Journal of Positive Psychology & Wellbeing [Link]

com
2024, Vol. 8, No. 2, 10 – 24 ISSN 2587-0130

Stress as a Regulatory Variable of the Training and Psychoso-cial

Profile of Undergraduate Students in Post COVID-19 era: A
Systematic Review

Lionel Sánchez-Bolívar1, Sara Arenas Carranza2, Fátima Zahra Rakdani-Arif-Billah2,

Lindsay Michelle Vázquez2

1
University of Isabel I. C. de Fernán González, 76, 09003 Burgos (Spain).
2
University of de Granada. Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación. Dpto MIDE. Campus Cartuja s/n 18071.
Granada (Spain)

Abstract
Stress is fundamental variable in human behavior. The aim of this systematic review is to carry out an
analysis of the state of the art on stress in university students. To this end, a search was carried out in
the Web of Science database for the descriptors "stress" and "undergraduate students". After applying
the inclusion criteria, a total of 88 articles were selected. Interest in this variable has in-creased,
motivated by the health situation derived from COVID-19. The results show stress interacts with
socioeconomic variables, emotional intelligence, motivation and social skills of university students.
Likewise, it is decisive in the face of addictions to mobile devices and narcotic substances.

Keywords: COVID-19; stress; students; revision; university.

Introduction this negative aspect of stress, reference is made

to the feeling of overcoming and/or emotional
Since December 2020, an exceptional situation
psychological over-whelm that a situation or a
caused by the current pandemic derived from
social context causes in a person, that is, what
COVID-19 has been experienced worldwide,
is defined as negative stress or distress
both at a health level and at a psychological and
(Sánchez-Bolívar & Vázquez, 2022; Sies,
social level.
2020).
In the academic world, the impact has been
In addition, there is a positive response in
produced simultaneously in all educational
people to stressful situations, that is, these
agents and at all levels, since it has implied the
moments exercise the activating role of
adaptation and radical trans-formation of the
people's psychosocial competencies,
face-to-face or blended teaching-learning
cushioning the feeling of improvement and
methodology to fully virtual teaching, which
providing a sense of achievement and training.
has derived in psychosocial problems, both in
This is what, as opposed to distress, is called
university students and in teachers, and the rest
positive stress or eustress (Sies, 2020).
of university professionals (Pasion et al., 2021;
Sánchez-Bolívar et al., 2023). On the other hand, and depending on the
moment, stress can be episodic, if it occurs at a
It should be highlighted that, usually, scientific
specific moment (it can be mild, moderate or
texts that refer to stress do so from a negative
acute, depending on the level of psychological
conceptual point of view. When talking about
and emotional stress that the person perceives);
11 Journal of Positive Psychology & Wellbeing

chronic if the same pat-tern is repeated over Procedure

time, indefinitely; and post-traumatic, if the
For this systematic review, the Web of Science
stressful episodes occur when the individual
(WoS) scientific database was used, and the
has experienced a traumatic episode at a
search was carried out during the month of
psychological lev-el and experiences high rates
March 2021, in "All databases". The
of distress when they relive that moment or
aforementioned database has been selected for
associate it with some common activity in their
the prestige and recognition it holds in the
life (Boamah et al., 2021; Christie & Matthews,
scientific and academic field, as well as for the
2019; McDuff et al., 2020)
impact and scope it has at the international
Among the main reasons why students have level.
experienced high levels of stress are the lack of
The search was limited to the English and
social contact and technological resources, the
Spanish languages and the descriptors "stress"
haste of events and the limitation to access
and "undergraduate students" were used,
psychology professionals who offer
combining them with the Boolean operator
psychosocial support (Shin & Hickey, 2021).
"AND", discarding the operators "OR" and
These elevated stress levels have led to "NOT", selecting the field "Topic” and
burnout, mental illness, anxiety, depression, establishing a time interval of the last five years
even suicide attempts. In this sense, social (2017-2021).
skills, emotional intelligence, motivation and
Sample
resilience are psychological instruments
necessary to combat stress that, due to the lack A total of 2227 records were obtained from the
of social interaction, inactivity and the search. Subsequently, it was re-fined, selecting
impossibility of moving outside the home, have the research domain "Social Sciences",
reduced the level of these psychological tools establishing the resulting re-sources in 1749.
and have raised, even more, the levels of stress After this, the sample was reduced, limiting the
and burnout of the students (Atkinson, 2020; research area to "Education Educational
Ke y Barlas, 2020; Sánchez-Bolívar & Research", resulting in a total of 1101 works
Escalante-González, 2021; Vázquez et al., and, later, to "Psychology", through which
2024; Wang et al., 2019). scientific resources were reduced to a total of
654.
Therefore, given the importance and relevance
that stress has, both in daily life and on the rest For the selection of the format, the category
of the psychosocial variables of university “Article” was used, obtaining a total of 648
students, this work of systematic review of the articles. After this, the search was limited to
scientific literature is proposed in order to works that were in open access, using the
analyze the current state of the question about “Open Access” category, reaching a total of
it, relating the stress of the students with the 269 works. Finally, articles writ-ten in English
rest of the variables and with their educational and Spanish were selected, limiting the
and social profile. resulting articles to 267.
The inclusion criteria used to establish the
Materials and Methods sample were: 1) studies on stress in university
students, excluding other educational stages
To minimize the risk of bias and achieve and any non-student population (teachers,
greater scientific rigor, it has been chosen to workers, etc.); 2) quantitative descriptive,
follow the specifications of the PRISMA cross-sectional or longitudinal studies
Declaration for systematic reviews and (excluding bibliometric and systematic reviews
metanalysis (González et al., 2022). and meta-analysis).
From the application of these selection criteria,
a definitive sample of 88 articles was obtained.
Dua Tran Van 12

Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram for the inclusion of the records under study

Search for terms “Stress” y “Undergraduate Students”

(N=2227)
Records refused from other domains
(N=478)

Scientific production resulting from the application of

the domain “Social Sciences”
(N=1749) Scientific records refused that did not meet
the requirements
(N=648)

Scientific production resulting limiting the research

area to “Education Educational Research”
(N=1101) Scientific records refused that did not meet
the requirements
(N=447)

Scientific production resulting from the application of

the category “Psychology”
(N=654) Scientific articles refused that did not meet
the requirements
(N=6)

Scientific production resulting from the application of

the category “Article”
(N=648) Scientific articles refused that did not meet
the requirements
(N=379)

Scientific production resulting from the application of

the category “Open Access”
(N=269)
Scientific articles refused that did not meet
the requirements
(N=2)

Scientific production resulting from limiting articles

languages to “English” y “Spanish”
(N=267) Scientific articles refused that did not meet
the requirements
(N=179)

Scientific production resulting from the application of

the selection criteria
(N=88)

Results Graphic 1.
In the five-year period 2017-2021, as shown in Population and sample of scientific production
graph 1, there is a gradual increase in scientific Stress in University Students in the period
production on stress in university students. This 2017-2020
trend is increasing until 2019 (n=71), the year
with the highest number of publications. In The selected sample, as can be seen in graph 1,
2020 it remained the same as 2019 (n=70), until remains stable. In this sense, the peak of
today. In 2021 there are a total of 7 articles scientific production on stress in university
published on this subject. students, which meets all the established
criteria, is 27 articles. There was a drastic
13 Journal of Positive Psychology & Wellbeing

