COM108 – HISTORY (Introduction Course)

Definition of History
History is a discipline which analyzes past events based on documents within the cause and
effect relationship by showing place and time chronologically and objectively. Needless to
say, knowing history is important for everyone. Whatever your profession is, you will
definitely need history knowledge during your lifetime.
The authorities say that “History is the mathematics of social sciences”. History involves lots
of other disciplines such as: “archeology, anthropology, sociology, geography, language and
literature, numismatic etc.”
Besides, history is the memory of the states. Since citizens are supposed to have this memory,
this should be an obligatory duty for them to learn it. Again, some authorities say that:
“Somebody else draws the borders of theirgeography when they do not know their own
history”.
There are lots of examples regarding this claim both in the past and present. Nowadays it will
be enough to glance at around us, when we do this, we see concrete examples especially in the
Middle East. As we know, dominant powers have been drawing the borders of some
[Link] order to prevent this from happening, young generations have to learn both their
own history and the world history very well.
Now you have been studying here in Cyprus at this university. As you see, most of the
students are from Turkey and some of them are from TRNC on the campus. Besides, nearly
all the employees and half of your lecturers at the university are from TRNC as well.
So, having knowledge in regards to their history will provide you a great advantage. You will
be able to answer the questions of “Who these people are?” or “What about their history?”
The name of our course is “The History of Turkey and Cyprus” and it is composed of two
parts. This means that you will learn both the history of Turkey and Cyprus. Naturally, our
first lectures will include the history of Turkey. Later, the history of Cyprus will be addressed.
On this online course application, I advise you both watching the video files and reading the
course notes related to the subjects. We planned beginning our first lecture by analyzing the
World War I. Because unless we understand the World War I, it is impossible to understand
the history of Turkey.
I wish you all success with your studies.
COM 108 – HISTORY Course Note: 1

First World War

Regarding the reasons of the World War I, lots of evaluations have been made by many
scholars and historians, and different approaches have come to light.

Obviously, there are some minor reasons which caused the war to break out. In addition, there
are some major reasons, such as great historical events. Besides it is necessary to take into
consideration the environmental conditions which make it easier for the event to appear.

Minor Reasons of The War :

The minor reasons which the historians have agreed on are as follows:

Resulting from the assasination of the heir apparent of Austria on 28th June, 1914 Austria had
to declare war against Serbia. Russians, who support Serbians against Austria, decided to
enter the war causing Germany to wage a war against Russia and France as well. In addition
to these, Germany’s invasion of Belgium -without respecting its neutrality- had caused
England to declare a war against Germany. So, the World War I broke out. Perhaps, none of
these countries wanted the war one by one. But when the war broke out once, whatever their
reasons for entering the war and plans or projects were before the war, aforementioned
countries fought for only one thing, that was “victory”.

During the war, the question of “Who will be the master of Europe?” was constantly asked by
European powers.

Major Reasons of The War:

Imperialism:
As a result of the industrial revolution, the necessities of new markets for increasing
production, new investment areas of capital stock, raw materials of the factories producing
permanently and saturation of European markets with these produced goods ignited the
colonialism and evolved into imperialism in time.

Germany’s Security Problems:

Germany appeared in European and world political scene all of a sudden and strongly. But it
had a risky position geographically?, as it was open to attacks from all sides. This situation
encouraged the German militarism with the other agents. The threat of both Russia and France
pushed Germany to prepare a war plan in detail.

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Change of Power Balance and International Distrust:
The balance of power in the early 19th. century was non problematic and settled. After 1870’s
the balance of power in Europe was destroyed. Colonization arrangements and clashes among
European powers started to shape the course of balance. Such kind of developments caused
the countries to suspect of each other. The fear also increased the speed of militarizition A
small spark was enough for fighting. That spark stroke sparks on June 28th, 1914 in the
Balkan Peninsula.

Lack of an International Organization:

19th. century was unable in bring peace and quiet to the world. The importance of an effective
international organization had not been realized yet. Let us say that the statesmen and thinkers
of 19th, century were far from understanding the importance of an international organization
during that time.

Clashing On Ottoman Heritage:

Entering of Ottoman Empire into the period of being broken into pieces had become the most
important and basic question of World War I. (cumleyi anlamadim Turkcesi nedir?)There was
a great race for defeating the Ottoman Empire and dividing and sharing its territory.

Known Peculiarities of World War 1st:

This type of a war was completely a new element in world history. Most distinguishing
peculiarity of the war was its being the first total war. After the war had broken out,
controlling it and estimating the results became impossible.

In the World War I the great states which controlled almost all the world politically and
economically had made use of nearly all their economical potentials.

As it is known, until [Link] the wars were one dimensional. The wars used to take place
only on a territory or in sea. The aircraft and submarine, which are the products of
technological developments in 20th century, made World War I. a three dimensional war.

To Whom the Responsibility of the War Belonged?

As usual the winners of the war laid the burden on the defeated ones. Naturally, it was
difficult to find who the guilty was. But it is possible to make a generalization in regards to
the ones who were responsible for the World War I .. With this perspective, obviously it was
Germany who started and increased the crisis. The states who took the first effective military
cautions were England, France and Russia. But Russia’s involvement in the war made the
peaceful solutions impossible.

