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Summary and
Revision
Consumer Behavior
Students’ handbook
By miss: Anwaar AlYaqoubi
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 CH1. Introduction to the study of consumer behavior

MEANING OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Consumer behavior is: The interplay of forces that takes place during a
consumption process, within a consumers’ self and his environment.
 This interaction takes place between three elements
o Cognition: The knowledge, information processing and thinking
o Affect: The feelings and emotions
o Behavior: The visible part, to buy or not to buy
 It continues through pre-purchase activity to the post purchase experience
 It includes the stages of Evaluating, Acquiring, Using and Disposing of
goods and services.
 The “consumer” includes both (Personal consumers) and (Business,
industrial organizational consumers)

NATURE OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

1. The subject deals with issues related to cognition, affect and behavior in
consumption behaviors, against the backdrop of individual and
environmental determinants.
 The individual determinants (psychological components)
a. Personal motivation
b. Involvement
c. Perception
d. Learning and memory
e. Attitudes
f. Self-concept and personality
g. Decision making
 Environmental determinants (external influences surrounding an individual):
The family, social groups, reference groups, social class, culture, sub-culture,
cross-culture, and national and regional influences.
2. The subject can be studied at micro or macro levels. Depending upon
whether it is analyzed at the individual level or at the group level.
3. The subject is interdisciplinary. It has borrowed heavily from:
a. psychology (the study of the individual)
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 b. sociology (the study of group)
c. social psychology (the study of how an individual operates in group)
d. anthropology (the influence of society on the individual)
e. economics (income and purchasing power).
4. Consumer behavior is dynamic and interacting in nature. The three
components of cognition, affect and behavior of individuals alone or in groups
keeps on changing.
5. Consumer behavior involves the process of exchange between the buyer
and the seller, mutually beneficial for both
6. Consumer behavior is descriptive and also analytical/ interpretive.
7. It is a science as well as an art.

SCOPE OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

 What the consumers buy: goods and services
 Why they buy it: need and want
 When do they buy it: day, week, month, year, or occasions?
 Where they buy it: place
 How often they buy it: time interval
 How often they use it: frequency of use

APPLICATION OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

 Analyze the environment
 Segmentation, targeting and positioning
 Designing the Marketing Strategy
 Designing the Marketing Mix

WHY STUDY CONSUMER BEHAVIOR? (REASONS)

The study helps the marketer in:
 Analyzing the environment: identifying opportunities and fighting threats
 Segmenting, targeting and positioning
 Designing the marketing-mix
 Designing the marketing strategy
 Governmental and Non-profit Organization and Social Marketing.

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 THE INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
 Psychology
 Sociology
 Social psychology
 Anthropology
 Economics

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 CH2. DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

INNOVATION
Innovation is the introduction of new product and service offerings that would help
meet the evolving needs and wants of the consumer segments

VARYING PERSPECTIVES TO DEFINING “INNOVATION”

 Firm-oriented
• The product is innovative, if it is new for the company.
• The existence of the product in the market is disregarded
 Product-oriented
• The product is innovative, if it is new in terms of form, attributes and
features.
• There are changes in technology, as well as impact on consumer
consumption behavior.
 Market-oriented
• The product is regarded “new” if the market does not have much
exposure of it.
• Sales penetration has been low.
 Consumer-oriented
• Any product is regarded as “new”, if the consumer believes it to be so.

DIMENSIONS OF INNOVATION
 Technological changes in the product itself: relates to the product only.
 Behavioral changes within the consumers that are required for purchase and
usage/consumption of the new product and service: relates to consumer
behavior issues, product adoption, and usage.
• Some new products and services are illustrative of (1) only.
• Other new products and services, are illustrative of (2) only.
• Still other illustrate (1) as well as (2).

