CHAPTER 1
SETS
What is a Set?
A set is a well-defined collection of
distinct objects.
The objects in a set are called the
elements or members of the set.
Capital letters A,B,C,… usually
denote sets.
Lowercase letters a,b,c,… denote
the elements of a set.
Examples
The collection of the vowels in the word
“probability”.
The collection of real numbers that
satisfy the equation x 2 − 9 = 0.
The collection of two-digit positive
integers divisible by 5.
The collection of great football players in
the National Football League.
The collection of intelligent members of
the United States Congress.
The Empty Set
The set with no elements.
Also called the null set.
Denoted by the symbol f.
Finite and Infinite Sets
A finite set is one which can be
counted.
Example: The set of two-digit
positive integers has 90 elements.
An infinite set is one which cannot
be counted.
Example: The set of integer
multiples of the number 5.
The Cardinality of a Set
Notation: n(A)
For finite sets A, n(A) is the number
of elements of A.
For infinite sets A, write n(A)=∞.
Specifying a Set
List the elements explicitly, e.g.,
C = a , o, i
List the elements implicitly, e.g.,
K = 10, 15, 20, 25,...., 95
Use set builder notation, e.g.,
Q = x x = p / q where p and q are integers and q 0
The Universal Set
A set U that includes all of the
elements under consideration in a
particular discussion.
Depends on the context.
Examples: The set of Latin letters,
the set of natural numbers, the set
of points on a line.
The Membership Relation
Let A be a set and let x be some
object.
Notation: x A
Meaning: x is a member of A, or x
is an element of A, or x belongs to
A.
Negated by writing x A
Example: V = a, e, i, o, u . e V , b V .
Equality of Sets
Two sets A and B are equal, denoted A=B,
if they have the same elements.
Otherwise, A≠B.
Example: The set A of odd positive
integers is not equal to the set B of prime
numbers.
Example: The set of odd integers between
4 and 8 is equal to the set of prime
numbers between 4 and 8.
Subsets
A is a subset of B if every element of A is
an element of B.
Notation: A B
For each set A, A A
For each set B, Ø B
A is proper subset of B if A B and A B
Unions
The union of two sets A and B is
A B = x x A or x B
The word “or” is inclusive.
Complements
o If A is a subset of the universal set U,
then the complement of A is the set
Ac = x U x A
Note: A Ac = ; A A = U
c
o
Intersections
The intersection of A and B is
A B = x x A and x B
Example: Let A be the set of even
positive integers and B the set of prime
positive integers. Then
A B = {2}
Definition: A and B are disjoint if
A B = Ø
Venn Diagrams
Set A represented as a disk inside a
rectangular region representing U.
Possible Venn Diagrams
for Two Sets
U U
A B
A B
A B
The Complement of a Set
Ac
A
The shaded region represents the
complement of the set A
The Union of Two Sets
A B
The Intersection of Two Sets
A B
Sets Formed by Two Sets
o R1 = A B c
R2 = A B
U
A B
R1
R2
R3 R3 = Ac B
R4
R4 = Ac B c
Two Basic Counting Rules
If A and B are finite sets,
1. n( A B) = n( A) + n( B) − n( A B)
2. n( A Bc ) = n( A) − n( A B)
See the preceding Venn diagram.