decline in 2018 (n=13) that continued in 2019 Discussion

(n=15). However, in 2020 (n=26) the scientific
Given the breadth of levels and areas that stress
community experienced a clear interest in the
encompasses in the life of university students,
subject, which is reflected in the current
the results of this review will be discussed
production of 7 articles published to date.
around five major aspects of it: stress and its
As we can see, table 1 shows that the country relationship with other psychological variables;
with the highest scientific production on stress stress and coping strategies, and academic
in university students is the United States performance; stress and addictions in university
(N=25), representing 28.41% of the sample, students; post-traumatic stress; and stress
that is, practically a third of the world's caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. It should
scientific production on this subject. It is of be clarified that, in all the articles analyzed and
American origin. discussed, the term “stress” is used in its
negative aspect, distress.
Likewise, countries such as China (N=9),
making up 10.23% of the sample Australia Stress and other psychological variables:
(N=5; 5.68%), Germany (N=5; 5.68%) and relationship and psychophysiological and social
Spain (N=5; 5.68%), or India (N=4; 4.55%), effects
show great interest in this psychological
There are gender differences when analyzing
construct in the university population.
the strategies for coping with dis-tress in
Regarding the language of publication,
university students. Women are subjected to
practically all the resources (97.73%; N=86)
higher levels of stress than men and have a
were in English, except for 2 of the documents
higher level of development and a broader
(2.27%), written and published in Spanish.
repertoire of coping and avoidance strategies
Table 1. Distribution of articles by country (Abu-Kaf & Khalaf, 2020).
where the study was carried out
The socioeconomic level of the students acts as
Country N % Countrya modulator
N of stress.
% In this sense, the lower
the student's family purchasing power, the
United states 25 28,41 Canada 1 1,14
higher the stress levels to which they are
China 9 10,23 Switzerland 1
subjected. Women 1,14 in more advanced
Australia 5 5,68 Finland educational
1 stages1,14and with less income
experience higher levels of stress than men or
Germany 5 5,68 Austria women1 with a higher 1,14 socioeconomic level
Spain 5 5,68 Thailand(Adere1 et al., 2017;1,14 Aslan et al., 2020;
Maharajan et al., 2017; Mboya et al., 2020;
India 4 4,55 TanzaniaRibeiro1 et al., 2020;
1,14Siller et al., 2017; Stetler
Brazil 3 3,41 Ghana & Guinn, 1 2020). 1,14
Ethiopia 3 3,41 Nepal Taking1 into 1,14 all the above, the
account
Malaysia 3 3,41 Belgiumprofession
1 that the 1,14
students are studying acts as
a stress regulator. There is a significant
Saudi Arabia 3 3,41 Sri Lanka
increase1 in its levels
1,14
in health professions, such
England 2 2,27 as
Singapore medicine,
1 nursing,
1,14physiotherapy, and so on.
The students of these degrees experience higher
Nigeria 2 2,27 Indonesia
levels 1of stress and1,14
a greater tendency to
Ireland 2 2,27 Israel burnout, 1 manifesting1,14attitudes of maladaptive
and poorly focused perfectionism, cognitive
France 2 2,27 Turkey 1 1,14
distortions, impostor syndrome and negative
Lebanon 2 2,27 feelings such as shame or social discomfort
(Aslan & Ochnik, 2020; Atkinson, 2020; Saif et
al., 2018; Geoghegan et al., 2017; Halboub et
Dua Tran Van 14

al., 2019; Loda et al., 2020; McKerrow et al., In this sense, moderate physical activity
2020; Nama et al., 2017; Paudel et al., 2020) improves health, reduces stress rates and
prevents depressive states. The drastic decline
The culture or religion of the students
in sports practice increases levels of stress,
influences their level of stress and the way they
anxiety and causes an increase in generalized
cope (Abu-Kaf & Khalaf, 2020). In this sense,
anxiety and depression disorders (Aslan et al.,
culture acts as a modulator of this. Cultural
2020; Basudan et al., 2017; Borsari et al., 2018;
dogma causes an increase in average stress
Saif et al., 2018; Uddin et al., 2020; Valero-
values, since individuals do not want to be
Chillerón et al., 2019).
excluded from the society in which they are
inserted (Adere et al., 2017; Aldalur & Stress acts as a regulator of the psychosocial
Schooler, 2018; Stetler & Guinn, 2020). well-being of university students, with high
levels of stress being related to a sensation of
High degrees of stress are related to poorer
psychosocial discomfort, while students who
body image and eating disorders in female
manifest higher psychosocial well-being have a
university students. Therefore, the feeling of
lower degree of stress (Aslan et al., 2020;
belonging, integration and social inclusion
Keech et al., 2018).
reduces stress levels and, therefore, the risk of
suffering from eating disorders. On the Stress is associated with low resilience and low
contrary, higher levels of social anxiety are social ability to resolve conflict. In this sense,
manifested in higher levels of perceived stress the higher the resilience, the lower the stress
(Adere et al., 2017; Aldalut & Schooler, 2018; perceived by the students, while the less
Martínez-Rubio et al., 2020; Siegel et al., resilient students are subjected to higher rates
2018). of stress. Therefore, there is a negative
correlation between perceived stress and
Also, the stress indexes of students experience
resilience (Abdollahi et al., 2018; Chow et al.,
a rise in the face of negative educational events
2018; Rinehart et al., 2017; Sahu et al., 2019;
or experiences or negative learning outcomes.
Sheridan et al., 2019; Silva et al., 2019; Van
This negative stress, dis-tress, is related to
Hoek et al., 2019; Whatnall et al., 2019; Houpy
weight problems, gastrointestinal problems and
et al., 2017).
alterations in the production of cortisol.
Therefore, it is associated with overweight and Another psychological variable that interacts
a higher obesity rate in populations with high with student stress is the level of social skills
levels of distress (Chen et al., 2020; that the student body has. Students with a good
Chowdhury et al., 2017; Almeida et al., 2018; level of proactivity, empathy, assertiveness and
Dworkin et al., 2018). communicativeness, experience lower levels of
stress than students than those with a lower
Consequently, the feeling of belonging causes
development of social skills (Keech et al.,
an increase in stress levels in the population,
2018; Vyas et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019).
simultaneously increasing the mean values of
anxiety and the prevalence of moderate Likewise, and related to all of the above, the
depression in the population (Aslan et al., 2020; emotional intelligence and emotional
Lohanan et al., 2020). development that university students have are
fundamental factors in the evaluation of
The state of health of people affects the stress
perceived stress. In this sense, they act as a
they perceive, so the worse the state of health,
buffer for distress (de la Fuente et al., 2020;
the higher the degree of stress they perceive
Gupta et al., 2017; Ke & Barlas, 2020; Lu et
and suffer. Therefore, stress is a regulator and
al., 2019; Ranashinghe et al., 2017).
fundamental factor in depressive states, being
related to higher levels of stress and a greater High levels of stress are accompanied by an
tendency to depression (Abu-Kaf & Khalaf, increase in negative emotions and a decrease in
2020; Alpizar et al., 2018; Saif et al., 2018). positive ones, with the consequent loss of
psychosocial well-being. There-fore, stress is a
15 Journal of Positive Psychology & Wellbeing