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 CLASSIFICATION OF NEW PRODUCT INNOVATIONS
1. Continuous innovations
• Entails modification over an existing product
• Little technological change, but requires no behavioral change.
• The technology used for the new product is not different
2. Dynamically continuous innovations
• Includes some technological change, but no behavioral change
3. Discontinuous innovations
• The technology used to manufacture is different from the original
one.
• Require considerable behavioral change within consumers

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is a macro process that deals with the spread of a new product or service
offering amongst the potential market

DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION
A process by which an innovation spreads amongst and gets the absorbed/ accepted
or assimilated by the market

BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE DIFFUSION PROCESS

 Innovation: the newness of the product/ service
 Time: the speed of adoption and resultant assimilation of the innovative
offering
 Channels of communication:
• Marketing communication: takes place between the marketer and
the potential market, it could be personal or impersonal.
• Interpersonal communication: takes place between the
consumers themselves, it could be word of mouth communication
within consumers or through an opinion leader.
 Social system: the social setting in which the diffusion takes place

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 ADOPTION OF INNOVATION
1. Rate of adoption: the period that it is taken for a new product or service to
be accepted
2. Adopter categories
 Innovators
• First to purchase a new product.
• No need, just the desire for new ideas and concepts
• Highly self-confident
• Have the purchasing power and the access.
• Innovators are not “generic”; but “specific” to a product and service.
 Early adopters
• Purchase because they possess a need.
• Have some idea / gather information, then purchase.
• Rely on group norms, good opinion leaders, easy targets for the
marketer
 Early majority
• Purchase to satisfy a need.
• Not quick as early adapter, take more time to purchase.
• No interest in the product, collect information, evaluate it, deliberate
carefully and then take a decision. (More time)
 Late majority
• Skeptical by nature
• They have a need, and after careful thought and deliberation as well
as with social influence and pressure, they make the purchase
 Laggards
• Slow in buying
• Uninvolved with the product and service, no much information
• Uninfluenced by social pressure
• Prefer to buy the "familiar", than the "unfamiliar". (routine
purchases)

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 3. Non adopters categories
 Unaware group: Unaware about the new product or service offering.
 Symbolic rejecters: Aware about the new product or service offering but it
does not meet a need.
 Symbolic adopters: Aware about the new product or service offering, may be
of relevance for them, but they are yet to try the innovative offering.
 Trail adopters: Have tried the innovative offering, but have not yet made a
purchase
 Trial rejecters: Have tried the new product or service, but have not found it
suitable

ADOPTION PROCESS
1. Awareness: The marketer provide some awareness about the innovation, the
features and benefits as also the brand. The consumer is passive and acts as a
mere recipient of information. He becomes aware but lacks sufficient
knowledge about the new offering.
2. Interest: The consumer begins to develop some interest in the innovative
offering, and thereby puts in some effort to know more about it.
3. Evaluation: The consumer evaluates whether more information search is
necessary with respect to the innovation as well as to the brand
4. Trial: The consumer goes and tries out the innovative offering to determine
the worth or usefulness.
5. Adoption (Rejection): Based on the trial stage, if the experience is satisfying,
and the evaluation favorable, the innovative offering would be accepted, else
it would be rejected.

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 CH3. FACTORS AFFECTING CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

1. MARKETING FACTORS
 Product: The uniqueness of the product, the physical appearance and
packaging can influence buying decision of a consumer.
 Pricing: Pricing strategy does affect buying behavior of consumers. Marketers
must consider the price sensitivity of the target customers while fixing prices.
 Promotion: The various elements of promotion such as advertising, publicity,
public relations, personal selling, and sales promotion affect buying behavior
of consumers. Marketers select the promotion mix after considering the
nature of customers.
 Place: The channels of distribution, and the place of distribution affects
buying behavior of consumers. Marketers make an attempt to select the right
channel and distribute the products at the right place.