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The Results of World War I:
Economic and Social Results:

Economic welfare moved backwards nearly in all the corners of the world. In Europe,
catastrophic changes were seen. The treasures of European countries were diminished. During
the war years, the economies of the European countries turned from the production of
consumption goods into the production of war goods. The cost of the World War I for Europe
territory was about 350 billions of dollars. During the war, the economies of European
countries became weak inevitably. But two industry giants , the USA and Japan had entered
into a great development period. As for human losses, ten millions of people died and 20
millions of them got injured. France had lost half of the population which was between 20-32
years of age.
Amasya Circular
State Interference:

During the war, the governments started interfering in the economical life increasingly. They
tried to protect their national industries by putting customs price lists. The thought of planned
economy was carried out during the World War I for the first time.

Inflation and Being in Debt:

Belligerent states generally printed banknotes, sold state conversions in much quantities,
forced the banks to open credits. The prices rose at full speed because of great demand and
low supply.
The allied states in Europe were indebted to both England and the USA. They put their future
under mortgage. They had to export more than they import in order to pay their debts. In this
period, the capacity of production in the USA increased incredibly. Japan also began selling
textile products to China, India and South America. The economical bases had collapsed, and
the European superiority began diminishing. Perhaps, this was the most important result of the
World War I.

Social Results:

The most important result of the war on society was the strengthening of the sense of
nationalism. The agony of millions of dead and injured people and the frustration of a defeat
filled the European peoples’ hearts along with the national proud and patriotism.
The victory of the communism in the year of 1917 in Russia made the separation sharper
between the socialist thoughts and the its applications. Socialists did not agree with the cruel
methods of Bolchevisme and the thesis of classes? in Marxism. So, the methods of socialists
and Marxists began to separate from each other. The social structure started to deteriorate. The
balance between the age groups and sexes (male- female) in the society became spoiled.
Millions of young people died and the birth rate decreased naturally. For instance 20 % of the
Oxford university students died in the war.

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The other result of the war was the increase of aggressive nationalism. The Nazism and fascist
movements, which would be seen in post-war period, rooted their source from the war fronts.

Political Results:
The superiority of Europe in the world politics began to decrease as well. In 1918, the power
of the European countries began to decrease and the USA and Japan started to gain power.

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COM 108 – HISTORY Course Note: 2

The Independence War of Turkey (First Phase)

Mondros is the name of a small harbour town in the Aegean Sea in the south shores of Limni
Island. Mondros played an important role in the political history in the end of the World War I.
Because Ottoman Empire had accepted the defeat and signed an agreement which is called
“Mondros Agreement” there, in that harbour town.
The aforementioned agreement was not only an agreement but also the symbol of the collapse of
a great empire which dominated European, Asian and African territories once. In other words,
this agreement brought the end of a 620 years of statehood dramatically. The mentioned
agreement was signed in a British ship called “Agamemnon” on October 30th 1918.

The Condition of Disarmament in Mondros Agreement

The condition of disarmament was extremely heavy from the aspect of Ottoman Empire. It had a
purpose of sweeping away a nation, a state from the history scene and it had an intention of
allocating Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) between allied powers.
Mondros Agreement was composed of 25 articles. The riskiest article of the agreement was 7th
article. According to that article: “The allied powers had the right of invading any strategic
region of the country in case they see a situation which may work against their interests.
When we look at this agreement, we see that it is impossible to talk about an independent state.
At that period the Sultan of Ottoman Empire Vahdettin was content although he found the
conditions of the agreement very heavy. Because seemingly his sovereignty has survived. He tied
all his hope to Britain. The Assembly also accepted those heavy conditions.

Mustafa Kemal’s Resistance Against the Mondros Agreement

Mustafa Kemal, the founder of modern Turkey, was the commander of the 7 th Army which had
been established in city of Halep in Syria when the Mondros Disarmament Agreement was
signed on 30th October 1918. He had been appointed to the Group Commandership of
Thunderbolt Armies in place of German General Liman Von Sanders who was invited by the
Ottoman State in order to give trainings to the Ottoman Armies before the war. Mustafa Kemal
came to Adana province with the purpose of taking the mentioned duty from Liman Von Sanders.
On the following days, the Allied States began sharing the lands of the Ottoman Empire among
themselves. For instance, Mosul was transferred to the British control on 3rdNovember 1918,
that was only three days after the agreement had been signed. As it is known Mosul is a region
where rich petroleum resources still exist. Let us remember the first interference of the USA in

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Iraq twenty years ago (1990). It is called the First Gulf War. The main purpose of that
interference was to control the petroleum resources in the region. Nowadays the USA has still
been controlling petroleum areas. Mosul is still an important region for its rich energy resources.
Besides, in that period Britain had the intention of controlling İskenderun province and
İskenderun Gulf, as well. Upon learning that intention of British, Mustafa Kemal declared that
they would oppose this action definitely. Then the İstanbul Government abolished the
Thunderbolt Armies and called Mustafa Kemal back to Istanbul immediately.
He was one of the members of the Ottoman Army. That is why he obeyed this order and came to
Istanbul on November 13th, 1918. In order to understand the heavy conditions and dramatic
situation of the country, it is required to have a look at general view of İstanbul at that moment.
İstanbul was the capital of Ottoman Empire. The navy, which was composed of sixty pieces of
the allied countries, had anchored into the deep and running streams of İstanbul (The Marmara
Sea) then. ?? Mustafa Kemal Pasha came to İstanbul on a train and some of his friends met him
at the Haydarpaşa Railway Station. They passed to the opposite shore by a hull (a small boat).
Naturally, they were talking about the situation in which the country was. During that short
voyage Mustafa Kemal said something extremely important. He uttered these words: ‘They go
back, as they come’. There was no one who would say these words during that time in the
country. Mustafa Kemal’s thoughts towards the future are symbolized with these words ‘they go
back as they come’.
The commanders of invading countries stepped on İstanbul by going out of their ships which had
anchored in the sea on November 23rd, 1918. On the following days they also went to İzmit,
Eskişehir, Afyon, Samsun and Batum which were the provinces of the Ottoman Empire. In
addition, Italians sent small troops towards Konya, Alaşehir and Afyon in order to control the
railways. The enemy began to expose their main purposes. The British Minister of Foreign
Affairs of that period made a speech and provoked the Arab, Armenian, Greek, and Jewish
minorities for a revolt against the Ottoman Empire. Apart from this attempt, they provoked the
Kurdish people on the eastern Anatolia. During that time there was no real state authority in the
country.

