CONTENT

1. Noun
2. Agreement to the subject with the verb
3. Pronoun
4. Adjectives
5. Tenses
6. Adverbs
7. Conjuctions
8. Prepositions
9. Parallelism
10. Active & Passive voice
11. Direct & Indirect
12. Modals
13. Article

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NOUN

A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, quality, condition and action. There
are five kinds of Noun –

(a) Proper Noun

(b) common Noun
(c) collective Noun
(d) Abstract Noun
(d) Material Noun

Noun Number Singlar A boy

Plural Boys

Gender Masculine Boy

Feminine Girl
Common Baby
Neuter Non-living things
Case Nominative Ram help Sita.
Objective Ram help Sita
Possessive Ram’s wife
 words Form Usage

Deer Same form both singular & plural Singular/plural depending

upon context

Hundred Three hundred people/Hundeds of Plural

people

Politics Looks plural singular

Spectacles Plural Plural

Cattle Looks singular plural

Furniture Singular singular

NOTE : to manage questions on number of noun. Try to make out sense of

sentence whether singular or plural which noun form is to used.

Important rule : Some nouns have the same form both in singular as well as in
plural.

For example:
(a) A deer was caught
(b) Deer were caught
Here, the singular and plural form of the noun Deer is same. Like Deer there are
other nouns that have the same form in Singular as well as plural form.
For example :-Sheep, apparatus, species, series , hundred, dozen, hair etc
Important rule: Nouns denoting large numbers are used both in singular and
plural form
For example:
(a) Three hundred people attended the function.
(b) Hundreds of people attended the party.
In sentence (a) ‘hundred’ is preceded by number ‘three’.So ‘hundred’ will take no
plural form. Word ‘three hundred’ indicates plurality.
But in sentence (b) ‘hundred ‘ is not preceded by any number. So to indicate
plurality, we will write ‘hundreds’
So, rule is that when words like hundred, dozen, thousand, pair, score are not
preceded by any word denoting number then they take the plural form,
otherwise not.
(a) Cola paid lakhs of rupees to Aamir Khan for promoting their poduct.
(b) I brought two dozen banans.
Important rule :- Tell which sentence is correct
(a) Since long no news has been heard.
(b) Since long no news have been heard.
Sentence (a) is correct. Some nouns are always used as singular though they look
like plural nouns.
Other similar words are politics, mathematics, physics gallows, means, billiards
,ethics summons, innings
For example
(a) politics is not my cup of tea.
(b) I received summons.
(c) Sachin once again played a superb innings
Important rule: Tell which sentence is corrct
(a) The spectacles that you are wearing are really nice.
(b) The spectacles that you are wearing is really nice.
Sentence (a) is correct.
The reason being that some noun words are always used in the plural form.
For example
Trousers, arms, drawers, assests, scales, alms, thanks, cards, ashes, riches,
premises, credentials, proceeds.
Important rule: Tell which sentence is correct
(a) The cattle was grazing in the field.
(b) The cattle were grazing in the field
Sentence (b) is correct. The reason being that some nouns are always used as
plurals though they look like singular.
Other nouns like this are public, people, folk, mankind, poultry, sheep, police,
gentry, peasantry, bulk, majority, etc
For example
(a) The majority are with the leader.
(b) police, though late, have come
(c) Public want results.
Important rule : Tell which sentence is correct.
(a) This project will lead to lots of expenditures.
(b) This project will lead to lots of expenditure.
Sentence (b) is correct. The reason is that some nouns are always used as
singular. Preceding adjectives or verb form indicates the singularity of plurality.
Other nouns are expenditure, furniture, information, machinery, issue,
offspring, alphabet, scenery , poetry.
For example
(a) All the furniture was bought last year.
(b) All the information was given to him.
Important rule: Meaning of some nouns in plural form is very different from the
meaning of nouns in singular form. Hence, that form should be used which will
convey the right meaning.
For example
(a) I opened the letter and read its contents.
(b) Her mouth was fixed in a smile of pure content.
(c) The conflict between good and evil is ages old.
(d) We must poduce goods at competitive prices.
(e) Delhites breathe the most polluted air in the world
(f) She was just putting on airs when she came to visit us/me.
(g) We should renounce the use of force to settle our despute.
(h) Families of people who died as a result of services in the forces should
not be ignored.
(i) I was very excited on my return to my home village.
(j) Early returns in the ballot indicate majority for opposition.
Following are rules regarding apostrophe
Rules regarding apostrophe S (‘s)
(a) Singular noun ‘s is added after the word.
(b) Singular noun Only an apostrophe is added when there are too many hissing
sounds.
For example
Moses’ laws, for goodness’ sake, For justice’sake.
(c) Plural nouns ending in s like boys, cows only (‘) is added after the word
(d) Plural nouns not ending in s like men, children (’s) is added after the word
(e) ‘S is added primarily after the living things and personified objects.
For example :
Governor’s bodyguard, horse’s head, Nature’s law, Fortune’s favourite.
(f) ‘S is not used with inanimate or non-living things.
For example
Leg of the table, cover of the book.
(g) But in nouns that denote time , distance or weight , ‘s is used.
For example
A stone’s throw, in a year’s time , the earth’s surface.
(h) Some other common phrases where ‘s is used are to his heart’s content, at
his wit’s end. Out of harm’s way
(i) When a noun consists of several words , the possessive sign is attached only
to the last word.
For example
(a) The Queen’s of England reaction is important in the Diana episode. (Incorrect)
(b) The Queen of England’s reaction is important in the Diana episode . ( correct)
Do not be mistake that since it is the Queen’s reaction, the ‘s should come after
queen. You might think that putting it after England would make the reaction
England’s and not the Queen’s. This is shortsightedness. Do not see Queen and
England in isolation, Queen of England is one whole unit and the apostrophe
should come at its end.
(j) When two nouns are in apposition, the possessive sign is put to the latter
only.
For example
(a) I am going to Stephen Hawking’s the scientist’s country. (Incorrect)
(b) I am going to Stephen Hawking the scientist’s country. ( correct)
(k) When two or more nouns show joint possession, the possessive sign is put to
the latter only.
For example
(a) Amitabh and Ajitabh are Bachchanji’s sons. So Bachchanji is Amitabh’s and
Ajitabh’s father. (Incorrect )
(b) Amitabh and Ajitabh are Bachchanji’s sons. So Bachchanji is Amitabhs and
Ajitabh’s father. (correct)
(i) When two or more nouns show separate possession, the possessive sign is
put with both.
For example
(a) The audience listened to Javed and Vajpayee’s poems. ( Incorrect )
(b) The audience listened to Javed’s and Vajpayee’s poem.(correct)

2. AGREEMENT TO THE SUBJECT WITH THE VERB

A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. Often due to ‘’Error of
proximity’’ the verb is made to agree in number with a noun near it instead of
with its proper subject.
For example
(a) The quality of the mangoes were not good. (Wrong since subject is quality, a
singular and not mangoes.)
(b) The quality of the mangoes was not good (Right)
(c) His knowledge of Indian vernaculars are far beyond the common. ( Wrong)
(d) His knowledge of Indian vernaculars is far beyond the common. (Right)
Important Rule : If two singular nouns express one idea, the verb is in the
singular.
For example
(a) Bread and Butter are essential for one’s life. (incorrect)
(b) Bread and Butter is essential for one’s life. (correct)
Important Rule : Verb should be singular even when some words are joined to a
singular subject by ‘ with ‘ , ‘ as will as’ etc.
For example
(a) The chairman, with the directors, is to be present.
(b) Silver, as well as cotton, has fallen in prices.
Important Rule : When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount
considered as a whole the verb is generally singular.
For example
(a) Five hours are too short a time to judge one’s character. (Incorrect)
(b) Five hours is too short a time to judge one’s charater. (correct )
This is so because five hours is considered as one chunk.
Important Rule : Two or more singular subjects connected by ‘or’ , ‘nor’ require
singular verb.
For example
(a) No nook or corner was left unexplored.
(b) Our happiness or our sorrow is largely due to our own actions.
Important Rule : When the subjects joined by ‘or’ ‘nor’ are different numbers,
the verb must be plural, and the plural must be placed next to the verb.
For example
(a) Neither Rekha nor her friends was present at the party. ( Incorrect )
(b ) Neither Rekha nor her friends were present at the party. (correct)
Important Rule : Either, neither, each, everyone, many a must be followed by a
singular verb.
For example
(a) Neither of the two men was very strong.
(b) Every one of the prisons is full.
(c) Many a man has done so.
(d) He asked whether either of the application was suitable.
Important Rule: Two nouns qualified by each or every , even though connected
by ‘and ‘ require a singular verb.
For example
Every boy and every girl was given a packet of sweets.
Important Rule : ‘None’ though singular commonly takes a plural verb.
For example
None are so deaf as those who will not hear.

3. PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun

Now consider the following cases

Since pronoun is used instead of a Noun, it must be of the same number, gender
and person as the noun for which it stands.

For example

Those beggars are [Link] refuse to work for their living.

Please consider the following two sentences.

(a) After a few hearings the jury gave its verdict.

( Pronoun ‘its’ is used in place of noun ‘jury’)

(b) The jury were divided in their opinions.

(pronoun ‘their’ is used in place of noun ‘jury’ )

You must be wondering why different pronoun ‘its’ and ‘their’ is used in place of
the same noun ‘jury’

The reason is when a pronoun stands for a collective noun it must be in the
singular number and neutral gender. (Sentence a )

But when collective noun conveys the idea of separate individuals comprising
the whole the pronoun standing for it must be of the plural number. In sentence
b, it is clear that members of the jury are not behaving as whole.

For example

(a) The committee is reconsidering its decision.

(b) The committee decided the matter without leaving their seats.

Major categories – rules

1. Noun pronoun verb- Agreement In person-number- gender throughout

sentence
2. Type of pronoun-for persons/things
3. Order of preference
4. Position-nearness
5. Case- subjective/objective/possessive

Noun-pronoun agreement in person, number,gender.

For example

(a) all passengers must show their (not his) tickets.

(b) I am not one of those who believe everything they (not I) hear

Important Rule: When two or more singular nouns are joined by ‘and ‘ the
pronoun used for them must be plural.

For example
Rama and Hari work hard. Their teachers praise them.

But when two Singular nouns joined by ‘and’ refer to the same person or thing,
the pronoun should be singular.

For example

The Secretary and Treasurer is negligent of his [Link] the same person is
acting as Secretary and Treasurer. That’s why singular prounoun is used.

Important Rule : When two singular nouns joined by ‘and’ are preceeded by
‘each’ or ‘every’, then the pronoun must be singular

For example

Every soldier and every sailor was in his place.

Importand Rule : When two or more singular nouns are joined by ‘or’ ,
‘either…or’ , ‘neither…nor’ , the pronoun is generally singular

For example

(a) Neither Abdul nor Rehman has done his lessons

(b) Either Rama or Hari must help his friend

Important Rule : When a plural and a singular noun are joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ ,
the pronoun must be in the plural

For example

Either the manager or his assistants failed in their duty.

Rules regarding personal pronouns

Rule: 123 order of preference = 1>2>3

When a pronoun refers to more than one noun or pronouns of different

persons.,it must be of the first person plural in preference to the second and of
the second person plural in preference to the third.
For example

You and I , husband and wife, have to look after you home.( Incorrect)

You and I, husband and wife, have to look after our home.(correct)

Case – subjective/objective/possessive

Important Rules: To complement of the verb be , when it is expressed by a

pronoun, should be in the nominative form.

For example:

(a) it was he (not him)

(b ) It is I (not me ) that gave the prizes away.

(c) It might have been he (not him).

Tell which sentence is correct.

(a) The presents are for you and me. (a)

(b) The presents are for you and I. (b)

Sentence (a) is correct. Pronoun has to agree with the case. Here it is the
objective case. So ‘me’ should be used instead of ‘I’

For example

My uncle asked my brother and me to dinner.

Important Rule: Tell which sentence is correct

(a) He loves you more than I.

(b) He loves you more than me.

Sentence (a) is correct ‘Than’ is a conjunction joining clauses And the case of the
pronoune to be used may be found by writing the clauses in full. So, in sentence
(a). To clauses joined by ‘than’ are ‘He loves you more’ and ‘I love you ‘. Being a
subjective case. ‘I’ should be used.

For example

(a) He is taller than I (am)

(b) He loves you more than (he loves ) me.

Rules regarding relative pronouns

On combining each of the above pairs into one sentence

(a) This is the boy who works hard ( Who in place of He)

(b) This is the boy whose exercise is done well. ( whose in place of His )

(c) This is the boy whome all praise. (whom in place of Him)

The above senteces show when to use who, whose and whome. Who is the
subjective case, Whose the possessive case and Whome is the objective case.

Who persons

Whose persons/things

Which Things / life

Who, Which, Whome, That, Whose should be placed as near to the antecedent
as possible.

For example:

I with my family reside in Delhi,which consists of my wife and parents.

This sentence is wrong as which relates to ‘my’ family’

So ‘which’ should be placed as near to family’ as possible.

So, the correct sentence is : I with my family which, consists of my wife and
parents, reside in Delhi.
Who is used in the nominative cases and Whome is the objective case

For example:
(a) There is [Link], who (not whom) they say is the best painter in the town.

(b) The Student, whom (not who) you thought so highly of, has failed to win the
first prize.

When the subject of a verb is a relative pronoun, the verb should agree in
number and person with the antecedent of the relative.

For example :

(a) This is one of the most interesting novels that have (not has) appeared this
year. (Here, antecedent of relative pronoun that is novels and not one)

(b) This is the only of his poems that is (not are) worth reading.

When ‘one’ is used as pronoun, its possessive form ‘one’s sould follow instead
of his, or her etc

For example:

One must put one’s best efforts if one wishes to succeed.

With let’ objective case of the pronoun is used

For example :

Let you and me do it.

If a pronoun has two antecedents, it should agree with the nearer one.

For example:

(a) I hold in high esteem everything and everbody who reminds me of my failures.

(b) I hold in high esteem everybody and everything, which reminds me of my

failures.
In referring to anybody, everybody, anyone ,each etc. the pronoun of the
masculine or the feminine gender is used according to the context.

For example:

(a) I shall be glad to help everyone of my boys in his studies.

(b) I shall be glad to help everyone of my girls in her studies

(c) It shall be glad to help everyone of my students in his studies.

But when gender is not determined ,the pronoun of the masculine gender is used
as in sentence c.

The pronoun one should be used thoughout, if used at all.

For example :

(a) One must use one’s best efforts if one wishes to succeed.

(b) One should be careful about what one say.

Plural is commonly used with none.

For example:

(a) None of his poems are well known.

(b) none of these words are now current.

Anyone should be used when more than two persons or things are spoken of.

For example

She was taller than anyone of her five sisters.

4. ADJECTIVES
Adjective are the words that describe the qualities of a noun or pronoun in a
given sentence.

Consider the following

Tell which sentence is correct.

(a) Flowers are plucked freshly.

(b) Flowers are plucked fresh.

Sentence b is correct as ; adjective is correctly used with a verb when some

quality of the subject rather than verb is to be expressed. Here, fresh describes
the word Flowers (a noun) and not plucked (a verb) .

Types of adjectives

Types of adjectives Examples

Adjectives of quality Good, bad , red, black

Adjectives fo quantity Some, any , little, few

Adjectives of number Cardinal-one, two,three

Ordinal- first, second , third

Possessive adjectives My, our, your

Distributive adjectives Each, every, either

Demonstrative adjectives This, That, those

Interrogative adjectives What, which ,who..

From above table you can see that many words are behave as pronoun as well
as Adjectives depending upon the context in which these words are used in a
sentence.

Rules regarding demonstrative adjective

Rules regarding distributive adjectives

Rule: ‘Each’ is used when reference is made to the individuals forming any
group. Each is also used when the number of the group is limited and definite

For example:

(a) I was in Shimla for five days and it rained each day.

‘Every’ is used when reference is made to total group or when the number is
indefinite.

For example:

(a) Every seat was taken.

(b) I go for a movie every week.

(c) leap year falls in every fourth year.

Rule : Each , either, neither and every are always followed by the singular noun.

For example:

(a) Each boy must take his turn.

(b) Every word of it is false.

(c) Neither accusation is true.

Rules regarding adjectives of quantity

‘Some’ is used in affirmative sentences to express quantity or degree.

For example:
I shall buy some bananas.

Any is used in the negative or interrogative sentences to express quantity or

degree.

For example:

(a) I shall not buy any bananas.

(b) Have you bought any bananas ?

But ‘some’ is an exception to the above rule. Some is used in interrogative

sentences, which are commands or requests.

For example:

Will you please lend me some money ?

‘Few’ is used for countable objects and little is used for uncountable objects.

‘little’ means not much. So use of the word little has a negative meaning.

For example:

(a) There is little hope of his recovery.

(b) He has little appreciation of hard work.

