Fluid
Fluid is defined as a substance that does not possess a definite shape and easily yields to
external pressure. It is a substance which deforms continually under an applied external
shearing force. Fluids are substances with zero shear modulus, i.e. they cannot resist the shear
force applied to them.
Types of fluid
Fluids can be classified into different types based on their properties. Here are some of the
common types of fluids:
1. Ideal fluid: An imaginary fluid that is incompressible and has no viscosity or friction.
2. Real fluid: A fluid that possesses viscosity or friction.
3. Newtonian fluid: A real fluid in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of
the shear strain (rate of deformation).
4. Non-Newtonian fluid: A real fluid in which the shear stress is not proportional to the rate of
the shear strain (rate of deformation).
5. Ideal plastic fluid: A fluid in which the shear stress is more than the yield value and shear
stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain.
6. Incompressible fluid: A fluid in which the density of the fluid does not change with changes
in external force or pressure.
7. Compressible fluid: A fluid in which the density of the fluid changes with changes in
external force or pressure.
Viscosity:
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. It can also be thought of as a measure of a
fluid’s thickness or its resistance to objects passing through it.
The SI unit of viscosity is poiseiulle (PI). Its other units are newton-second per square meter (N s
m -2) or pascal-second (Pa s). The dimensional formula of viscosity is [ML -1 T -1]
There are two ways to measure the fluid’s viscosity:
Dynamic viscosity: Dynamic viscosity is a measure of how much a fluid resists flowing when a
force is applied to it. It is also called absolute viscosity or coefficient of viscosity. The SI unit of
dynamic viscosity is pascal-second (Pas), which is equal to newton-second per square meter
(Ns/m2).
The formula for dynamic viscosity is:
τ
μ= du
dy
Where
μ is the dynamic viscosity
τ is the shear stress
dy is the distance between two layers of fluid
du is the difference in velocity between two layers of fluid
Kinematic viscosity: Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density of a fluid. It
is a measure of how easily a fluid flows under the influence of gravity or an external force. The
SI unit of kinematic viscosity is square meter per second (m2/s), which is also called the stoke
(St).
The formula for kinematic viscosity is:
ν= μ\ ρ
Where
ν is the kinematic viscosity
μ is the dynamic viscosity
ρ is the density
Newton law of viscosity:
Newton’s law of viscosity is a physical law that describes the relationship between the shear
stress and the velocity gradient of a fluid (or deformation rate). It states that the shear stress is
directly proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to the distance between two
layers of fluid.
The mathematical expression of Newton’s law of viscosity is:
du
τ=μ
dy
Where
τ is the shear stress.
μ is constant of proportionality and is called the dynamic viscosity.
du is the difference in velocity between two layers of fluid.
dy is the distance between two layers of fluid.
Newton’s law of viscosity is valid for fluids that have a constant viscosity, such as water, air, and
oil. These fluids are called Newtonian fluids.
Some fluids, such as ketchup, honey, and blood, have a variable viscosity that depends on the
shear stress or the shear rate. These fluids are called non-Newtonian fluids.
Power law:
Power law in fluid mechanics is a mathematical model that describes the relationship between
shear stress and shear rate for some types of non-Newtonian fluids. It states that the shear
stress is directly proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to the distance
between two layers of fluid in non-linear way.
The mathematical expression of Power law is:
n
du
τ=μ( )
dy
or
du
τ=k
dy
Where
¿
du
k is apparent viscosity. And k= μ( ) -1)
dy
du
is the shear rate
dy
n is the flow behavior index (dimensionless).
Power law fluids can be classified into three categories based on the value of their flow behavior
index: pseudoplastic, Newtonian, and dilatant. Pseudoplastic fluids are shear-thinning, meaning
their apparent viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate. Dilatant fluids are shear-thickening,
meaning their apparent viscosity increases with increasing shear rate. Newtonian fluids have a
constant apparent viscosity regardless of the shear rate.
Flow:
Flow is the movement of a fluid under the influence of some force. Fluids can be liquids, gases,
or plasmas. Flow can be classified into different types based on the properties of the fluid and
the nature of the force. Some common types of flow are:
1. Steady and Unsteady flow: Steady flow is defined as the flow in which the velocity,
pressure, and density are constant at any point with respect to time (independent of time).
Unsteady flow is the opposite, where these parameters change with respect to time.
2. Uniform and non-uniform flow: Uniform flow is when the velocity does not change with
respect to space at any given time (i.e., length of direction of the flow). Non-uniform flow is
when the velocity does change with respect to space at any given time.