Associations and Their Activities

Associations Which Work for Breaking the Country into Pieces:
There were lots of organizations which had bad intensions regarding the country then. One of the
most important of them was the Association of Mavri Mira. The Greek Government was
supporting this association. This association was organizing the Greek minority, establishing
brigands and arming them.
The other organization was the association of Pontus-Hellen which was supported by Hellen
Patriarchate. This association was organized in the Black Sea region, in the provinces of
Trabzon, Samsun and also in North Eastern Anatolia. Again, among the other important
associations, The Association of British Loving, which was established with the support of
Britain, draws attention. British people had supported this association financially. Many
administrators such as Sultan Vahdettin, Prime Minister Damat Ferit (His nickname was “groom”

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because he was married to Sultan Vahdettin’s sister.) and Minister of Internal Affairs Ali Kemal
etc. were the members of this association. Apart from these organizations there were some other
dangerous organizations called as “Rising High of Kurds” or “Rising High of Islam” as well.
The purpose of these two was to establish a “Kurdish State” in the eastern Anatolia. All of these
organizations were called harmful associations in the history of Turkish Republic.

Associations Which Try Protecting and Defending Local and National Rights:
Contrary to the last rulers of Ottoman Empire who tie all their hopes to exploiter states,
especially to Britain with the purpose of holding their personal profits and making their
sovereignty last, every patriot who thinks about the nation and the country began looking for
solutions by themselves. On one hand, they were establishing local organizations, on the other
hand, they were waiting for a leader, a savior, in other words a “miracle!” All patriots had the
idea of doing something but they had difficulty in finding the right way.
On those troublesome days, we see that the associations below were established at different
regions of the country. “Tırakya- Paşaeli Defending Council of Ottoman Association” in Trakya
region. İn İzmir, “The Association of Defending Laws of Ottoman Rights”, in Manisa“The
Association of Saving the Country”, in İstanbul “The Klikians Associations (people who live in
Adana province and around it)”, in Kars “The Association of Kars National Government”, in
Erzurum “The Association of Defending the Rights of East Provinces”, again in İzmir “The
Association of Rejecting the Invasions”, in Balıkesir “The Association of Balıkesir National
Movement”, in Alaşehir “The Alaşehir Congress”, in Denizli, Aydın, Nazilli“National Council”,
in Trabzon “The Association of Protecting National Rights” etc.
All these aforementioned associations were established for the purpose of organizing the local
resisting rights in order to defend their existence.
During this period Mustafa Kemal Pasha was living in his house which was situated in Şişli
district in İstanbul. He was discussing with the executives of the Ottoman Empire, the
representatives of the aforementioned local associations and with his friends who were soldiers
or civil persons. He was talking about the national movement which he would lead in the future.
Mustafa Kemal was decisive, he would find a way, pass to Anatolia, gather the local
organizations and would start the National Struggle. He would save the country from the
aggressor states, from imperialists and build a new state.

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COM 108 – HISTORY Course Note: 3
Mustafa Kemal’s Voyage to Samsun
The First Important Step in The Turkish Revolution
There are dates in the history of the nations which change their destiny, enlighten their tomorrow
(future) and push the society towards a new structure by involving the whole society. The date on
which Mustafa Kemal arrived in Samsun is such a date. That’s why May 19 th, 1919 is a very
important date in the history of Turkish nation. Because “The Turkish Independence Struggle”
began on May 19th, 1919. The main spirit of the duty which Mustafa Kemal undertook when he
arrived in Samsun was “Complete (entire) Independence”. This implies financial, economic,
political, military and judicial independence. In case you are deprived in any of the above
mentioned, that means that you had lost your independence. As you remember Mustafa Kemal
Pasha came to İstanbul on November 13th, 1918. He stayed in İstanbul for six months. Within this
period, he was looking for “ways of a salvation” as we mentioned before. We all remember his
saying of “they go back, as they come.”
After Mondros Agreement, there was a security problem on the shores of Black Sea Region,
around Samsun. Hellens, supported and provoked by British, wanted to establish a “Hellen-
Pontus State” in that region. Turkish people, who established a local association called
“Protecting Rights” mentioned before, was trying to prevent this attempt. The tension was rising
between two sides day by day. Britain pressed on the İstanbul Government and wanted them to
appoint a commander who would bring peace to the Black Sea Region. The İstanbul Government
recalled Mustafa Kemal Pasha, because he was well known from Çanakkale Wars in 1915. He
could have brought peace to the region. So, the İstanbul Government entrusted Mustafa Kemal
with the task of “9th Military Inspectorship.” He would go to Samsun and obtain the interior
security. This duty given to Mustafa Kemal was approved by the Prime Minister Damat Ferit and
Sultan Vahdettin. Mustafa Kemal got hold of the chance that he waited, but we should know that
he also had strived to get that position for a long time.

