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_____________ 2. A diagram used to show the behavior of a material during
its test.
_____________ 3. A region in the stress-strain diagram where if the stress is
removed within that region, the material goes back to its
original form without any deformation.
_____________ 4. The slope of the straight line at the elastic region.
_____________ 5. The behavior wherein the material’s bonds break which
causes for it to be permanently deformed.
_____________ 6. A material that is permanently deformed is referrers as
__________.
_____________ 7. The small portion of a material that is subjected to tension
where its cross-sectional area decreases.
Lesson 2.2: Stress-Strain Behavior of Ductile
and Brittle Materials
In this lesson, we will learn the difference of a material that is ductile and brittle.
Learning Outcomes
1. Define ductile and brittle materials;
2. Understand the behaviour of a ductile and brittle material in a stress-
strain diagram; and,
Discussion
Materials can be classified as either being ductile or brittle, depending on their
stress–strain characteristics.
Ductile Materials
Ductile materials are materials that can be subjected to large strains before it
fractures. Engineers often choose ductile materials for design because these
materials are capable of absorbing shocks or energy, and when overloaded, it
exhibits large strain first before failing.
One way to specify the ductility of a material is to report its percent elongation
or percent reduction in area at the time of fracture. The percent elongation is
basically the specimen’s fracture strain expressed as a percent. This, it is
expressed as
𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿0
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (100%) = 𝜖𝑓 (100%)
𝐿0
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For example, in Figure 16, since 𝜖𝑓 = 0.380, the percent elongation of the mild
steel specimen is 38%.
The percent reduction in area is another way to specify ductility. It is defined
within the region of necking as follows:
𝐴0 − 𝐴𝑓
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (100%)
𝐴0
Here, 𝐴0 is the specimen’s original cross-sectional area and 𝐴𝑓 is the area of
the neck at fracture. Mild steel usually has a percent reduction of area of 60%.
Besides steel, other metals such as brass, molybdenum, and zinc may also
exhibit ductile stress–strain characteristics similar to steel, whereby they
undergo elastic stress–strain behavior, yielding at constant stress, strain
hardening, and finally necking until fracture. In most metals and some plastics,
however, constant yielding will not occur beyond the elastic range. One metal
where this is the case is aluminum. Actually, this metal often does not have a
well-defined yield point, and consequently it is standard practice to define a
yield strength using a graphical procedure called the offset method. Normally
for structural design, a 0.2% strain (0.002 𝑖𝑛./𝑖𝑛.) is chosen, and from this point
on the 𝝐 axis a line parallel to the initial straight line portion of the stress–strain
diagram is drawn. The point where this line intersects the curve defines the
yield strength. From the graph, the yield strength is 𝜎𝑌𝑆 = 51 𝑘𝑠𝑖 (352 𝑀𝑃𝑎).
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Brittle Materials
Figure 18. Different materials subjected to tension and compression
Materials that exhibit little to no yielding before failure are referred to as brittle
materials. Gray cast iron is an example of a brittle material. For these types of
material, a small microscopic crack can spread rapidly across the specimen,
causing complete fracture. Since these initial microscopic cracks cannot be
determined easily, brittle materials often do not have a well-defined tensile
fracture stress. Instead, average fracture stress is often reported in this case.
A failed brittle specimen is shown in Figure 18a.
Compared to their behavior in tension, brittle materials exhibit a much higher
resistance to compression. In this case, any cracks or imperfections in the
specimen tend to close up, and as the load is increased further, the material
will generally bulge or become barrel shape as shown in Figure 18b.
Figure 19. Stress-strain diagram of a typical concrete mix
Another example of a brittle material is concrete, and concrete has a very low
strength capacity in tension, its characteristics of its stress-strain diagram also
will depend on its mix (water, sand, gravel, and cement) and the time and
temperature of curing. A typical example of a complete stress-strain diagram
for concrete is shown in Figure 19, this stress-strain diagram focuses more on
its compressive side that is why the curve lies on the third quadrant. By
inspection, its maximum compressive strength is about 12.5 times greater than
its tensile strength. That is why when using concrete is buildings, concrete is
always reinforced with steel bars or rods for it to also support tensile loads.