‘A little’ means some though not much. So, use of a little has a positive
meaning.

For example:

(a) There is a little hope of his recovery.

(b) He has a little appreciation of hard work.

‘The little’ means not much but all there is.

For example:

(a) The little information he had was quite reliable.

(b) The little knowledge of management he possessed was not sufficient to
stand him in good stead.

‘Few’ mean not many. So use of the word few has a negative meaning.

For example:

Few men are free from faults.

‘ A few ‘ means some. So use of ‘a few’ has a positive meaning.

For example:

A few men are free from faults.

‘The few’ means not many, but all there are

For example:

(a) The few remarks that he made were very good.

Only uncountable nouns follow much, little, some, enough, sufficient and whole

For example:

(a) I ate some rice.

(b) There are not enough spoons.

Rules regarding interrogative adjectives

‘What’ is used in the general sense and ‘which ‘ is used in a selective sense.

For example:

(a) Which of you haven’t brought your book ?

(b) What manner of man is he ?

Rules regarding degrees of comparison of adjectives

Rule:
Comparative degree:- When two objects are compared with each other, the
latter term of comparison must exclude the former.

For example:

(a) Delhi is bigger than any other city in India.

Superlative degree :- In a comparison by means of a superlative the latter term

should include the former.

For example:

(a) Delhi is the biggest of all cities in India.

(b) Of all men he is the strongest.

Kindly note the difference in this and the previous rule.

Rule : Later and latest refer to time.

For example:

(a) He came later than I expected.

(b) This is the latest news.

Rule : Latter and last refer to position.

For example:

(a) The last player could not bat as he was injured.

(b) The latter chapteres are very interesting.

Latter is used when there are two only,

‘last’ when there are more than two.

For example :

(a) Of Manohar, Syam and Joshi, the latter is a driver. (incorrect)

(b) Of Manohar, Syam and Joshi, the last is a driver. (correct)

Rule : ‘ Elder and eldest ‘ are used only of persons ( usually members of the
same family )

For example:

(a) My elder sister is doing MBA from IIM Ahemdabad.

(b) My eldest brother is getting married today.

‘Older and oldest’ are used of both persons and things.

For example:

(a) This is the oldest building in the city.

(b) Anthony is the oldest boy in the class.

Rule: ‘Further’ means more distant or advanced whereas ‘farther’ is a variation

of further and means at a distance – both the words can be used to indicate
physical distance.

For example:

(a) No one discussed the topic further.

(b) Calcutta is farther from the equator than Colombo.

Rule : The comparative degree is generally followed by ‘than’ but comparative

adjectives ending in ‘is’ or ‘are’ are followed by the preposition ‘to’

For example:

(a) Akshay is inferior to Aamir in intelligence.

(b) Aamir is superior to Akshay in intelligence.

(c) He is junior to me.

(d) Who was captain prior to azhar?

Rule : we can not compare perfection !

Adjectives such as square, round,perfect, eternal, universal, unique do not

admit of different degrees. So they cannot be compared.

Thus strictly speaking we cannot say that a thing is more square more round or
more perfect. But sometimes we do make exceptions to this rule.

For example:

This is the most perfect specimen I have seen.

Rule : When ‘than’ or ‘as’ is followed by the third person pronoun, the verb is to
be repeated.

For example:

Ram is not as clever as his brother is.

Rule : When ‘than’ or ‘as ‘ is followed by first or second person pronoun, the
verb can be omitted.

For example:

He is more intelligent than you.

Rule : In comparing two things or classes of things the comparative should be

used.

For example:

(a) Of two evils choose the lesser (not least)

(b) Which is the better (not best) of the two ?

Rule : A very common form of error is exemplified in the following sentence,

(a) The population of London is greater than any town in India.

(b) The population of London is greater than that of any town in India.

Sentence (b) is correct as the comparison is between the population of London

and the population of any town in India.

Rule : Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided.

For example:

(a) Seldom had the little town seen a more costlier funeral.( wrong)

(b) Seldom had the little town seen a costlier funeral. (Right)

Rule : Preferable has the forced of comparative and is followed by ‘to’. Phrase
‘more preferable’ should not be used.

For example:

(a) Coffee is more preferable to tea. (Wrong)

(b) Coffee is preferable to tea. (Right)

Rule : ‘Less’ refers to quantity whereas ‘fewer ‘ refer to number.

For example:

(a) No fewer than fifty miners were killed in the explosion.

(b) We do not sell less than ten kg of tea.

Rule : Certain adjectives do not really admit of comparison because their

meaning is already superlative. Such words are unique, ideal, perfect ,
complete, universal, entire, extreame , chief, full, square , round. Therefor
phrases like most unique, more round, fullest, chiefest etc. are wrong.

Rule : If there is a gradual increase it is generally expressed with two

comparatives and not with positives.
For example :

(a) it grew hot and hot. (incorrect)

(b) It grew hotter and hotter.( correct)

5. TENSES

1. Tense is the form taken by a verb to indicate time and continuous or

completeness of action. The continuous completeness of action is denoted
by four subcategoris.

(a) Simple Tense It is used for habitual or routine actions in the present Tense,
action which is over in the Past Tense & action to happen in the Future
Tense.

(b) Continuous Tense The action is incomplete or continuous or going on.

(c) Perfect Continuous Tense The action is going on continuously over a long
period of time and is yet to be finshed.

2. The different tenses and the verb forms used in each tense are given below

Name of Tenses Verb forms used

Present Present simple V1 + s/es

Present continuous Is/am/are + verb + ing

 Present perfect Has/Have + v3

Present Perfect continuous Has/Have + been + verb + ing

Past past simple V2

Past continuous Was/Were + verb + ing

Past perfect Had + v3

Past Perfect continuous Had + been + verb + ing

Future Future simple Shall/will + verb

Furture continuous Shall/will + be + verb + ing

Future pefect Shall/will + have + V3

Future pefect continuous Shall/will + have been + verb +

ing

More rules for verbs and Tenses

SIMPLE PRESENT

1. To express a habitual action

For example:

(a) I get up every day at five o’clock.

2. To express general truths.

For example:

Fortune favours the brave.

Important Rule : If the subject is of the third person, singular number ( He, She,
it ) add ‘S’ or es/ies’ to the first form of the verb to make it singular number.

For example:

She plays the violin every day.

He loves his parents

The dog barks at the people.

The bird flies in the Sky.

He does his duty.

Present continuous : For an action going on at the time of speaking

For example:

The boys are playing cricket in the ground.

Present perfect : To indicate the completed activities in the immediate past.

For example:

He has just gone out.

The present perfect is never used with adverbs of the past time. In such cases
the past simple should be used.

For example

I have seen a film last night . (wrong)

I saw a film last night. (right)

He has left for Hyderabad last week. (wrong)

He left for Hyderabad last week.( right)

Important Rule: The present perfect tense with ‘’ For or Since’’ is used to
express an action began at some time in the past and is still continuing upto the
time of speaking just finished.

For………………… period of time ( for 2 days / for 10days / for a long time )

Since………………point of time. ( Since 1996, Since morning, since yesterday,

since last week )

Ex. I know him since 1986 ( X )

I have know him since 1986 (√ )

Our teacher is sick for the last two days. ( X )

Our teacher has been sick for the last two days. (√ )

Present perfect continuous:-

action, which began at some time in the past and is still continuing. With the
present perfect continuous tense an adverb or phrase that express time is used.

For example:

I have been reading this book since morning.

Important Rule: The present perfect continuous Tense ‘’ is also used for actions
began in the past and are still continuing.

I am reading this novel since morning. ( X )

I have been reading this noel since morning. (√ )

They are going to English classes for the last one month. ( X )

They have been going to English classes for the last one month. (√ )

Past simple:- To indicate an action completed in the past.

Generally , adverbs or adverb phrases of past time are used in the past simple
tense.
 For example:

(a) The steamer sailed yesterday.

Past perfect:-

The Past perfect tense is used when two actions happened in the past. In this
case it is necessary to show which action happened earlier than the other. Here
past perfect is used for the action, which happened earlier.

For example;

(a) When I reached the station the train had started.

Important Rule: - When the first action led to the second action immediately
The simle past Tense + Simple Past Tense are used.

When he opened the gate, they came in. (√ )

Important Rule: - When the first action completed befor the second one started,
the Past Perfect Tense for the first finished action and the Simple Past Tense for
the Second are used.

The patient had died before the doctor arrived . (√ )

More Rules on verb & tenses.

Important Rule: - When the verb in the principal clause is in a past tense, the
verbs in the subordinate clauses are normally in the Past Tense.