3. One, two, and three-dimensional flow: In one-dimensional fluid flow, fluid moves in only
one dimension (Either X, Z, or Y).
4. Rotational or Irrotational flow: This classification is based on whether there is a rotational
motion in the fluid particles.
5. Laminar or Turbulent flow: Laminar flow is characterized by smooth or in regular paths of
particles of the fluid whereas in turbulent flow the particles move in an irregular manner.
6. Compressible or Incompressible flow: Compressible flow is when the density of the fluid
changes with the application of external force. Incompressible flow is when the density of
the fluid doesn’t change with the application of external force.
Peristaltic flow:
Peristaltic flow is a type of fluid motion that occurs in many biological systems, such as the
digestive tract, and has applications in engineering processes. It is characterized by the
propagation of a wave-like motion along a tube or channel, which causes the fluid to move in a
specific direction. The wave-like motion is generated by the contraction and relaxation of
the tube or channel walls, which compresses and expands the fluid inside.
Heat Transfer:
Heat transfer in fluid mechanics is a fundamental concept in the field of chemical engineering
and it involves the transfer of thermal energy between physical systems. It plays a crucial role in
many applications, including heating and cooling systems, power generation, and even weather
patterns.
There are three main types of heat transfer:
1. Conduction: This is the transfer of heat between substances that are in direct contact
with each other. The better the conductor, the more rapidly heat will be transferred.
Metal is a good conduction of heat. Conduction occurs when a substance is heated,
particles will gain more energy, and this energy is transferred from hot particles to
cooler particles.
2. Convection: This type of heat transfer occurs in fluids, such as water and air. Convection
depends on the motion of the fluid; heat is transferred by the movement of large
numbers of particles (or mass) within the fluid. For example, when you boil water on the
stove, convection causes the hot water at the bottom of the pot to rise and replace the
cooler water at the top.
3. Radiation: This is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves. It doesn’t require a
medium to travel through and can occur in a vacuum. For example, we receive heat
from the sun via radiation.
Mixed convection:
Mixed convection, also known as combined convection, occurs in fluid mechanics when both
natural convection and forced convection mechanisms act together to transfer heat. This is a
situation where both pressure forces (forced convection) and buoyant forces (natural
convection) interact.
Thermal conductivity:
Thermal conductivity is a fundamental concept in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics. It is a
measure of a material’s ability to conduct heat. In the context of fluid mechanics, thermal
conductivity plays a crucial role in the heat transfer processes within fluids, which include gases
and liquids.
The formula for thermal conductivity (K) can be expressed as:
Qd
K= A Δ T
Where:
K is the thermal conductivity in watts per meter-Kelvin (W/mK)
Q is the amount of heat transferred through the material in joules per second or watts
(W)
d is the distance between the two isothermal planes (m)
A is the area of the surface in square meters (m²)
ΔT is the difference in temperature in Kelvin (K)
Specific heat:
Specific heat, also known as specific heat capacity, is a property of a substance that determines
the amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of a unit mass of that
substance by one degree. It is usually denoted by the symbol Cp for constant pressure
conditions and Cv for constant volume conditions.
The specific heat of a substance can vary depending on the state of the substance (solid, liquid,
or gas) and the pressure and temperature conditions.
The mathematical expression for specific heat is given by:
Q= mCpΔT
Where:
Q is the amount of heat transferred to or from the substance (in joules).
m is the mass of the substance (in kilograms).
Cp is the specific heat capacity of the substance (in joules per kilogram per degree
Celsius)
ΔT is the change in temperature of the substance (in degrees Celsius).
Density:
In fluid mechanics, density is a fundamental property of a fluid. It is defined as the mass of the fluid
divided by its volume.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
m
ρ=
V
where:
ρ is the density
m is the mass of the fluid
V is the volume of the fluid2
The SI unit of density is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³).
Wave number:
Wave number is a measure of the spatial frequency of a wave, or how many cycles of the wave
occur per unit distance. It is usually denoted by the symbol k.
The ordinary wavenumber is defined as the number of wavelengths per unit distance, typically
in centimeters (cm):
1
k=
λ
The angular wavenumber, sometimes called “angular wave number,” is defined as the number
of radians per unit distance:
2π
k=
λ
Wavenumber has dimensions of reciprocal length, so its SI unit is the reciprocal of meters. In
spectroscopy, it’s common to give wavenumbers in reciprocal centimeters.