Preparing the Army and Nation for the National Struggle

Mustafa Kemal set out on May 16th, 1919 by a ship named “Bandırma.” A day before his
departure, on May 15th, 1919 İzmir had been invaded by Greece. The crew was composed of 18
soldiers who were selected by Mustafa Kemal Pasha. The voyage lasted for three days. After
Mustafa Kemal arrived in Samsun, he took some precautions related to the interior security in the
region. He stayed in Samsun for one week. Then he passed on to Havza, which is a town near
Samsun. Because Samsun was not safe for applying his strategy in his mind. That is why he was
drawn back towards the inner parts of Anatolia. He began to organize the people and the army as
soon as he arrived in Samsun. People were poor, daunted (frightened) and exhausted. They had
lost their trust in rulers of the country at that time. It was very difficult to persuade? them on a
new target.
As for the army, the number of the soldiers in three armies were about 50.000. In addition, this
army was not an organized army. The soldiers were tired as well. Because the Ottoman Empire

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had been fighting for about nine years. There was no war equipment. As for the ones which
stayed in hand had been handed over partly in accordance with the conditions of Mondros
Agreement. “The National Struggle” would be made with these limited resources. In every
place, where Mustafa Kemal went, he was talking to the people, military and civil administrators
and notable personalities. At the same time, he was sending telegrams to the administrators of the
state in order to prepare them for the struggle.

The Amasya Circular

Mustafa Kemal Pasha was in Amasya on June 12th, 1919. Ali Fuat Cebesoy and Rauf Orbay, who
were in the cadre of struggle, came to Amasya on June 22nd, 1919. They also signed the circular
which was outlined by Mustafa Kemal a night ago. We should keep in mind that Rauf Orbay and
Refet Bele signed the circular after Mustafa Kemal’s persuasion efforts. The circular was
published on June 22nd, 1919. The circular was decoded to the military and civil units.
The foreign policy scholars have evaluated the Amasya Circular as a “Revolution Circular.” Of
course this evaluation is true. Because it includes a judicial sentence which implies the
revolution. The third judicial sentence of the circular is like this: “The independence of this
country will be won by the nation’s determination and decision”. We should pay attention that it
was mentioning the national sovereignty for the first time. The first judicial sentence of the
circular is: “The sovereignty? of the nation and the independence of the country is in danger.”
After this declaration, the foreign invaders and the İstanbul Government were annoyed very
much. Especially the British increased their pressure on the government. Upon this, the
government began calling Mustafa Kemal Pasha back to İstanbul. Obviously, Mustafa Kemal did
not obey these calls and he went on his way. Among the articles of the Amasya Circular there
was an article related to the congress which will be gathered in Sivas. But before this congress,
again according to the Amasya Circular, Erzurum Congress would be gathered in Erzurum on
July 10th, 1919. Firstly, Mustafa Kemal would go to Sivas in order to begin the preparations in
Sivas. So, he left Amasya on June 25th, 1919 and went to Sivas via Tokat.

The Importance of Amasya Circular

The rebellion phase of the Turkish Revolution began,
The statement of the reason, the purpose and the method of the salvation
war were identified.
For the first time, the administration based on national sovereignty was
mentioned.
Again, for the first time, the İstanbul Government was regarded as if absent.
The Turkish nation was called for the struggle against both İstanbul
Government and the aggressor powers.
The concepts of sultan, caliphate, and mandate were replaced by nation and
nationalism.

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Founding the council of representatives was addressed in the circular.
Mustafa Kemal passed over the authorities which were given to him.

The Erzurum Congress

According to the Amasya Circular the Erzurum Congress would be gathered in Erzurum on 10 th
July 1919 as we mentioned before. But due to various obstacles, which were created by the
İstanbul Government, the congress could be gathered ten days later on 23 rd July 1919. The
Association of Defending the Rights of East Provinces which was mentioned before became the
host of the congress. The congress gathered in a school building called Erzurum Lycée with the
participation of 56 members who came from the eastern provinces of Anatolia. Mustafa Kemal
was elected as the president of the congress. It lasted for fourteen days. Although the congress
was a regional congress, the decisions taken were identified as national. The congress ended on
5th August 1919. A declaration was published on 7 th August 1919. In the light of the congress, the
program of the national struggle, which was unconditionally based on independency and national
sovereignty, gained clearness. By declaring the borders of the country and its unity, it was aimed
to imply that the country would not be broken into pieces. At the same time, the invasion of the
foreign powers was rejected severely; the local resistance associations started gathering under the
single roof in the Erzurum Congress. A committee of representatives was elected at the end of
the congress. The committee would act as a government.
Naturally, the İstanbul Government and the occupation powers reacted against the decisions of
the congress. The İstanbul Government took the decision of arresting Mustafa Kemal and Rauf
Orbay immediately. They ordered Kâzım Karabekir Pasha to carry out this order. But he did not
obey that. The İstanbul Government had difficulty finding somebody to carry out those orders.
Mustafa Kemal and the members of the committee of representatives left Erzurum on 29th August
1919 to gather at the national Sivas Congress.