He said that he will pass the examination. ( X )

He said that he would pass the examination. (√ )

They told me that they have paid the fees. ( X )

They told me that they had paid the fees. (√ )

Important Rule: - When the subordinate clause expresses a universal truth the
past tense in the main clause may be followed by a Present Tense.

He said that the sun rose in the East. ( X )

 He said that the sun rose in the East. (√ )

Important Rule: - The Past Tense in the main clause may be followed by any
tense after the conjuctin ‘’Than’’ in the subordinate clause.

He worked faster than we do/did(√ )

Important Rule: - In Conditional Sentences, to express improbability in the

Present, the Simple Past Tense in the if clause and the Present Conditional
Tense in the main clause are used.

If I am the Principal, I would Punish Him ( X )

If I were the Principal, I would Punish Him. . (√ )

If he is rich, he would buy a car. ( X )

If he were rich, He would buy a car. (√ )

Important Rule: - To express unfulfilled condition in the Past we should express

with ‘’Past Perfect Tense’’ in the if clause and Perfect Conditional Tense in the
Main Clause.

If you worked hard, you would have passed in the examination.( X )

If you had worked hard, you would have passed in the examination.(√ )

Important Rule: - No other conjunction should be used as a connective word, in

indirect speech when the question indirect speech begins with ‘’why (or) How’’
question words.
He asked me that who my best friend was. (X)

He asked me who my best friend was. (√ )

He asked me that how I got time to write all posts in my Blog. (X)

He asked me how I got time to write all posts in my Blog. (√ )

Important Rule: - No preposition is used after the verb ‘’told’’
He told me that he passed the examination.(X)
 He told me that he had passed the examination. (√ )
Important Rule: - The question forms in direct speech should be changed to
affirmative sentences in indirect speech.
The receptionist asked me who do I want to meet in the office. (X)

The receptionist asked me whome do I want to meet in the office. (√ )

Important Rule: -The verb ‘’suggest’’ purpose indirect speech should be
followed by ‘’that clause’’ with the auxiliary verb ‘’ should’’
He suggestes me to go for a walk every morning. (X)

He suggested to me that I should go for a walk every morning. (√ )

Important Rule: - In the absence of an indirect object after ‘’suggest’’ a gerund
form is used.

He suggested going for a walk every morning. (√ )

Important Rule: - The verb ‘’Tell’’ should be used with an object.
He told that he had passed in the test. (X)

He said that he had passed in the test (√ ) OR

He told me that he had passed in the test.(√ )

Conditionals Important !

Type if – clause Main clause Example

1. Simple Present Will- future or (Modal + If it rains tomorrow,

infinitive ) we’ll go to the cinema.

2. Simple Past Would + infinitive If had a lot of money, I

would travel around
the world

3. Past Perfect Would + Have + Past If I had gone to bed

participle early, I would have
caught the train.
 6. Adverbs

What are Adverbs ?

An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb It ‘’qualifies’’ or ‘’modifies’’
a verb.
Lets try to understand this with a small example

Adverb Example

Rinku sulakh walks gracefully (The word ‘gracefully’ is an adverb. It modifies

the verb ‘to walk’.)
Shortcut Rule:
The adverbs ‘’too much’’ is used with nouns and ‘’much too’’ is used with
adjectives.
Too much pain/ To much sincerity ( Nouns)
Much too painful / much too careless (Adjectives)
Example:-
His failure is too much painful for me (X)
His failure is much too painful for me.(√ )
His wife’s rude behavior gives him much too pain. (X)
His wife’s rude behavior gives him too much pain.(√ )
Shortcut Rule:-
Before the word “Enough’’ an adjective under positive form should be
used.
He is more intelligent enough to follow you. (X)
He is intelligent enough to follow you. (√ )

She is enough lucky to get the job. (X)

She is lucky enough to get the job.(√ )
Shortcut Rule:-
The adverb quite (‘quite means perfectly / completely ) should not be
used with the adjective ‘handsome’
He is quite handsome.( X)
He is very handsome.(√ )

Shortcut Rule:-
Late / Lately. The adverb ‘late’ indicates time and lately means recently.

He was punished for coming lately.( X)

He was punished for coming late .(√ )

Shortcut Rule:-
When we begin a sentence with ‘seldom / never / hardly / rarely /
scarcely / barely / neither / never, the rule of inversion should be applied
(i.e) an auxiliary verb is used before the subject.
Hardly he goes to school. ( X )
Hardly does he go to school. (√ )

Seldom I go to films. ( X )
Seldom do I go to films. (√ )

No sooner the school bell rings than all the boys go to their class rooms. ( X)
No sooner does the school bell rings than all the boys go to their class
rooms. (√)

After Only + adverbial expression.

Only by working hard, he got success. ( X )
Only by working hard, did he get success. (√ )

Not Only but also

Not only she reads but also she writes. ( X )
 Not only does she read but also writes. (√ )

Shortcut Rule:-
The adverbial Phrase ‘ No less than’ should be used with uncountable
nouns whereas ‘No fewer than’ is used with countable nouns.
There were no less than forty people who were killed in the accident. ( X )
No fewer than forty people who were killed in the accident. (√ )

Shortcut Rule:-
The adverb (As) is not used after call and consider.
He called me as a fool ( X )
He called me a fool. (√ )
I always consider him as my brother. ( X )
I always consider him my brother. (√ )

Shortcut Rule:-
The derived adjectives such as interested / pleased / satisfied / delighted
are used with ‘much ‘ but not ‘very’
I am very interested to play cricket. ( X )
I am much interested to play cricket. (√ )

Shortcut Rule:-
The adverb ‘very’ is used with positive adjectives and ‘much’ with
comparative adjective forms.
Shortcut Rule:-
‘Very much’ should be used with comparative forms.

It is very much better to stay here tonight . (√ )

 7. Conjuctions

Shortcut Rule:-
The co-relative conjunction are used in pairs.
Not Only – but also , Either – or , Neither – nor ,Both – and , Though – yet ,
whether – or
Please see that the pair is properly used.
They will either do the work else return the money. ( X )
They will either do the work or return the money (√ )
Both kumar as well as Ravi must finish it ( X )
Both kumar and Ravi must finish it. (√ )

Not only does he read but also writes. (√ )

Though he is rich but he is economical. ( X )
Though he is rich yet he is economical. (√ )

Shortcut Rule:-
After the adverbs ‘’Hardly / scarcely’’ , the conjuction ‘when or before’
should be used.
Hardly had he left the place than the Bomb exploded (X)
Hardly had he left the place when the Bomb exploded. (√ )

Shortcut Rule:-
After ‘Rather / Other, the subordinating conjuction’ Than should be used.
He has no other object but to get a handsome job. (X)
He has no other object than to get a handsome job. (√ )
 I would rather buy a scooter but not a cycle. (X)
I would rather buy a scooter than a cycle. (√ )

Shortcut Rule:-
After the subordinating conjuction ‘lest’ the auxiliary ‘should’ is used.
Lest – for fear / If it is not so.
Work hard lest you fail. (X)
Work hard lest you should fail. (√ )

Shortcut Rule:-
The connecting word ‘ that ‘ is used with the adjective phrase ‘ the same /
the only / superlative adjectives / all
This is the same book which I wanted. (X)
This is the same book that I wanted. (√ )

Shortcut Rule:-
The conjunction ‘ or ‘ is used with not / never.
I have never spoken to him nor written to him. (X)
I have never spoken to him or written to him. (√ )

Shortcut Rule:-
With the word ‘ such ‘ the connective ‘ that’ may be used.
There was such a noise what we could not hear ourselves. (X)
There was such a noise that we could not hear ourselves. (√ )

Shortcut Rule:-
Until - Denotes Time , Unless – Denotes condition
 You wil not succeed until you work hard. (X)
You wil not succeed unless you work hard. (√ )

I want to stay here unless she speaks the truth.(X)

I want to stay here until she speaks the truth. (√ )
You cannot do well until you prepare youself. (X)
You cannot do well unless you prepare youself. (√)

Shortcut Rule:-
The adverb’ Not’ should not be used with the connective ‘Till / unless /
lest / until’ in that clause.
Until he does not solve this problem, I will stay with him. (X)
Until he solves this problem, I will stay with him. (√)

Unless they do not work sincerely, they will not succeed. (X)
Unless they work sincerely, they will not succeed. (√)

Shortcut Rule:-
When ‘since’ is used as a conjunction should be preceded by present
perfect tense and followed by a verb in the past tense to denote point of time
Many things have happened since I have left the school. (X)
Many things have happened since I left the school. (√)

Shortcut Rule:-
With the conjunction ‘if‘ , ‘then‘ should not be used
If you work for 8 hours a day, then you will get through the examination.(X)
If you work for 8 hours a day, you will get through the examination. (√)

Shortcut Rule:-
 When two objects are joined by ‘as well / besides / along with / together
with / in addition to / except / including with, the verb agree with the first
subject in number.
He as well as his students have gone there. (X)

He as well as his students has gone there. (√)

8. Prepositions

Shortcut Rule:-
Across – on the opposite side of

My Cousin lives across the river. √

Across – From one side to another.
The boy swam across the river.
Across – both sides
He threw the luggage across his shoulders
Come Across – means meet accidentaly / suddenly

When I was going to market to market, I came across an old friend. √

I suddenly came across him. (X)

I came across him. √

Shortcut Rule:-
Between :- Used for two persons / things.
 The match will be played between India and Australia (√ )
Among :- used with more than two persons / things.
The principal distributed prizes among the winners.
Amid or Amidst :- Used for more than two persons / things (groups)
Amid his friends.
It was hard to hear amid all the cheering.
Shortcut Rule:-
During :- denotes duration.
During the war, many people suffered hardship.
We go to Darjeeling during summer every year.