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It is also important to note that most materials exhibit both ductile and brittle
behavior. For example, steel has brittle behavior when it contains a high carbon
content, and it is ductile when the carbon content is reduced. Also, at low
temperatures, materials become harder and more brittle, whereas when the
temperature rises, they become softer and more ductile.
Stiffness
The modulus of elasticity is a mechanical property that indicates the stiffness
of a material. Materials that are very stiff, such as steel, have high values of
modulus of elasticity (𝐸), whereas spongy materials such as rubber have low
values of modulus of elasticity. Values of 𝐸 are often tabulated in engineering
codes and reference books.
The modulus of elasticity is one of the most important mechanical properties
used in the development of equations presented in this text. But always take
note, this can only be used if and only if the material is still on its linear elastic
behavior, that is, the load or stress has not yet exceeded to the yield point of
the material. Once the stress exceeds yield point, the stress-strain diagram
ceases to be a straight line, and so Hooke’s law is no longer valid.
Strain Hardening
If a specimen is loaded into the plastic region and then unloaded, a permanent
set will be present in the material. It means that after the load is removed in the
plastic region, the material can no longer go back to its original shape. For
example, a wire when bent (plastically) will spring back a little (elastically) when
the load is removed, however, it will not fully return to its original shape. This
behavior is illustrated on the stress–strain diagram shown in Figure 20a. Here
the specimen is loaded beyond its yield point A to point A’. Since interatomic
forces have to be overcome to elongate the specimen elastically, then these
same forces pull the atoms back together when the load is removed, Figure
20a. Consequently, the modulus of elasticity is the same, and therefore the
slope of line O’ A’ is the same as line OA. With the load removed, the
permanent set is OO’.
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Figure 20. A material subjected to load above its proportional limit
If the load is reapplied, the atoms in the material will again be displaced until
yielding occurs at or near the stress A’, and the stress–strain diagram continues
along the same path as before, Figure 20b. Although this new stress–strain
diagram, defined by O’A’B’, now has a higher yield point (A’), a consequence
of strain hardening, it also has less ductility, or a smaller plastic region, than
when it was in its original state.
Strain Energy
As a material is deformed by an external load, the load will do external work,
which in turn will be stored in the material as internal energy. This energy is
related to the strains in the material, and so it is referred to as strain energy.
For engineering applications, strain energy is usually expressed per unit
volume of the material. This is called the strain energy density which is
expressed as
1
𝑢 = 𝜎𝜖
2
If the material behaves linearly elastic, the Hooke’s law applies, and therefore
strain energy density can also be expressed as
1 𝜎2
𝑢=
2𝐸
Modulus of Resilience
When the stress in a material reaches the proportional limit, the strain energy
density, is referred to as the modulus of resilience. It is
2
1 1 𝜎𝑝𝑙
𝑢𝑟 = 𝜎𝑝𝑙 𝜖𝑝𝑙 =
2 2 𝐸
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Here, 𝑢𝑟 is equivalent to the shaded triangular area under the elastic region of
the stress-strain diagram shown in Figure 21a. Physically the modulus of
resilience represents the largest amount of strain energy per unit volume the
material can absorb without causing any permanent damage to the material.
Certainly this property becomes important when designing bumpers or shock
absorbers.
Figure 21. Modulus of resilience and toughness
Modulus of Toughness
Another important property of a material is its modulus of toughness, 𝑢𝑡 . This
quantity represents the entire area under the stress–strain diagram, Figure
21b, and therefore it indicates the maximum amount of strain energy per unit
volume the material can absorb just before it fractures. Certainly, this becomes
important when designing members that may be accidentally overloaded. By
alloying metals, engineers can change their resilience and toughness.
Examples
Example 2.1
A tension test for a steel alloy results in the stress–strain diagram shown in
Figure 2-1. Calculate the modulus of elasticity and the yield strength based on
a 0.2% offset. Identify on the graph the ultimate stress and the fracture stress.