Reynolds number:
Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity that measures the ratio of inertial forces to
viscous forces in a fluid flow. It helps to predict whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, and
how different flow situations can be scaled up or down. At low Reynolds numbers, flows tend to
be dominated by laminar (sheet-like) flow, while at high Reynolds numbers, flows tend to
be turbulent The Reynolds number is named after Osborne Reynolds, who popularized its use
in 1883.
The Reynolds number is given by the formula:
Re= (cd₁/υ)
The kind of flow is based on the value of Re:
If Re<2000, the flow is called Laminar,
If Re>4000, the flow is called Turbulent,
If 2000<Re<4000, the flow is called Transition
Prandtl number:
The Prandtl number (Pr) is a dimensionless number in fluid mechanics, named after the
German physicist Ludwig Prandtl. It is defined as the ratio of momentum diffusivity (kinematic
viscosity) to thermal diffusivity.
The Prandtl number is given by the formula:
ν μcp
Pr= =
α k
where:
ν is the momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity), ν=ρμ (SI units: m2/s),
α is the thermal diffusivity, α=ρcpk (SI units: m2/s),
μ is the dynamic viscosity (SI units: Pas=Ns/m2),
k is the thermal conductivity (SI units: W/(mK)),
cp is the specific heat (SI units: J/(kgK)),
ρ is the density (SI units: kg/m3)
Dufour number:
In fluid mechanics, the Dufour number is a dimensionless quantity that describes the ratio of
heat diffusion to mass diffusion. It is defined as the ratio of thermal diffusion coefficient to mass
diffusion coefficient.
Dufour number is given by the formula:
Du= ρ DkT(T1 _ TO)/(CSCP(C1 _ C0))
Soret number:
The Soret number (Sr) is a dimensionless number that measures the ratio of thermal diffusion
to ordinary diffusion in a fluid mixture. The Soret number is important for studying the effects
of thermo-diffusion and diffusion-thermo on fluid flow and heat and mass transfer. Thermo-
diffusion (also called the Soret effect) is the phenomenon of mass transfer due to a
temperature gradient, while diffusion-thermo (also called the Dufour effect) is the
phenomenon of heat transfer due to a concentration gradient.
The Soret number is given by the formula
Sr=(ρ(T₁ -T0)DKT/μTm(C₁-C₀))
Schmidt number:
The Schmidt number (Sc) is a dimensionless number that measures the ratio of momentum
diffusivity and mass diffusivity in a fluid mixture. It is used to characterize fluid flows in which
there are simultaneous momentum and mass diffusion convection processes.
The Schmidt number is defined as
μ ν
Sc= =
ρD D
Where ν is the kinematic viscosity and D is the mass diffusivity of the fluid.
The Deborah number can be used to determine whether a material behaves more like a
solid or a fluid. A low Deborah number means that the material flows easily and shows
viscous behavior, while a high Deborah number means that the material resists flow and
shows elastic behavior. For example, glass has a very high Deborah number, because it
takes a very long time to flow, while water has a very low Deborah number, because it
flows almost instantly
The Soret number (S_t) is a dimensionless number used in fluid mechanics to
characterize this effect. It is defined as the ratio of thermal diffusion to molecular
diffusion.
Electrical conductivity in fluid mechanics refers to the ability of a fluid to conduct electric
[Link] formula for electrical conductivity (σ) is the inverse of resistivity (ρ), and can
be expressed as:
is a measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow of electric current
The Dufour number is a dimensionless number that represents the ratio of the heat
transfer by diffusion to the heat transfer by convection. It is defined as:
The Dufour number is related to the Soret number, which is another dimensionless
number that represents the ratio of the mass transfer by thermal diffusion to the mass
transfer by convection. The Soret number is defined as:
The Deborah number can be used to determine whether a material behaves more
like a solid or a fluid. A low Deborah number means that the material flows easily
and shows viscous behavior, while a high Deborah number means that the
material resists flow and shows elastic behavior. For example, glass has a very
high Deborah number, because it takes a very long time to flow, while water has a
very low Deborah number, because it flows almost instantly.
The buoyancy force determines whether an object will sink, float, or rise in a fluid. The
buoyancy force on an object in a fluid equals the weight of the fluid displaced by that object. If
the buoyant force is greater than the object's weight, the object will rise to the surface and
float . If the buoyant force is less than the object's weight, the object will sink. If the buoyant
force equals the object's weight, the object can remain suspended at its present depth. The
buoyant force is always present, whether the object floats, sinks, or is suspended in a fluid.