Shortcut Rule:-
Of – denotes origin / cause
She comes of a rich family (origin)
He died of Malaria (cause) but she died in an accident.
Off – denotes ‘separation’
A button has come off.
He is off duty today.

Beside ( ds cxy esa ½ Besides

(i) He sat beside me.
(ii) Besides his children, his nephews and nieces were also present at the
ceremnony.

On upon

(i) The book is on the table

(ii) The cat jumped upon the rat.
Over

(i) We need a roof over our head.

(ii) The bridge was built over the river.
(iii) Put a blanket over the baby.

Over Under

(i) There is a fan over your head.

(ii) A cat is sitting under the table.

In Into

(i) We are sitting in the classroom.

(ii) The boy jumped into the river.

Up Down Upto

(i) He climbed up the tree.

(ii) He ran down the stairs.
(iii) Children can get free education upto the age of 14.

On time ( ) In time ( )

(i) we reach the examination center in time

(ii) The examination starts on time.

Before ( ) In front of ( )

(i) I came before you.

 (ii) India raised the issue of cross-border terrorism before the U.N
(iii) Don’t park your car in front of my gate.

At – for small place , In – for large place

(i) I live at Mukherji Nagar in Delhi.

In spite of ) Despite ( )

(i) In spite of working hard, he failed.

By (for vehicle ) – In
(i) I am sitting in the car. (√)
(ii) I am going in car. (X)
(iii) I am going by car. (√)
On + foot
(i) I go to coaching on foot.

At - exact time (hour)

In - month / year , morning / evening
On - day / date , morning /evening + day/ date
(i) in may , in 2005 , in the morning/evening.
(ii) on Monday , on 7th September, on Sunday morning/evening.
(iii) at dawn, at dusk, at day break , at sunrise, at noon sunset ,
at night, at midnight

➢ No preposition is used befor :- today, tomorrow, yesterday, the following

day, the next day,yesterday evening, yesterday afternoon, last night,this
afternoon , tonight, tomorrow morning, tomorrow evening.

After – Before
(i) He returned India after a long time.
(ii) I left America before Christmas.

Till /until - point of time

(i) The Government will no pass any bill until/till next session.
 Against :- ( Opposite )
(i) It is difficult to sail against current.
(ii) I am against terrorism.
(iii) Do not stand against the railing. You may fall down
With )
(i) I am with you through all thick and thin.

Beyond ( )

The case is beyond the jurisdiction of the court.

Above / Below :- level , standard, level, mark ( ) - above

level , standard, level, mark - below

(i) The river is flowing above the danger level.

(ii) His English is below average.

Of :-
➢ Table’s wood (x) 2. Chair’s leg (x)
Wood of table (√) Leg of chair (√)
➢ Origin :-
▪ He comes of a royal family.
➢ - die of – die from
▪ He died of cancer.
▪ He died from thirst.
➢ Relation :-
▪ The problems of Delhi.

Off :- Separation
(i) Keep the dog off the flower beds.

Behind :- ( )
(i) The police are running behind the thief.
(ii) She hid behind the curtain.
Shortcut Rule:-

When two words are connected by ‘and / or’ etc. the prepositions should be
mentioned clearly to be used with them.

He was surprised at as well as pleased with her performance. √

She is conscious and engaged in her work ( X)
She is conscious of and engaged in her work (√)

Shortcut Rule:-
No preposition should be used with the noun ‘Home’ except when it is followed
by an adjective in the possessive case ,
Go to home / arrive home / reach home / get home.

I went to his home /He went home. (√)

He decided to go to krishna’s home. (√)

Shortcut Rule:-
After transitive verbs such as ‘Discuss / Describe/ reach / order / tell / demand /
attach / resemble / ridicule etc. no preposition is used.
The verbs directly take an object.
The poet describes about the beauty of nature. (X )
The poet describes the beauty of nature. (√)

He ordered for two cups of tea. ( X )

He ordered two cups of tea. (√)

Shortcut Rule:-
After the verbs ‘’Say / suggest / propose / speak / exaplain / reply / complain /
talk / listen / write ‘’ the proposition ‘’to’’ should be used if any object is used .
He did not reply me . ( X )
He did not reply to me. (√)
 You never wrote me. ( X )
You never wrote to me. (√)

He suggested her that she should eat less. ( X )

He suggest to her that she should eat less. (√)

Shortcut Rule:-
Since – Denotes point of time , For – denots period of time.
They should be used with present tense or the present perect continuous tense
/ past perfect tense / past perfect continuous tenses.
I know her since 2011 (X)
I have known her since 2011. (√)

He is working in the bank for the past 3 years. ( X )

He has been working in the bank for the past 3 years. (√)

Shortcut Rule:-
After the verb ‘’Enter’’ the preposition ‘’into’’ should not be used except when it
is used with reference to agreement or conversation.
He entered into the premises without any permission ( X )

He entered the premises without any permission . (√)

They entered a hot discussion. ( X )

They entered into a hot discussion. (√)

Shortcut Rule:-
Wait for – Await, Despite – inspite of
He is awaiting for the reply. ( X )
He is awaiting the reply. (√)

Despite of his hard work, he failed in the examination. ( X)

 Despite his hard work, he failed in the examination. (√)

This book comprises of 5 chapters. ( X )

This book consists of 5 chapters. (√)

Shortcut Rule:-
Dispose of – Sell away.

He disposed off his scooter. ( X )

He disposed of his scooter. (√)

Important Rule :- For the interrogative sentence that begin with auxiliary verbs
,’’if or whether as a connective word in indirect speech.
He said to me,’’Are you going there ?’’ ( X )
He asked me if I was going there. (√)

9. Parallelism
Definition of parallelism :-
The balance between two or more similar words,
Phrases or clauses is called parallelism in grammar.
Parallelism is also called parallel structure of parallel construction. Parallel
construction prevents awkwardness , promotes clarity and improves writing
style and readability.
Rules of parallelism
Parallelism is used to balance nouns with nouns, prepositional phrases with
prepositional phrases, particiles with particles, infinitives with infinitives , clauses
with clauses.
Parallelism is used with elements joined by coordinating conjunctions.
My mother likes cooking and to read ( X )
My mother likes cooking and reading (√)

Parallelism is used with elements in lists or in a series.

The task can be done individually, in pairs, or can be done in groups of four. ( X)
The task can be done individually, in pairs, or in groups of four. (√)

Parallelism is used with elements being compared .

She is mad about watching TV more than to read a book ( X)

She is mad about watching TV more than to reading a book. (√)

Parallelism is used with elements joined by linking words.

The teacher not only wants his students to keep quiet but also to do the task. ( X)
The teacher wants his students not only to keep quiet but also to do the task. .(√)

Nouns
He likes music, art ,and science.

Gerunds
He likes dancing , Swimming, and painting. ( verb + ing form )

Adjectives
He is tall, cool, and handsome(adj.)
They wanted to paint, the living room, to lay a new carpet, and to buy a
new sofa. (infin.)

Past perfect Tense

He had finished the game, had taken a shower, and had eaten lunch ,by the
time I went to his house.
The structure joined by and , but, as, or then, or although must have the same
grammatical form.

And
He enjoyed the music of spain and the sculpture of France (Noun phrase)

But :
That verb form is not active, but passive ( Adj.)