The Sivas Congress

Mustafa Kemal Pasha and the committee arrived in Sivas on 2 nd September, 1919. The congress
gathered on 4th September,1919 in a school building which is called Sivas Lycée just like the one
in Erzurum. It lasted for eight days. 38 members participated in this congress. Mustafa Kemal
was elected as the president of the congress again.
During the congress, the question of mandate and protection were argued in detail. In the Sivas
Congress all the decisions which were taken in the Erzurum Congress were accepted. In addition,
the delegates of the congress decided publishing a newspaper called “National Sovereignty”.
The first issue of the newspaper was published on 14th September, 1919 and continued publishing
for three years.
Among the decisions of the congress, the unifying of the local associations was very important.
All the associations that we talked about before were gathered under a single roof which was
called “The Association of Defending Rights of Anatolia and Rumeli”. Besides, by electing six
more representatives, the committee of representatives was strengthened. In addition, a radical

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decision of stopping the relations with the İstanbul Government was taken on the morning of 12 th
September, 1919.

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COM 108 – HISTORY Course Note: 4

The War of Turkish Independence (Second Phase)

After the Allies had occupied İstanbul on 16th Marc, 1920, Mustafa Kemal Pasha opened the
“Turkish Grand National Assembly” and hence in a way established “a provisional new
government” in Ankara. The Assembly was opened on 23rd April,1920. That is, only one month
after the occupation of İstanbul officially by the Allied powers. By opening the Assembly in
Ankara, Mustafa Kemal Pasha gave the message of: “There is another authority in Anatolia
apart from the İstanbul Government”.
The second phase of the war of independence was fought based? on the newly opened Assembly.
This was the first practice of an independence war in the world.
1st and 2nd İnönü battles which were fought against Greece, who were supported especially by
Britain, resulted in victory. After that, on 10th July 1921, the Greeks launched a frontal attack
with five divisions on Sakarya. After the great battle of Sakarya, that lasted for twenty days and
nights without interruption, the Greek army was defeated and obliged to retreat.
After the battle the Grand National Assembly gave Mustafa Kemal the titles of “Ghazi” and
“Marshal”.
Mustafa Kemal decided to send away the enemies from the country. He gave the order that the
attack should be launched on the morning of 26 th August, 1922. As for the bulk of the enemy
forces, they were surrounded and annihilated or captured on 30 th August 1922 in Dumlupınar.
During this fight, known as “The Pitched Battle of Commander-in Chief, the enemy
Commander- in Chief General Trikupis was captured. And after 14 days of chasing, on 9 th
September, 1922 the enemy forces were drowned in the sea in İzmir. That day not only Greeks
were defeated but also the imperialist powers were defeated as well. Because during this struggle
they had all supported Greece. In short we can say that the Turkish military forces under the
order of extraordinary military acumen Mustafa Kemal Atatürk carried out the “Independence
War” against the invader Allied powers successfully and at the end won victories at every front
all over the country.
After this great victory, on 24th July, 1923 with the signing of the “Treaty of Lausanne”
(Lausanne Agreement) the independence of the new Turkish State was recognized by all the
states. A few months later Mustafa Kemal and his friends built up a new sturdy, vigorous state.
On 29th October, 1923, Mustafa Kemal himself declared the new Turkish state as a republic,
which is secular, democratic, social and judicial. Following the declaration of the republic, the
Caliphate was abolished on March, 1924.

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Atatürk’s Opinions
As a result of the reforms, Turkey’s economical structure was completely changed in the way of
development. With the annulment of capitulations, fundamentals needed to secure a national and
liberal economy. Atatürk’s view on the economy of the country lies in his this saying: ‘The real
master of the country is the peasant’.

The Reforms of Atatürk

Atatürk was a military genius, a charismatic leader, also a comprehensive reformer. It was
essential for the Republic of Turkey to be westernized in order to progress towards the level of
contemporary civilizations and to be an active member of the culturally developed countries.
Mustafa Kemal dispelled his country’s archaic beliefs and customs. For the salvation and
survival of his people, Atatürk introduced reforms which he considered of vital importance
between 1924-1938. These series of reforms were enthusiastically welcomed by the Turkish
people.
The Reform of Script
One of the most important reforms of Atatürk was the abolition of the use of the Arabic script
and the adaptation of the Latin script. On 3rd November 1928, the new Turkish Alphabet was
adopted.

The Change of Attire

With the reform on dress, women stopped wearing veils and “çarşaf” (a kind of black dress
which covers her body from head to toes). After that reform, they began wearing modern
woman’s coat and dress. Men began wearing modern hats instead of “fez” which is not a typical
Turkish attire.

Secularization of The Legal System

The new Turkish state in 1920 required a new legal system. Atatürk, adopted the Swiss Civil
Code as substitute for Islamic Law (Stipulation Law) and instead of the penal code in force
brought in the Italian Penal Code. Hence, The Turkish Legal System was modernized with the
contemporary requirements.

Secularization of Education
Until the beginning of 19th century, several educational systems were being carried out in the
Ottoman Empire. Atatürk observed that such systems dominant at Muslim theological schools
did not meet the needs of the society. So, it was essential to establish a new education system
similar to the western models. Thus, the existing system was changed. In 1933 a university
reform was introduced.

Recognition of Civil Rights for Women

With the reform of Atatürk, Turkish women, who for centuries had been neglected, were given
new rights. Thus, with the passing of the civil code, the Turkish women would enjoy equal rights

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with those of the men. Besides, they could be appointed for the official posts, enjoy the right of
voting and be elected to the parliament as deputy. The monogamy principle and the equal rights
for women changed the spirit of the society.