predictor of negative emotions, with negative students endure. Therefore, the academic year
emotions being related to distress and positive in which it is found is a predictor of student
emotions to eustress (de la Fuente et al., 2020; stress, therefore, the higher the educational
Gupta et al., 2017). level or the more progress has been made in the
degree, the higher the stress index to which it is
All these variables, having stress as the link and
submitted (Adere et al., 2017; Howland et al.,
epicenter, will determine the coping strategies
2017).
that students will adopt in stressful situations
and, therefore, in their academic performance. Self-efficacy, self-esteem and self-concept are
found as stress buffers, to consolidate good
Stress and other psychological variables:
academic performance and keep academic
relationship and psychophysiological and social
performance stable. Students with a high index
effects
of self-efficacy, self-esteem and self-concept,
Perceived stress is altered depending on the experience lower levels of stress than the rest
assessment that the person makes of the (Bosch et al., 2017; Hailu et al., 2020; Heinen
stressful event and the tools and ways they et al., 2017; Huhn et al., 2018; Lew et al., 2019;
have to overcome it, that is, coping strategies. Lew et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2020).
University students naturally develop these
Stress and addictions in university students
strategies, with the aim of alleviating the
psychophysiological effects that it causes in the Stress is related to a high level of alcohol
individual (Basudan et al., 2017; Saif et al., consumption in women, but not in men. This is
2018; Okide et al., 2020; Perni et al., 2020). because women consume more alcohol when
stressed, but men consume the same amount of
Poor development of coping strategies implies
alcohol whether or not they are subjected to
an increase in stress levels and greater
stressful situations (Perrotte et al., 2018).
difficulty for university students to overcome
the stressful situation. Adaptive strategies Consequently, distress is associated with the
reduce stress indices, while maladaptive ones use of neurodepressant substances such as
increase it (Ered et al., 2018; Garett et al., alcohol, tobacco or synthetic drugs. Students
2017; Liou et al., 2020; Zyauya et al., 2017). consume these substances as coping strategies
in the face of stressful events, a fact that
Among the factors that influence academic
explains, in part, the addiction of students to
performance, stress plays a central role and as a
them. Therefore, providing students with
connecting link between all of them. This
psychological tools to face stressful situations
concern, as well as its performance, highly
can prevent, to a certain extent, addictions
worries university students, causing increased
among this population (Borsari et al., 2018; El
stress and sleep disturbances and depression.
Ansari et al., 2020; Richardson et al., 2017;
Lack of sleep acts as a risk factor for stress.
Soltis et al., 2017; Tavolacci et al., 2018;
Insomnia causes an elevation in stress levels
Tembo et al., 2017).
(Ered et al., 2018; Kötter et al., 2017; Lind et
al., 2017). There is a strong relationship between
academic level, the degree of stress suffered by
University students are more prone to stress
university students, and drug use. The higher
than the rest of the population and do not seek
the academic level, the higher the stress index
help because they believe that stress will
to which the students are subjected, increasing
improve on its own, due to lack of knowledge
the possibility of consuming substances such as
about mental health. To avoid this, it is
tobacco or alcohol (Adere et al., 2017; James et
advisable to create intervention supports to help
al., 2017; Jordan et al., 2018; Opoku-
them with stress, as well as with their mental
Acheampong et al., 2017).
problems (Liu et al., 2019; Negash et al., 2020).
As a modulator of these stressful situations and
The more progress is made in the educational
the consumption of neurodepressant or
stage, the greater the degree of stress that the
Dua Tran Van 16