2. PERSONAL FACTORS
 Age Factor: For instance, teenagers may prefer trendy clothes, whereas,
office- executives may prefer sober and formal clothing.
 Gender: For instance, girls may prefer certain feminine colors such as pink,
purple, peach, whereas, boys may go for blue, black, brown, and so on.
 Education: Highly educated persons may spend on books, personal care
products, and so on. But a person with low or no education may spend less on
personal grooming products, general reading books, and so on.
 Income Level: Normally, higher the income level, higher is the level of
spending and vice versa.
 Status’ in the Society: Persons enjoying higher status in the society do spend
a good amount of money on luxury items such as luxury cars, luxury watches,
premium brands of clothing, jewelry, perfumes, etc.
 Other Personal Factors: The other personal factors such as personality,
lifestyle, family size, etc., influence consumer behavior.

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 3. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS
 Learning: It refers to changes in individual behavior that are caused by
information and experience.
 Attitude: It is a tendency to respond in a given manner to a particular
situation or object or idea. Consumers may develop a positive, or negative or
neutral attitude towards certain product or brands.
 Motives: A motive is the inner drive that motivates a person to act or behave
in a certain manner. Some of the buying motives include:
• Pride and possession
• Love and affection
• Comfort and convenience
 Perception: It is the impression, which one forms about a certain situation or
object. A motivated person is ready to act. But the way or the manner in which
he acts is influenced by his/her perception of the situation.
 Beliefs: A belief is a descriptive thought, which a person holds about certain
things. It may be based on knowledge, opinion, faith, trust and confidence.

4. SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES
 Physical Surroundings: The location of the store, the decor, the layout of the
store, the noise level, the way merchandise is displayed, and so on.
 Social Surroundings: The other people with the customer that can influence
buying decision at the point of purchase.
 Time Factor: Customers may make different decisions based on when they
purchase – the hour of the day, the day of the week, or the season of the year.
 Task: A customer may make a different buying decision depending upon the
task to be performed by the product. A gift rather or for personal use are some
examples of different tasks.
 Momentary Conditions: The moods and condition of the customer at the
time of purchase may also affect the buying decision.

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 5. SOCIAL FACTORS
 Reference Groups: A reference group is a small group of people such as
colleagues at work place, club members, friends circle, neighbors, family
members, and so on. They influence values, attitudes, new behaviors and
lifestyles. They also create pressure to choose certain products or brands.
 Family: The family is the main reference group that may influence the
consumer behavior.
 Roles and Status: A person performs certain roles in a particular group such
as family, club, organization, and so on. People may purchase the products that
conform to their roles and status, especially in the case of branded clothes,
luxury watches, luxury cars, and so on.

6. CULTURAL FACTORS
 Culture: Cultural values and elements are passed from one generation to
another through family, educational institutions, religious bodies, social
environment, etc. Cultural diversity influences food habits, clothing, customs
and traditions, etc.
 Sub-Culture: Each culture consists of smaller sub-cultures that provide
specific identity to its members. Subcultures include sub-caste, religious sects,
geographic regions, language etc. The behavior of people belong to various
sub-cultures is different.

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 CH4. THE CONSUMER DECISION MAKING PROCESS

DECISION MAKING:
Decision Making: The process of choosing between two or more alternatives
- A goal oriented process
- It is a problem solving process

TYPES OF DECISIONS MAKING:

Programmed decision making
 Applied for routine and regular problems.
 Problems are simple to deal with
 Guidelines to sort out such problems exist.
 Decisions are made without much thought.
 Decisions related to day to day purchases
Non-programmed decision making
 Applied for problems that arise suddenly and are unique or novel.
 The problem is complex and requires a lot of information gathering,
deliberation and thought.
 Decisions related to infrequent purchases or specialty and emergency goods

CONSUMER DECISION MAKING

Consumer Decision Making: The process of gathering and processing information,
evaluating it and selecting the best possible option so as to solve a problem or make
a buying choice
 All purchase decisions are not similar, the effort put into each decision making
is different.
 Consumer Decision Making pertains to the following decisions:
o What to buy: Products and Services (and the Brands)
o How much to buy: Quantity
o Where to buy: Place
o When to buy: Time
o How to buy: Payment terms.