Works on Turkish History

Following the reform of the script, that was meant to be a kind of nationalism in the cultural
field, Atatürk concentrated his attention on history. He established the Turkish Historical Society
in 1931. At this institution, the historical past of Turkey was thoroughly investigated and
evaluated.

The Change of Calendar, Measure, Holidays and Surname Act

Many other reforms were achieved other than those already mentioned. As an example: in 1924
the Weekend Holiday Act, in 1925 International Time and Calendar System, in 1926 Civil Law
and Commercial Law, in 1933 System of Measures keeping with the western standards and 1934
Surname Act. In accordance with the mentioned Surname Act, people began taking surnames and
the Nation’s peerless leader was given the family name of “Atatürk” (Father of Turks) by the
Grand National Assembly.

The Principles of Atatürk

Atatürk’s principles are summed up in six fundamentals as follows:

Republicanism: The Kemalist reforms represent a political revolution; a change from a

multinational Empire to the establishment of the nation state of Turkey and the realization of the
national identity of modern Turkey. Kemalism believes that only the republican regime has the
ability to represent unconditional sovereignty of the people.

Populism: The Kemalist revolution was also a social revolution in terms of its content and
goals. This was a revolution led by an elite with an orientation towards the people at large. The
Kemalist reforms brought about a revolutionary change in the status of women through the
reception of Western Codes of Law in Turkey, particularly the Swiss Civil Code. Moreover,
women gained the right of voting and to be elected in 1934 as was mentioned before. Atatürk
stated on a number of occasions that the real rulers of the country are peasants. This was a
sincere wish rather than a reality in Turkey. Kemalist ideology is, in fact, based on the supreme
value of Turkish citizenship.

Secularism: Kemalist secularism did not merely mean the separation of the works of state and
religion, but also the separation of religion from educational, cultural and legal affairs. It means
the realization of independence of thought and independence of institutions from the dominance
of religious thinking and religious institutions. Thus, the Kemalist revolution was also a
secularist revolution. Many Kemalist reforms were realized in order to bring secular
understanding. The Kemalist principle of secularism did not advocate atheism. It is not an anti-
God principle. It is a rationalist secularism. The Kemalist principle of secularism is not against
an enlightened Islam, but against Islam which is opposed to modernization.

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Reformism: One of the most important principles that Atatürk formulated is the principle of
reformism. This principle means that Turkey made reforms and she replaced traditional
institutions with modern institutions. It means that the traditional old concepts were eliminated
and instead modern concepts were adopted. The principle of reformism was beyond the
recognition of the reforms which were made.

Nationalism: The Kemalist revolution is also a nationalist revolution. Kemalist revolution is

not racist. It is dedicated to the preservation of the independence of the Republic of Turkey and
also to the Republic’s political development. It is a nationalism with a social content. It is not
only anti- imperialist, but it is also anti-capitalist and anti-rule of any particular social class on
Turkish society. Kemalist nationalism believes in principle that the Turkish state is unitary with
its territory and people.

Etatisme: Mustafa Kemal Atatürk recognized and made clear in his statements and policies that
Turkey’s complete modernization is very much dependent on economic and technological
development.
The principle of etatisme is interpreted as the state is to regulate the general run of economic
activity and the state is to engage in areas where private enterprise is not willing to do so, or
private enterprise proved to be inadequate, or if national interest required it. In the application of
the principle of etatisme, however, the state emerges not only as the principle source of economic
activity but as the owner of the major industries of the country.

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COM 108 – HISTORY Course Note: 5

An Overview to The History of Cyprus

As it is known Cyprus is situated in the Mediterranean Sea. Cyprus is the third largest island
after Sicily and Sardinia in the Mediterranean Sea. The total surface of the island is 9251 km².
As for the surface of TRNC., it is 3242 km². Cyprus is 40 miles (70 km.) far from Turkey, 650
miles (960 km.) far from Greece and 112 km. far from Syria. Cyprus has got a very rich
history since the age of aniquity. First of all, we should know that Cyprus has both
geopolitical and geostrategical importance through the history. Today it still preserves its
importance increasingly as well. Cyprus is an interesting geographical place where lots of
sovereignties have clashed and various struggles have been made.

The States which had sovereignity on the island and the duration of their
domination are as follows:
Egyptians B.C (1450-1320) 130 years

Hitties B.C (1320-1265) 55 years

Egyptians B.C (1265-1000) 265 years

Phoenicians B.C (1000-709) 291 years

Assyrians B.C (709-669) 40 years

Independent Kingdom B.C (669-588) 81 years

Egyptians B.C (588-525) 63 years

Persians B.C (525-533) 192 years

Macedonian Kingdom B.C (333-301) 32 years

Ptolems (in Egypt) B.C (301-59) 242 years

Roman Empire B.C 59-A.D 395 454 years

Eastern Roman A.D (395-806) 411 years

Muslim Caliphs A.D (806-964) 158 years

Byzantium A.D (964-1191) 227 years

Lion hearted Richard

and Templier knights A.D (1191-1192) 1 year

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Lusignans A.D (1192-1489) 297 years

Venetians A.D (1489-1570) 82 years

Ottoman Empire A.D (1571- 1878) 307 years

As it was seen in the table above the French Lusignan Knights and the Venetians had precede
the Ottomans as rulers of Cyprus. During this mentioned period of Latin domination, the
Cypriots were reduced to a status of a complete serfdom. In 1571, the Ottomans conquered
Cyprus. During this conquest period, which lasted for one year, the Ottomans lost about sixty
thousand soldiers.