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Figure 2-1. Stress-strain diagram of steel alloy
Solution
Modulus of Elasticity
We must calculate the slope of the initial straight-line portion of the graph. Using
the magnified curve and scale shown in green, this line extends from point O
to point A, which has coordinates of approximately (0.0016 𝑖𝑛./ 𝑖𝑛. , 50 𝑘𝑠𝑖).
Therefore,
Note that the equation of line OA is thus 𝜎 = 31.2(103 )𝜖.
Yield Strength
For a 0.2% offset, we begin at a strain of 0.2% or 0.0020 𝑖𝑛./𝑖𝑛. and graphically
extend a (dashed) line parallel to OA until it intersects the 𝜎 − 𝜖 curve at A’�.
The yield strength is approximately
𝜎𝑌𝑆 = 68 𝑘𝑠𝑖
Ultimate Stress
This is defined by the peak of the 𝜎 − 𝜖 graph, point B in Figure 2-1.
𝜎𝑢 = 108 𝑘𝑠𝑖
Fracture Stress
When the specimen is strained to its maximum of 𝜖𝑓 = 0.23 𝑖𝑛./𝑖𝑛., it fractures
at point C. Thus,
𝜎𝑓 = 90 𝑘𝑠𝑖
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Example 2.2
The stress–strain diagram for an aluminum alloy that is used for making aircraft
parts is shown in Fig. 3–19. If a specimen of this material is stressed to s = 600
MPa, determine the permanent set that remains in the specimen when the load
is released. Also, find the modulus of resilience both before and after the load
application.
Figure 2-2. Stress-strain diagram for aluminum alloy
Solution
Permanent Strain
When the specimen is subjected to the load, it strain hardens until point B is
reached on the 𝜎 − 𝜖 diagram. The strain at this point is approximately
0.023 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚. When the load is released, the material behaves by following
the straight line BC, which is parallel to line OA. Since both of these lines have
the same slope, the strain at point C can be determined analytically. The slope
of line OA is the modulus of elasticity, i.e.,
From triangle CBD, we require
This strain represents the amount of recovered elastic strain. The permanent
set or strain, 𝜖𝑂𝐶 , is thus
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Note: If gage marks on the specimen were originally 50 𝑚𝑚 apart, then after
the load is released these marks will be 50𝑚𝑚 + (0.0150)(150 𝑚𝑚) =
50.75 𝑚𝑚 apart.
Modulus of Resilience
Applying the equation for modulus of resilience, the areas under OAG and CBD
in Figure 2-2 are
NOTE: By comparison, the effect of strain hardening the material has caused
an increase in the modulus of resilience; however, note that the modulus of
toughness for the material has decreased, since the area under the original
curve, OABF, is larger than the area under curve CBF.
Example 2.3
The aluminum rod, shown in Figure 2-3a, has a circular cross section and is
subjected to an axial load of 10 kN. If a portion of the stress–strain diagram is
shown in Figure 2-3b, determine the approximate elongation of the rod when
the load is applied. Take 𝐸𝑎𝑙 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎.
Figure 2-3. The stress-strain diagram for the aluminum rod
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Solution
In order to find the elongation of the rod, we must first obtain the strain. This is
done by calculating the stress, then using the stress–strain diagram. The
normal stress within each segment is
From the stress–strain diagram, the material in segment AB is strained
elastically since 𝜎𝐴𝐵 < 𝜎𝑌 = 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Using Hooke’s Law,
The material within segment BC is strained plastically, since 𝜎𝐴𝐵 > 𝜎𝑌 =
40 𝑀𝑃𝑎. From the graph, for 𝜎𝐵𝐶 = 56.59 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜖𝐵𝐶 ≈ 0.045 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚 .The
approximate elongation of the rod is therefore
Assessment
Answer the following questions below on the space provided.
_____________ 1. Materials that can be subjected to large strains before it
fractures.
_____________ 2. Materials that has little strains before it breaks.
_____________ 3. The strain that is created when the materials can no longer
go back to its original shape.
_____________ 4. The internal energy stored in the material when deformed
by external work.
_____________ 5. The energy covered in the area under the elastic region.
Lesson 2.3: Poisson’s Ratio
In this lesson, we will learn the concept from Poisson’s ratio.
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