As :
Taking the bus can be as costly as taking a plane ( V + ing )

Or :
He wanted to borrow a car or to rent one while his car was being repaired (infin.)

Than :
Eating in a restaurant is more fun than cooking at home

Although:
Although he liked to eat good food , he did not like to pay high prices for it. (infin.)

10. Voice: Active & Passive

Active sentence : - sub. + verb + obj.

Passive sentence :- obj + verb + sub.

Rules of changes : Active sentence to passive sentence

1. Change
subject ⟶ object and object ⟶ subject
 Change of Subject Change of Object
Active passive Active passive
I Me Me I
We Us
Us We
You You
You You
He Him
She her Him He
They Them Her She
Name Name It It

2. change of verb
Active verb Passive verb
Do/does + I Form (s/es) Is /am /are + III form
Is /am /are + IV form Is /am /are + being + III form
Has /have + III form Has/have + been + being +III form
Has /have + been + IV form Has/have + being + III form
II form /did + I form Was / were + III form

Was /were + IV form Was/were + being + III form

Had + III form Had + been + III form
Had + been + IV form Had + been + being + III form
Shall /will + I form Shall / will + be + III form
Shall/will + be + IV form Shall/will + be + III form
Shall /will + have + III form Shall /will + have + been + III form
Shall/will + have + been + IV form Shall/will + have +been+being+III
form
❖ Structure wise change of Active Sentences :
❖ Change of Affirmative Sentences
Sub + Active verb + object
Passive : Object + Passive verb + Pre + Sub
A: I have completed my work.
P: My work has been completed by me.
❖ Interrogative sentence : (helping verb )
 H.V + sub + Active verb + obj ?
H.V + Obj + Passive Verb + pre + sub?
Did he complet his work ?
Was his work completed by him ?
❖ With ‘wh’ word :
Wh word + H.V +Sub + active verb + obj ?
Wh word + H.V + Obj + Passive verb + pre + Sub ?
Why are you beating him?
Why is he being beaten by you ?
❖ With ‘Who’ – (sub)
Who + H.V + M.V + Obj ?
(i) as a Wh. Word
Who + H.V + Obj + Passive Verb + Pre ?
(ii) As a sub.
By whom + H.V + obj. + M.V?

Who has completed this work ?

(i) who has this work been completed by ?
(ii) By whom has this work been completed ?

❖ With ‘Whom’ – ( obj. animate)

Whom + H.V + Sub. + M.V ?

Who + H.V + M.V + pre + Sub ?
Whom did you teach ?
Who was taught by you ?

❖ With ‘what '

As a sub:
What + H.V + M.V + Obj ?
 What + H.V. + Obj + Passive verb + pre ?

What has amazed you ?

What have you been amazed with/at ?

❖ As an obj :
What + H.V + Sub. + M.V ?
What + H.V + M.V + Pre + Sub ?
What do you eat ?
What is eaten by you ?

❖ With ‘Which’
Which + noun + verb + Obj. ?
(i) By which + noun + H.v + Obj. + M.V
(ii) Which + noun + H.V + Obj. + M.V. + Pre ?

Which girl loves Vikram ?

(i) By which girl is Vikram loved ?
(ii) Which girl is Vikram loved by ?

❖ Imperative Sentence :
(i) Simple imperative:
Active : I form + Obj.
Passive: Let + Obj + be + III form
You are asked to + I form + Obj.

Ex. Open the door

➢ Let the door be opened
➢ You are asked to open the door.

(ii) Moral imperative

I form + Obj.
Passive : Obj + should + be + III form
You are advised to + I form + Obj.
Ex. Help the poor
➢ The poor should be helped.
➢ You are advised to help the poor.
(iii) Kindly / Please
Kindly / Please + I form + Obj.
Passive : You are requested to + I form + Obj.
Let + Obj + be + III form
Ex. Please help me
(i) You are requested to help me.
(ii) Let me be helped

(iv) Don’t (forbid)

Don’t + I form + Obj.
(i) You are forbidden to + I form + Obj.
(ii) You are requested not to + I form + Obj.
(iii) Let + Obj. + not + be + III form

Ex. Don’t disturb me

(i) You are forbidden to disturb me.
(ii) You are requested not to disturb me.
(iii) Let me not be disturbed.

(v) Don’t ( Prohibition, warning )

Don’t + I form + Obj.

Passive : You are prohibited/to + I form + Obj.
Negative : You are warned not to + I form + Obj.

Ex. Don’t Park your car here

➢ You are prohibited to park your car here

Ex. Don’t go at the place of violence.

➢ You are warned not to go at the place of violence.

(vi) Moral Imperative ( Negative )

Don’t + I form + Obj.
(i) Obj. + should + not + be + III form
(ii) You are advised not to + I form + Obj.
Don’t hate the poor
 ➢ The poor should not be hated.
➢ You are advised not to hate the poor.

Double Object
What and whome

Direct Object Indirect Object

( Preference I ) ( preference II )

Actived : Sub + Verb + Indirect Obj. + Direct Object

(i) Direct Object + H.V + M.V + Pre + Indirect Obj. + Pre + Sub.
(ii) Indirect Obj. + H.V + M. V + Direct Obj. + Pre + Sub.
Ex. He gave me a book.
➢ A book was given to me by him.
➢ I was given a book by him.

Narration : Direct and Indirect

Mohan said to me, “I am going to Market ’’

Reporting Verb Part Reported Speech

( R.V. Part ) ( R .S. Part )

Rules of changes:-
Reporting Verb Reported speech Changed Reporting Verb
Say Affirmative Tell, tells, told, telling
Says Interrogative Ask, askes, asked ,asking
Said Imperative Order, advise, command,
request , forbid
Saying Optative Wish, bless , curse

Exclamatory Exclaim + with + sorrow /

joy /surprise / delight
Let’s Suggest

Conjuction:-

Reported Speech Conjuction

Affirmative
Opatative That
Exclamatory
Let’s
Wh. word Wh. Word
Interrogative
H.V. If / whether

Imperative to

Change subject of R.S According To

I person ( I , we ) sub. Of R.V
II Person ( you ) Obj. of R.v
III Person, Noun, Name No changes
( He, she, it, they)
Trick
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
Formula :-
𝑺 𝑶𝑵
 Person Sub. Obj. [Link] [Link]. Reflectivepro.
I Person I Me Mine My Myself
We Us Ours Our Ourselves
II Person You You Yours Yours Yourself
Yourselves
III Person He Him His His Himself
she Her Hers Her Herself
It It Its Itself
They Them Theirs Their themselves

If Reporting verb is in Past Tense then change in tense of Reporting Speech by

these rules
Direct sentence Tense Indirect sentence Tense
Present Indefinite Tense Past Indefinite Tense
Do/does + I form / I fom(s/es) Did + I form / II form
Present Continuous Tense Past Contiunuous Tense
Is/am /are + IV form Was /were + IV form
Present perfect Tense Past perfect Tense
Has/have + III form Had + III form
Present Per. Conti. Tense Past per. Conti. Tense
Has/have + been + IV form Had + been + IV form
Past Indefinite Tense Past perfect tense
II form/did + I form Had + III form
Past Continuous Tense Past per. Cont. Tense
Was /were + IV form Had +been + IV form
Shall Should
Can Could
May might
Will would

(A) Assertive Sentences (

1. Rules for the change in Tense

Rule. 1 if Reporting Verb ( Present / Future tense ) Tense (No changes)

Ex. Direct : Ram says, “Hari has gone to Sirohi.”
Indirect : Ram says that Hari has gone to Sirohi.
Direct : Sohan will say, “Asha is very intelligent.’’
Indirect : Sohan will say that Asha is very intelligent.
Direct : He has said to me, “Ravi will join the camp”
Indirect : He has told me that Ravi will join the camp.

Rule 2 . If Reporting verb ( Past Tense ) Tense change

(a) Present Indefinite Tense past Indefinit tense

Direct : Mohan said, “ Rakesh tell a lie.”
Indirect : Mohan said that Rakesh told a lie.

(b) present Continuous Tense past continuous Tense

Direct : Sohan said to me, “Ram is writing a book.”
Indirect : Sohan told tme that Ram was writing a book.

(c) Present perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense

Direct : Sohan said, “Sandhya had completed her work
Indirect : Sohan said that Sandhya had completed her work

(d) present Perfect Continuous Past perfect continuous

Direct : He said, “It has been raining since morning.”
Indirect : He said that it had been raining since morning.

(e) Past Indefinite Tense Past Perfect Tense

Direct : He said, “ The horse died in the night.”
Indirect : He said that the horse had died in the night.