The Reasons of Ottoman Empire’s Cyprus Conquest:

The conquest of Cyprus was obligatory for the political, religious and economical reasons for
Ottomans.

These reasons might be classified as follows:

Political and strategic factors

Economical factors

Religious factors

Application?? of Cyprus People

Competition between Sokollu and Lala Mustafa Pasha (Grand Viziers of Ottoman State)

After the conquest, the first Turkish settlers embarked for the island. This was a rule of that
time. The Ottomans used to embark population from the motherland. But it should be kept in
mind that they never had the purpose of acquiring majaroity in a newly conquered geography.
At the time of their arrival, the population of Cyprus, which numbered between 100.000 and
200.000, was almost wholly Greek in religion and language. At the same time there were
small Latin, Maronite, Coptic, Jacobite and Armenian colonies as well. But there was great
oppression on whole Cypriots during the Venetians period. For instance, Orthodox Christians
had difficulty in performing their religious rituals. Besides, they used to pay heavy taxes
applied by Venetians.

The Ottomans abolished this mentioned serfdom and gave Cypriots permission to acquire
houses and land. Meanwhile, it is worth noting that as we told before the Ottoman
Government never attempted to estabilish a Turkish majority on Cyprus. On the contrary to
this approach of Ottomans, in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries Greeks made
efforts to establish the thought of “Megalo Idea (Great Idea)”. The roots of this idea dates
back towards the end of 1700s. Thee greek poet Rigas Ferraos drew the map of Great Idea in
1791. Later this map was published in Vienna in 1796.

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The essence of the Megalo Idea might be found in a speech delivered by one of its most
ardent advocates, John Kolletis, in January 1844. John Kolletis, who was the first Prime
Minister of Greece, frames the Megalo Idea as follows:

‘The Kingdom of Greece is not Greece; it is only a part, the smallest and poorest of Greece. A
Greek is not only he who lives in the kingdom but also he who lives in Yannina (The old city in
Ioannina), or Thessaloniki (Selanik a province in Macedonia), or Serres (another city in
Macedonia), or Adrianopole (A large land composed of western region of Turkey, Greece and
Bulgaria), or Constantinopole (İstanbul), or Trebizond (Trabzon), or Crete (Girit island), or
Samos (another island in Mediterranean Sea), or whatever country is historically Greek, or
whoever is of the Greek race... The heroes of the independence do not belong solely to the
kingdom, to the small Kingdom of Greece. They belong to all the provinces of the Greek
world from the Haimos to the Tainoron, from Trbizond to Clicia. There are two great centers
of Hellenism: Athens and Constantinopole. Athens is only the capital of the kingdom.
Constantinopole is the great capital, the City, the joy and hope of all Hellens.’

The Greeks always followed this idea in order to realize in every chance that they took.
During this period the Greeks also coveted Cyprus, wishing to achieve Enosis (union) with
Cyprus.

The Ottoman Government ceded the adminstaration of Cyprus to Great Britain in 1878 as a
reward for British support at the Congress of Berlin. Many Greeks were expecting that the
British would hand over the island to Greece in a short period of time.

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 COM 108 – HISTORY Course Note: 6

Cyprus to be Transferred to Britain

As it is was mentioned before, the Ottomans were the last conquerors of the island and they ruled the island between
the dates of 1571- 1878. On 24th April 1877, Russia declared war on the Ottoman [Link] war ended with the
Treaty of San Stefano (Ayastafenos) which was signed on March 3rd, 1878. The Ottoman Empire had lost a great deal
of its [Link] European powers were disturbed by the gains of Russians. They refused to accept the San Stefano
Treaty and called the sides for a congress. This congress would be gathered in Berlin in 1878. In the meantime, the
British was quick to take advantage of the conflict between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. They succeeded in
securing an agreement with the Sultan’s government.

This agreement was stating that the adminstaration of the island of Cyprus to be handed over to [Link] agreement
further stated that the Ottoman Empire would get a yearly rent from the British. On July 2nd, 1878, Admiral Lord John
Hay arrived in Larnaka with a British troop. In accordance with the agreement, on July 12th, 1878 the Turkish governor
Besim Pasha handed over the adminstration of the island to him. On July 22nd, 1878 Sir Garnet Wolsely, the first
British Adminstrator, landed in Cyprus. So, the dominance of the British began on the island. Then during the First
World War Britain unified the island by claiming that the Ottomans were fighting against themselves.

As it is known The Ottomans were allies with Germany during the war. The sovereignty of Britain on Cyprus lasted for
82 years until the 1959 and 1960 Zurich and London [Link] the beginning of British rule on the island, The

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Greek Cypriots intensified their struggle for ENOSIS. For instance, in 1931, they revolted and burned the Governer’s
Palace in their attempt to achieve ENOSIS. The British were quick to punish the all the Cyprus including the Turkish
Cypriots, who had nothing to do with the revolt. The British imposed various restrictions upon the peoples of the island.
The restrictions used to range from the closing of political parties to the prevention of the planting? the Turkish and
Greek flags and teaching of Turkish and Greek history classes in schools.

The Greek Cypriot Orthodox Church was the mastermind and the financer behind the plans of starting a «Holy War» to
unify Cyprus with Greece. Makarios, on his election day as Archbishop, on 20th October 1951, made the following
speech:

‘ I take the holy oath that I shall work for the birth of our national freedom and shall never waiver from our policy of
annexing Cyprus to Motherland Greece.’