psychoactive substances, culture acquires a The COVID-19 pandemic has raised the levels
determining role. There are African religious of stress and anxiety in university students,
cultures, along with the Muslim religion, in with humanities students having the highest
which there is an accepted social tradition of scores, and they are also more likely to have
consuming this type of plant-based substances mental illnesses. High levels of stress may be
(marijuana), while not consuming alcohol. In due to the negative impact on academic
Christian culture there are higher levels of progress (Odriozola-González et al., 2020;
alcohol intake than other religious cultures, but Harries et al., 2021; Kalok et al., 2020;
a lower consumption of plant psychotropic Wahjudi et al., 2020; Kecojevic ey al., 2020;
substances, as well as a lower use of these as a Tang et al., 2020; Valekar et al., 2021; Wang et
stress-coping strategy (Adere et al., 2017). al., 2020; Elmer et al., 2020).
As the main stress-absorbing factor, social The fear of the disease, the social situation of
support reduces the levels of this and, therefore, alarm and the preventive confine-ment in the
the consumption of psychoactive substances face of COVID-19 caused an increase in the
(Dworkin et al., 2018). However, this social global degree of stress, the main stressors being
support can also act as a factor that favors the the limitation in the domestic space, the
consumption of socially accepted sub-stances, number of cohabitants and the lack of activity
in university students, such as alcohol (Basudan and social stimuli (Elmer et al., 2020).
et al., 2017).
In this sense, university students have
At present, the addiction that most worries the experienced extra levels of stress, anxiety and
scientific community, among the population, greater tendencies towards depression,
specifically among university students, is the motivated by the distress generated by
addiction to technology, and specifically, the academic uncertainty, the lack of technological
addiction to the mobile phone. They experience access as an educational platform, the difficulty
high rates of distress at times when the mobile and communication barriers derived from
device is not at their disposal or if the battery teletraining and the uncertainty that was
runs out. This is called nomophobia, fear of presented to them in the face of the measures
running out of battery or without a mobile adopted by the health authorities for the
device (Matar & Jaalouk, 2017). presence or not of the selective tests and
examinations (Elmer et al., 2020; Fawaz et al.,
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
2021; Flaudias et al., 2020).
One of the main sources of stress in university
students is the feeling of stress and discomfort
caused by a traumatic event in the student's life, Conclusions
that is, post-traumatic stress disorder. Students
This work aims to establish and analyze the
with post-traumatic stress disorder tend to drug
current state of the question about stress in
addiction as a strategy for coping with the
university students as a regulatory variable of
stress caused by the reminiscence of the
their psychosocial profile. From this systematic
traumatic (Dworkin et al., 2018).
review study, it can be concluded that there is
Students with post-traumatic stress disorder an interest in the scientific community for the
caused by school or sexual harassment, sexual study of stress.
abuse or poly-victimization, experience high
This trend has remained stable over time,
levels of stress, manifesting itself in a
rebounding recently due to the exceptional
considerable increase in cortisol levels, causing
situation that has been created by the pandemic
an increase in anxiety and weight (Christie &
caused by COVID-19, and there is worldwide
Matthews, 2019).
interest in the study of this psychological
Stress derived from the health situation and variable, although there are countries such as
confinement caused by COVID-19
17 Journal of Positive Psychology & Wellbeing

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