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 LEVELS OF CONSUMER DECISION MAKING
Extensive problem solving (EPS)
 The consumer is unfamiliar with the product/service category
 Not informed of the product or service offering
 The situation requires extensive information search and evaluation
 The consumer is not aware about the various decision criteria to evaluate the
product or service
 Consumer has to gather knowledge about
• The decision criteria
• The brands available
• Make a choice amongst the brands.
 The types of products and / situations where we generally have EPS:
• Expensive goods, infrequently bought, considerable amount of risk
involved.
• First time purchases.
 Examples: Jewelry, electronic goods, Real estate and property etc.
Limited problem solving (LPS)
 The consumer is familiar of the product or service, but unaware of the various
brands.
 The consumer:
• Aware of some brands and the criteria used to evaluate the product
or service.
• Unaware of new brands.
• Has not evaluated brands.
 Recurring purchase, involves only a moderate effort from the consumer.
 He has to gather knowledge to add/modify the existing knowledge that is in
memory.
 The types of products and situations where we generally have LPS:
• Moderately priced goods, frequently bought, lesser amount of risk
involved.
• Recurring purchases.

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  Exceptions: They may also be cases where an expensive product is being
repurchased.
 Examples: A laptop replacing a desktop, a second TV for the home.
Routinized problem solving (RPS)
• Consumer well informed, experienced with the product or service,
aware of both the decision criteria and brands available.
• No effort from the consumer. It is simple and the process is completed
quickly
• The types of products and / situations where we generally have RPS:
o Inexpensive goods, frequently bought, no risk involved.
o Routine purchases and the consumer is brand loyal.
• Examples: Staples, Cold drinks, Stationery etc..

BUYING ROLES
•Initiator: The person who identifies a need and first suggests the idea of
buying a particular product or service.
•Influencer: The person(s) who influences the buyer in making his final
choice of the product.
•Decider: The person who decides on the final choice: what is to be bought,
when, from where and how?
•Buyer: The person who enters into the final transaction and exchange
process or is involved in the physical activity of making a purchase.
•User: The person(s) who actually consumes the product or service offering.

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 STAGES IN CONSUMER DECISION MAKING PROCESS
1. Need recognition/Problem recognition
• Perceiving a deficiency/need.
• A need could be triggered off by an internal stimulus or an external
stimulus.
• A need or problem recognition could be:
•Simple: Simple problem recognition is similar to Structured
Problems
• Complex: Complex problem recognition is similar to Unstructured
Problems
 Example: A product stops functioning and the customer needs a replacement

2. Pre-purchase information search

 Gathering information about:
a. Product category and the variations
b. Various alternatives
c. Various brands.
 The amount of information a consumer will gather depends on the following:
a. The consumer: demographics and psychographics
b. Product category
c. Situation: time available at hand, first time purchase, quantity of
information required, availability of information.
 Information Sources:
• Internal sources: This includes the consumer and his self.
- Internal sources seem sufficient when:
 It is a routine purchase
 The product is of low involvement
• External sources: seeking information from the environment.
- External sources of information include:
 Interpersonal communication (family, friends, work peers,
opinion leaders etc.)
 Marketing communication or commercial information
 Other public sources
- External sources are resorted to in cases where:
 Past knowledge and experience is insufficient.
 The product is of high involvement and the risk is high.

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 3. Evaluation of alternatives
 Comparing the different alternatives available on certain criteria. This
involves:
a. Generation of choice alternatives: While generation of alternatives, a
consumer moves from an evoked set towards the choice set.
• Evoked set/Consideration set: This is the set of alternatives that he
actively considers while making a purchase decision.
• Inept set: These are those alternatives from the evoked set that the
consumer excludes from further consideration (inferior and
unacceptable).
• Inert set: These are those alternatives from the evoked set that the
consumer excludes from further consideration (indifferent towards
them, without much advantages or benefits).
• Choice set: This comprises the final set of one or two brands from
which he finally decides.
b. Identification of Evaluative Criteria: The major evaluative criteria are:
- Economic: Price, Value (Product Attributes, Brand image,
Evaluation of Quality, Price, & Features).
- Behavioral: Need/motivation, Personality, self-concept and
self-image, Lifestyle etc.
- Social influences: Group influences, environmental issues etc.
c. Application of Decision Rules to make a final choice amongst
alternatives: The consumer uses certain decision rules.