(f) Past Continuous Tense Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Direct : He said, “The students were learning their lessons.
Indirect : He said that the students had been learning their lessons.

(g) Past Perfect Tense No changes

 Direct : They said, “usha had won the match.”
Indirect : They said theat Usha had won the match.

(h) shall should , can could , may might

Ought, could, would , might, had better , used to No changes
Direct : I said, “ I shall play.’’
Indirect : I said that I should play.
Direct : The teacher said, “Ram must be rewarded.’’
Indirect : The teacher said that Ram must be rewarded.

Tense – change in Conditional Sensences

1. Direct : Sanjay said to me, “If you pay a little more attention, you will
learn how to drive a car.’’
Indirect : Sanjay told me that if I paid a little more attention . I would
learn how to drive a car.

Exceptions

1. Universal Truth No Change in Tense

Direct : The teacher said, “ The earth moves round the sun.”
Indirct : The teacher said that the earth moves round the sun.

2. Habitual fact
Direct : Hari said to Ravi, “Dogs bark at strangers.”
Indirect : Hari told Ravi that dogs bark at strangers.

3. proverb
Direct : He said, “Honesty is the best policy.”
Indirect : He said that honesty is the best policy.

4. Historical fact
Direct : The history teacher said, “Samundra Gupta is called the
Napoleon of India.”
 Indirect : The history teacher said that Samundra Gupta is called the
Napoleon of india.

2. Rule for the Change of Persons

Rule 1 : 1st Person (I, me, mine,myself, we, us, our) Acording to
Subject of R.V
Direct : You said, “ I am learning my lesson.”
Indirect : You said that you were learning your lesson.

Rule 2 : II Person( you, your, yours, yourself, yourselves ) Obj. of R.V

Direct : He said to me, “ You are happy.’’
Indirect : He told me that I was happy.

Rule 3 : III person( he, she, it, they, his, her,his, its, their, him, them ,name )
No changes

Direct : Suresh said, “He is a clerk.”

Indirect : Suresh said that he was a clerk.

3. Rules for change in some words

of Time

Direct Sentence Tense Indirect Sentence Tense

To + time That + time
Yesterday Lastday
Tomorrow Next day
Next + time Coming + time/following + time
Coming + time Following + time
Now Then
Ago Before
Here There
This That
These Those
Hence Thence
Last + time Prvious + time
 Thus So

1. Direct : He said to them, “I will leave you now’’

Indirect : He told them theat he wouldleav them then.

2. Direct : Mohan said to Ram, “I cannot go with you till next Monday.”
Indirect : Mohan told Ram that he could not go with him till the
following Monday

3. Direct : He said to me, “I came here yesterday.”

Indirect : He toldme that he had gone there the previous day.

(B) Interrogative Sentence

Type 1. Direct : Hari said to me, “Are you reading a book?”

Indirect : Hari asked me if/whether I was reading a book.
Direct : I said to him, “Can you tell me what the time is?”
Indirect : I asked him if he could tell me what the time was.
Type2. Direct : She said to me, “ Do you know Sohan.”
Indirect : She asked me whether I knew Sohan.

Direct : My father said to me, “Do you not obey me?”

Indirect : My father asked me if I did not obey him.

Direct : He said to me, “Did you lend me your book?”

Indirect : He asked me whether I had lent him my book.

Type 3. (What, who, which, whom, whose, when, where, why, how )
Direct: I said to her, “Who are you and where are you coming from?”
Indirect: I inquired of her who she was and where she was coming from.

Direct : He said to me, “Where do you live?”

Indirect : He asked me where I lived.
 Direct : He said to Mohan, “How much money do you want ?”
Indirect : He asked Mohan how much money he wanted.

Type 4. YES /NO in Reported Speech

Direct : She said to Reeta, “Can you lend me this watch?”

Reeta said, “Yes.”
Indirect : She asked Reeta if she (Reeta ) could lend her that
watch. Reeta replied that she could.

Direct : I said to Anand, “Are you attending the class?”

Anand said,”No”
Indirect : I asked Anand if he was attending the class. Anand said
that he wasn’t

(C) Imperative Sentences

½½okD; ½
(a) Order - ordered, commanded
(b) advice - advised, urged
(c) request - requested, begged, implored, entreated

Type 1.
Direct : The teacher said to me, “Sit in your class and learn your lesson.”
Indirect : The teacher ordered me to sit in my class and learn my lesson.

Direct : He said to his friend, “Work hard.”

Indirect : He advised his friend to work hard.

Type 2. Direct: The teacher said, “Sit down, “boys”

Indirect : The teacher Ordered the boys to sit down.

Type 3. ‘Do not’ - forbade

Method 1. Direct : The teacher said to the boy,”Do not abuse anyone.”
 Indirect: The teacher forbade the boy to abuse anyone.

Method 2. Direct : My father said to me, “Don’t waste your time,”

Indirect: My father advised me not to waste my time.

Type 4. “Never” - advised

Direct : The teacher said to the student, “Never waste your time.”
Indirect: The teacher advised the student Never to waste my time.

Type 5. In Reported Speech “ Sir, Please, Kindly”

Direct : The student said to the teacher, “Sir mark me present.”
Indirect : The student requested the teacher respectfully to mark
him present
Direct : Ram said to Syam, “Please, come and tell me something.”
Indirect : Ram requested Shyam to come and tell him something.

Direct : She said to Sita,”Kindly, help me,”

Indirect : She requested Sita to help her.

Type 6. Direct : “Would you please give me your Pen?” he said to me.
Indirect : He requested me to give him my pen.
Direct : She said, “Would you like a sandwich ?”
Indirect: She Offered me a sandwich.
Direct : She said, “Would you like to have tea with me?”
Indirect : She invited me to have tea with her.

“Let” in Reported Speech

(1) Proposal

Direct : Hari said, “Let us play a match”

Indirect : Hari proposed that they should play a match.
Direct : I said to my friend,”Let us go to some holy place.”
Indirect : I suggested to my friend that we should go to some holy place
Direct : “Let us go to the zoo.” Said Mohan, “Let’snot” ,said Radha
Indirect : Mohan suggested to Radha that they should go to the zoo.
Radha objected.
(2) Request :-
Direct : He said to his officer, “let me go home.”
Indirect : He requested his officer to allow him to go home.
OR
He requested his officer to allow him to go home.

(3) Command :-
Direct : The officer said to his clerks, “Let no one come late.”
Indirect : The officer ordered his clerks that no one should come late
Direct : The king said, “Let the man be set free”
Indirect : The King Ordered that the man should be set free.

(D) Optative Sentences

Type 1.
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Wished /cursed / blessed / Prayed
Direct : He said to me, “May you live long!”
Indirect: he wished that I might live long.
Direct : The hermit said, “May you all go to hell”
Indirect : The hermit cursed them that they all might go to hell!”

Direct : He said to me,”May God help you!”

` Indirect : He prayed that God might help me.

Type 2. “Good bye / Good Night

Said :- bade , said :- wished (if Good morning uses)
Direct : Anand said, “Good night, Krishna! We will meet again tomorrow.”
Indirect: Anand bade good night to Krishna and said that they would meet
Again the next day.
Direct : He said, “Good bye, my friends.”
Indirect : He bade good bye to his friends
OR
He bade his friends good bye.
Direct : Ravi said, “Good morning, my friend”
Indirect : Ravi wished his friend good morning.
 OR
Ravi wished good morning to his friend.

(E) Exclamatory Sentences

½
Hurrah :- exclaimed with delight

Direct : He said, “Hurrah! My old friend has come.”

Indirect : He exclaimed with delight that his old friend had come.

“Alas :- Exclaimed with sorrow/grief

Direct : He said, “Alas! I am ruined.”
Indirect : He exclaimed with sorrow that he was ruined.

Bravo :- Applauded
Direct : He said to us, “Bravo! You have done well.”
Indirect: He applauded us saying that we had done well.

Good Heavens :- Exclaimed with surprice

Direct : “Good heavens! I have dropped my key somewhere.”he said
Indirect : He exclaimed with surprise that he had dropped his key some
Where.

