V or  = 0 so Y, K or  will be , i.e.
Important Facts about Elasticity elasticity of a rigid body is infinite.

(1) The body which requires greater deforming force to produce a Diamond and carborundum are nearest approach to rigid bodies.
certain change in dimension is more elastic. (10) In a suspension bridge there is a stretch in the ropes by the
load of the bridge. Due to which length of rope changes. Hence Young’s
Example : Ivory and steel balls are more elastic than rubber.
modulus of elasticity is involved.
(2) When equal deforming force is applied on different bodies then (11) In an automobile tyre as the air is compressed, volume of the air
the body which shows less deformation is more elastic. in tyre changes, hence the bulk modulus of elasticity is involved.
Example : (i) For same load, more elongation is produced in rubber (12) In transmitting power, an automobile shaft is sheared as it
wire than in steel wire hence steel is more elastic than rubber. rotates, so shearing strain is set up, hence modulus of rigidity is involved.
(ii) Water is more elastic than air as volume change in water is less (13) The shape of rubber heels changes under stress, so modulus of
for same applied pressure. rigidity is involved.
(iii) Four identical balls of different materials are dropped from the
same height then after collision, balls rises upto different heights.
The order of their height can be given by h > h > h > h because
ivory steel rubber clay

Y >Y >Y >Y.

ivory steel rubber clay

(3) The value of moduli of elasticity is independent of the magnitude

of the stress and strain. It depends only on the nature of material of the
body.

Practical Applications of Elasticity

(i) The metallic parts of machinery are never subjected to a stress
beyond elastic limit; otherwise they will get permanently deformed.
(ii) The thickness of the metallic rope used in the crane in order to
lift a given load is decided from the knowledge of elastic limit of the
material of the rope and the factor of safety.
(iii) The bridges are declared unsafe after long use because during
its long use, a bridge under goes quick alternating strains continuously. It
results in the loss of elastic strength.
(iv) Maximum height of a mountain on earth can be estimated from
the elastic behaviour of earth.
At the base of the mountain, the pressure is given by P = hg and it
must be less than elastic limit (K) of earth’s supporting material.
K K
K > P > hg  h  or h max 
g g
Torque required to produce a unit twist in a solid shaft

9|Page
 Elasticity

 Negative value of poisson’s ratio means that if length increases then

radius decreases.
 Stress and pressure have the same units and dimensions, but the
pressure is always normal to the surface but the stress may be parallel
or perpendicular to the surface.
 Metals are polycrystalline materials.  Normal stress is also called tensile stress when the length of the
 Metals are elastic for small strains and for large strains, metals body tends to increase.
become plastic.  Normal stress is also called compressive stress when length of the
body tends to decrease.
 The substances having large molecular structure (formed by the
union of two to several thousand simple molecules) are called polymers.  Tangential stress is also called shearing stress.
 Rubber is a polymer.  When the deforming force is inclined to the surface, both the
tangential as well as normal stress are produced.
 Rubber is elastic for very large strains.
 When a body is sheared, two mutually perpendicular strains are
 It stretches easily at first but then becomes stiffer. produced. They are called longitudinal strain and compressional strain.
Both are equal in magnitude.
 Young’s modulus is defined only for the solids.
 When a beam is bent, both extensional as well as compressional
 Bulk modulus was first defined by Maxwell. strain is produced.
 Bulk modulus is defined for all types of materials, solids, liquids and  The energy stored by an elastic material is the area under the
gases. force-extension graph. The area under the stress-strain graph gives the
energy stored per unit volume.
 Reciprocal of bulk modules is called compressibility.
 Thermal stress in a rod  Y   . It is independent of the area of
 Hooke’s law is obeyed only for small values of strain.
cross section or length of the wire.
 Higher value of the elasticity (modulus) means greater force is
required for producing a given change.
 Breaking stress for a wire of unit cross-section is called tensile
strength.
 The materials which break as soon as the stress goes beyond the  Breaking stress does not depend on the length or area of cross
elastic limit are called brittle. section of the wire. However it depends on the material of the wire.
 The materials which do not break well beyond the elastic limit are  Breaking force depends on the area of cross section. Breaking stress
called ductile. of a wire is called tensile strength.
 The deformation beyond elastic limit is called plasticity.  If we double the radius of rope its breaking force becomes four
times. But the breaking stress remains unchanged.
 Rubber sustains elasticity even when stretched several times its
length.  If a beam of rectangular cross-section is loaded its depression at
the beam is inversely proportional to the cube of thickness.
However it is not ductile. If breaks down as soon as the elastic limit is
crossed.  If a beam of circular cross-section is loaded, its depression is
1
 Within elastic limit, the force constant for a spring is given by inversely proportional to the fourth power of radius. i.e.  
r4
YA
K
L

 Elastic after effect is a temporary absence of the elastic properties.

 Quartz is the best available example of perfectly elastic materials.
 Isothermal elasticity = pressure (P)
 Adiabatic elasticity = Ratio of specific heats × pressure =P
 Elasticity is meaningless for the rigid bodies. It is the property of
the non rigid bodies.
 Diamond and carborundum are the nearest approach to the rigid
body.
 Elastic fatigue occurs, when a metal is subjected to repeated
loading and unloading.
 Theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio lies between –1 and +1/2 but
practical value lies between zero and +1/2.

Sanyam Singh (+91-89-79-19-0203)