4. Purchase decision
 Selecting a particular brand.
 Consumer purchases may be
a. Trials/First purchase
b. Repeat purchases
 The consumer may further have to make decisions on:
a. Where to buy from?
b. Whom to buy from?
c. When to buy?
 Purchase intention could get moderated by
a. Attitudes of others
b. Unexpected situational factors.

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 5. Post-purchase outcome and reactions
The post purchase outcome and reactions contains two stages
 Stage I: Post purchase Cognitive Dissonance: This is a feeling of tension and
anxiety that a consumer experiences after the purchase of a product. He
begins to ask himself the following questions:
• Have I made the right choice?
• Have I purchased the right brand?
• Have I got value for money?
 Consumers try to reduce this dissonance by:
• Gaining more product information.
• Discussing with other satisfied customers
• Going back to the dealer and asking for reassurances.
• Stage II: Product usage and reaction: After the purchase, the consumer
uses the product and reevaluates the chosen alternative.
• This phase is significant as it:
o acts as an experience and gets stored in the memory
o affects future purchase decisions
o Acts as a feedback.
• There could be three situations that can arise:
o Performance meets expectations: This leads to a neutral feeling;
Customer may think of more suitable alternatives next time.
o Performance exceeds expectations: The customer is satisfied and this
leads to a positive feeling. He would tend to repeat purchase and it
would lead to brand loyalty. He would also spread positive word of
mouth.
o Performance falls short of expectations: Here, the customer is
dissatisfied and this leads to a negative feeling. The customer would
search for other alternatives, express grievances, spread negative word
of mouth and may even resort to legal action.

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 CH5. PROFILE OF MIDDLE EAST CONSUMERS AND CONSUMER
PROTECTION LAW

THE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR, TRAITS, CHARACTERISTICS AND

DEMOGRAPHICS OF A MIDDLE EASTERN
• Arabs are very brand conscious
• Buying is very social among Arabs
• Status symbols are important
• Throw practical out the window
• Arabs may need to touch before they buy
• Merchandise returns are relatively new in the region
• Arabs like to window shop and debate over buying something for a long
time
• Fashion is immensely popular in the Middle East
• Eat what pleases you but wear what pleases others
• Bargaining is an essential part of Middle Eastern culture
• Shame and honor are an important aspect of Arab culture
• Religion is important
• Arabic language
• Age is an important consideration

THE CONSUMER PROTECTION LAW

• The Consumer: Any natural or legal person who obtains a commodity or
receives a service for a consideration or free of charge.
• The Provider: Any natural or legal person trading in a commodity or
rendering a service to the consumer.
• The Advertiser: Any natural or legal person advertising a commodity or
service using the various means of publicity and advertisement.
• The commodity: Any industrial, agricultural, animal or processed product
including raw elements and materials and components used in production.
• The Service: Any work carried out by the provider in favor of the
consumer for a consideration or free of charge.
• Trading: The sale, purchase, display, production, promotion,
transportation, storage or distribution of a commodity. The possession of a
trade in a prelude to the sale of the commodity is deemed as trading.
• Misleading Advertisement: Any advertisement that directly or indirectly
leads to defraud the consumer.
• Defect: Any reduction in the value of a commodity or service or the benefits
thereof for the intended purpose therefrom and which lead to partially or

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 completely preventing the consumer from benefiting from the commodity
or render the same unfit for use for the purpose for which the commodity
was made and in a manner that is beyond the control of the consumer.
• Standard Specifications: The mandatory standards approved by the
Directorate General for Specifications and Measurements (DGSM) at the
Ministry of Commerce and Industry.