This period in the early fiftees was an uncertain and jittery [Link] this period trust between the two communities
were completely lost. To the Turkish Cypriots, the Greek Cypriots were enemies who were trying to steal their
homeland and transfer it to Greece and to the Greek Cypriots, Turkish Cypriots were an obstacle in front of their
struggle for «enosis.» Between 1955 and 1960, fighting went on between Eoka and the British and later on between the
Greek Cypriots and the Turkish Cypriots. During the Eoka attacks in Cyprus, hundreds of Turkish Cypriots were killed
and just as many were wounded. More than 6000 Turkish Cypriots, equivalent to 5 per cent of the Turkish Cypriot
population, became refugees and Eoka destroyed 33 Turkish Cypriot [Link] between the two communities
continued until the Zurich and London Agreements of 1959 and 1960.

According to this agreement Turkey, the United Kingdom and Greece gained the right of being guarantor states. After
the mentioned agreements signed, in 1960 the binational Republic of Cyprus was established. This was a
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«Parternership Republic» between the Turkish and Greek Cypriots. Makarios was the president, Dr. Küçük was vice
[Link] constitution of the Republic of Cyprus was based on the principle of power sharing in which the two
communities were given political [Link] Turkish Cypriots had accepted the rate of 70 to 30 per [Link] rate
would be valid for each body of the state. For instance at the cabinet of the government which was composed of ten
ministries, the Turkish Cypriots had three chairs, but the Greek Cypriots had seven chairs. In spite of the Turkish
Cypriots’ good will and acceptance, the other side was not satisfied.

On 30th November 1963, The President of the Republic, Archbishop Makarios who is a Greek Cypriot, presented the
Vice President Dr. Fazıl Küçükna proposal for 13 [Link] constitutional change proposals had been
presented to the guarantor states, as well.

Bloody Christmas

On 21 st December 1963, the Greek Cypriots, without waiting for the response of the Turkish side, attacked the Turkish
Cypriots. In the early hours of Saturday morning, around 2 a.m., six Turkish Cypriot men and four women were driving
to their homes in Nicosia. They were stopped by a group of Greek Cypriot civilian men at the Turkish district of
[Link] Greek Cypriots pulled out their guns and said that they were [Link] asked the Turkish Cypriots
for idendification and wanted to search them. The Turkish Cypriots objected to this behaviour and an argument began
between two [Link] that moment uniformed Greek Cypriot policemen appeared suddenly in their cars carrying
Sterling submachine guns and opened fire on the Turkish Cypriots. One of the Turkish Cypriot men and one of the
women died just a few hundred metres far from their [Link] Turkish Cypriot man and woman were both shot by
cold blooded Greeks. In the following days, more tragic and dramatic incidents happened.

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On 24th December, the terrorists, who were members of EOKA organization, killed three children and their mother in a
bath tub at their house. The killed children were Hakan (nine months), Murat ( 6 years) and Kutsi (4 years). Their
mother, whose name is Mürüvet, was trying to hide them in the bath tub. She was killed as [Link] were the sons of
a Turkish officer who was employed as a doctor in the Turkish troop which was composed of 650 [Link] host
whose name is Feride Hanım was killed in the same attack, as well. The others in the house were wounded. This was
the result of Eoka’s “Ethnic Cleansing” plan with the code name of «Akritas Plan».

So, this attack realized by Greek Cypriots brought the end of «Partenership Republic».The members of TMT appeared
on the scene upon this attack and they tried to protect the lives of Turkish Cypriots.

But their efforts were not enough to stop this plan. Meanwhile a few jets which belong to the Turkish Air Forces flew
over Nicosia. Of course this was a warning [Link] were shots everywhere in Nicosia. Shortly thereafter the roads,
hospitals, water supplies and sources, radio, telecommunications, airport and all seaports of Cyprus were gotten under
Greek Cypriots’ control. The shootings were the start of Greek Cypriot attacks on the Turkish Cypriots and the start of
the 11 years of enslavement and misery they were to suffer until July 1974. From December 1963 to July 1974, the
Turkish Cypriots were forced to live in extremely difficult conditions whereby nearly 25 per cent of their population
became [Link] tactics of «on-and-off pressure» , which the Greek Cypriot leaders hoped would ultimately wear
out the Turks, continued until the mid November 1967.

By this time, the Turkish Cypriots had lost 103 villages where their homes were looted and destroyed, their lands were
laid waste or used by the Greek Cypriots. Five hundreds Turkish Cypriots (including women and children) were killed
and more than 1,000 wounded and stayed maimed??. Another 203 were missing. With the coup of 15th July 1974 and
the installation of Nicos Sampson as the “President” of the Republic of Cyprus the stage had been set for “enosis”.Its
declaration was [Link] this coup, Turkey had to act [Link], Turkey intervened militarily on 20th July
1974, as was her granted right based on the 1959 and 1960 agreements and the Constitution of [Link] result of
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Turkey’s 20th 1974 intervention was the prevention of Enosis and the separation of two communities. After the 1974
intervention, all the Turkish Cypriots moved and settled in the northern part which is one third of the island and all the
Greek Cypriots moved and settled in the southern part- the two thirds. Finally, the Turkish Cypriot people, after 20
years of a long wait and deprivation among other things have decided proclaiming «The Turkish Republic of Northern
Cyprus» on 15th November [Link] founding of the TRNC on this date has enabled the Turkish Cypriots in the
northern part of the island to work out their own future without the interference of Greek Cypriots in the southern part
of Cyprus.