PROHIBITED ACTIONS
• It shall be prohibited to trade in any commodity or provide any services
without meeting all the special health and safety conditions and obtaining
the licenses or permits from the competent body in the manner stipulated
by the regulations.
• It shall be prohibited to advertise any commodity or provide any service
except after obtaining the approval of the competent body.
• For any commodity or service that can cause damages to the consumer or
the consumer’s property upon use; a clear and specific warning must be
given in Arabic and English.
• It shall be prohibited to trade in any adulterated, corrupt, counterfeit
commodities or any commodities that are not authorized for trading and
the same may not be advertised and the regulations shall determine what
commodities shall be deemed as adulterated, corrupt or counterfeit.
• The authority shall issue periodic bulletins to inform consumers of the
prices of commodities and services offered at the markets and any changes
thereon and the expectations of the authority with regard to the market
changes for these commodities and services and the authority may include
in such bulletins a statement describing the disciplinary actions imposed
on violators.

CONSUMERS’ RIGHTS
• The right to gain access to correct information on the commodities being
purchased or used or the services received.
• The right for freedom of choice when selecting any commodity or service.
• The right to guarantee the quality of the commodity or service and to
acquire the same at the declared price.
• The right to all that guarantees the consumer’s health and safety upon
acquiring any commodity or receiving any service and safety from damages
or harms upon the normal and ordinary use of this commodity or service.
• The right to receive fair compensation for damages suffered by the
consumer or the property thereof and which results from the procurement
or ordinary use of the commodity or the receipt of the service.

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 • The right to represent the interests of the consumer upon the formulation
of consumer protection policies.
• The right to respect the consumers’ religious values and customs and
traditions upon being provided with any commodity or service.

THE OBLIGATIONS OF THE PROVIDER, ADVERTISER AND AGENT

• The provider and advertiser shall provide the consumer with correct
information on the commodity or the service, and in all cases, the provider
shall clearly state the price, weight, production and expiry date, the name
of the materials and components, the country of origin, and the number of
the standard and other information as contemplated under the regulation
in a clear manner and in Arabic on the commodity. This information may
also be written in languages other than Arabic.
• The provider and advertiser shall be under an obligation for transparency
and credibly and shall refrain from any acts of misleading publicity and
advertisement upon the promotion of the commodity or the services
offered to the consumer.
• The provider shall respect the religious values, customs and traditions
upon providing the consumer with any commodity or service.
• The provider shall guarantee the quality of the commodities and the
services delivered and rendered to the customer in terms of the conformity
with the standard specifications and health, safety and environmental
conditions.
• The provider shall provide the service to the consumer in an optimal
manner and in accordance with the purpose for which the service was
procured and shall guarantee the service provided for a time internal that
is appropriate for the nature of the service, failing this, the provider shall
refund the value of such service or the an amount compensating for any
shortfall therein or in the perform the service again in the optimal manner
as contemplated under the regulations.
• The provider shall provide the consumer with a document or invoice
legibly written in Arabic to prove the purchase by the consumer of the
commodity or the receipt by the consumer of the service and the invoice
shall include the basic information for the commodity or the service as
contemplated under the regulations.
• The provider shall take back the commodity and refund the price thereof
to the consumer or replace or repair the same free of charge in case the
consumer discovered that the commodity is defective.
• The provider shall guarantee the repairs and maintenance in accordance
with this law and the regulations.
• The provider who trades in used or defective commodities shall disclose
the condition of these commodities to the consumer and shall prove the
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 same in the contract or the invoice issued in the manner contemplated in
the regulations.
• The provider shall be prohibited from carrying out any promotional offers
or reduction on prices for the commodities or services except after
obtaining the licenses and permits form the competent bodies and after
coordinating with the authority to verify the prices in the manner
contemplated under the regulations.
• It shall be prohibited for the provider alone or by agreement with other
providers to engage in any practice aiming to monopolize the trading of a
commodity or the provision of a serviced in the manner contemplated
under the regulations.

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