Type:- What a / how + noun :- great

What a / how + adverb/adjective :- very
Direct : Ram said, “How fast you are walking!”
Indirect: Ram exclaimed that I was walking very fast.
Direct: He said, “what a fool I am!”
Indirect : He exclaimed that he was a great fool
 12. Modals
Can

Uses : (a) To express ability , capacity and power :

Example
1. I can teach mathematics. ( ability )
2. He can run fast. (capacity )
3. We can climb this tree. ( power, stamina )
4. I can lift this heavy box. (strength )
5. I can solve this puzzle. (intelligence)
6. I can befool him. ( cleverness )
(b) For giving and asking permission :
Example
1. you can go now. ( order )
2. Can I us your pen ? (permission)
3. Nobody anroam in this prohibited area. ( order )
4. Can’t she enter without permission ? ( permission )
(c) To express possibility :
Example:
1. Accidents can happen everywhere. (possibility )
2. The Ramayana’ can be found in the household of every Hindu.
(possibility )
Note: use only ‘can’ to know about possibility of something by means of
questioning
Example
1. Can this boy be a thief ?
2. Can a crow be white ?

Could
(a) ‘Could’ is the past form of ‘Can’. ‘Could’ shows general ability to do
something in the past.
( to express ability, capacity, power, strength, intelligence, cleverness,
permission and possibility in the past or their absence )
Example
1. I could speak English when I was only five years old. (ability of past)
2. My brother could not send me money last month. (absence of capacity )
3. I could run fast when I was young. ( power )
4. Umesh could go out whenever he wanted. (permission)

(b) ‘Could’ is used to show possibility in the present time

Example:
Don’t abuse me. In anger, I could slap you.
(c) For possibility in the past :
I could attend the function.
(d) ‘could you’ can be used for polite request :
Example :
1. Could you lend me your pen ?
2. Could you tell me the way to the hotel ?
(e) ‘could’ is also used to express incidents in the past :
Example :
1. it was so dark that he could see nothing.
2. The fan was so high that Mohan could not touch it.

(f) to express past possibility :

Sentence Structure : Could + have + v3

It indicates a past possibility that was not fulfilled

1. She could have passed the examination. ( past ability )
2. He could have caught the train. ( past possibility )
(g) To express an imaginary condition :
Examples :
1. if I reached earlier, I could catch the bus
 2. I could buy a scooter if I had money.
3. I could solve this problem if I tried.
(h) use of ‘could’ in Indirect Speech :
If Reporting Verb is in the past Tense, ‘can’ in Reported Speech is changed
into ‘could’
1. If said, “I can sing old songs excellently.’’
She said that she could sing old songs excellently.’’
2. Ram said, “ I can write a novel.’’
Ram said that he could write a novel.
(i) ‘Couldn’t or Could not’ is used to show inability/disability in past :
He was very week. He could not walk properly (inability )

May

‘May’ is used for giving and asking permission. ‘May’ is also used to express
possibility, wish hope or faith, purpose etc.

(a) May’ is used to seek or grant permission :

Examples :
1. May I come in, sir ? ( asking permission in formal way )
2. You may go home. (giving permission )
(b) To express possibility :
Examples :
1. There are clouds in the sky. It may rain tonight. (factual possibility)
2. Today is Sunday. He may go home. ( possibility )
(c) To express personal wish, hope of faith :
Example :
1. May you live long ! ( wish )
2. May he return home safe ! ( hope )
3. May God bless you with strength and wisdom ! ( blessing)
4. May all the sinners go to hell ! ( curse )
(d) To express purpose :
 Example:
1. Work hard so that you may pass.
2. We eat so that we may live.
(e) Different uses of ‘May’
When a sentence begins with words like – whatever, though etc.
Example.
1. Whatever place she may visit, she cannot forget her home.
2. Though priya may have learnt English for years, her English is still poor.

Might

‘Might’ is the past form of ‘May’

(a) For asking permission hesitantly:
Example:
1. Might I take your pen ?
2. Might we spend some time here ?
Note : - (a) ‘May’ is used for asking and giving permission, whereas ‘might is
used for asking permission with hesitation
(b) When ‘might’ is used in Indirect narration its use shouldn’t be
understood for giving or asking permission.
Example: she said to me, “I may help you.’’
She told me that she might help me.
(b) To express past possibility:
Example :
1. Your eldest son might have become a doctor.
2. He fell from the roof and broke his leg. He might have died.
(c) To express weak/remote possibility :
Example:
1. Take a taxi. You might catch the train. (remote possibility )
2. The sky is clear now. It might rain tonight. (remote possibility )
(d) To express purpose in the past :
Example:
 1. He took medicines so that he might get well.
2. The patriots sacrified their lives so that we might live honourably.

Should

Uses : ‘Should’ is used to express advice, suggestion, duty, probability etc.

(a) ‘Should’ is usd as the past form of ‘shall’ in Indirect Speech :
Example:
Direct : I said, “I shall shine in my life.”
Indirect : I hoped that I should shine in my life.
(b) To express advice/suggestion :
Example :
1. We should take a bath daily. (advice )
2. That is a dangerous place, he should not go there. (suggestion)
(c) To express duty :
Example :
1. We should obey the elders.
2. We should always speak the truth.
(d) ‘Should’ is used in conditional sentences to express a very unlikely condition
Example :
1. Walk carefully lest you should fall.
2. Work hard lest you should fail.

Must

Uses : Must is used to express compulsion/obligation, necessity, persuation,

strong possibility, advice, logical inference etc.
(a) Compulsion : ‘Must’ is used to express compulsion
Example : We must reach school in time to avoid punishment.
(b) Strong possibility :
Example : He has three cars. He must be a rich man.

(c) To express command :

Example:
1. You must stay where you are.
2. She must attend all her classes.

(d) To express necessity both in present and future time :

Example: We must work hard to pass.

(e) To express logical inference :

Example : Hari is an intelligent boy. He must get first division.

(f) To express strong advice :

Example: You must close all the doors in the night.

‘Will’
Use : ‘Will shows future (that too simple future.
Example : 1. Tomorrow will be Monday.
2. The work will take ten days.

(a) To express general instruction :

Example : All the members of this club will attend the meeting.

(b) ‘Will’ is used to make ‘requests’ :

Example : 1. Will you please help me ?
2. Will you please convey my message to the chairman ?

(c) To express possibility:

Example : It will be a storm.
(d) To express habits :
Example : 1. He will talk only nonsence.
2. Accidents will happen.

(e) We use ‘will’ and ‘won’t to express invitation :

Example : 1. Won’t you stay a little longer ?
2. Won’t you have a cup of tea ?
3. Will you dine with us tonight ?
Note : In modern English, we use ‘will’ instead of ‘shall’ with First Person
Pronouns ( I, We ) to express future time. But in interrogative sentence ‘shall’ is
used. We do not use ‘will’ in interrogative sentences with First Person Pronouns
( I, We )
Example : Shall I go to Agra ?

Use of ‘will’ with the First Person Pronouns ( I, we )

Use of ‘will’ shows promise, determination, threat, warning and
willingness when it is used with First person Pronouns ( I and We )

(a) To express Promise :

Example : 1. I will accompany you to Jaipur
2. We will help you.

(b) To express determination :

Example : we will fight against injustive.

(c) To express threat or warning :

Example : 1. I will arrest you.
2. I will punish you if you do this work again.
(d) To express willingness :
Example : I will join the army after two years.
 ‘SHALL’

Use : Shall ( with I and We ) is used as an auxiliary verb to express future time.
Example : I shall be fifty next birthday.
‘Shall’ ( with second and third Person Pronoun ) is used as Modal Verb to
show the following expression:
(a) To express promise :
Example : You shall get a prize for your extraordinary bravery.

(b) To express command or threat:

Example :
1. He shall not attend the class without completing his home work
2. He shall be punished if he doesn’t behave himself.

(c) ‘Shall’ is used in legal notices or official regulations :

Example : Trespassers ( ) will be punished.

(d) In offering or seeking advice/instructions :

Examples : 1. Shall I call in the doctor for you ?
2. Where shall I wait for you ?
3. What books shall I consult for the test ?
(e) To express determination :
Example : 1. You shall help her.
Note : In negative sentences ‘shall not’ or ‘shan’t is used

‘Would’

Use : Would’ is the pat form of ‘will’ ‘Would’ is used to show the expressions of
polite request, past happenings, intention, others, wishes etc.
Negative of would – Wouldn’t or would not.
(a) ‘Would’ is used to express polite request in present :
Examples : 1. Would you lend me your pen ?
2. Would you tell me the way to the hotel ?
Note : use ‘would’ in place of ‘will’ for ‘polite request in present.’’

(b) For the happennings in the past ( habitual factors ) :

Examples: 1. sometimes my father would get angry with me.
2. On Saturday, Sohan would usually run home to his mother.

(c) Would is used to denote ‘wish’ :

Example : Would that I had become a minister !

(d) To express intenion/hopless wish :

Example: I would obey you even if I die.

(e) To express polite offer, permission and wish in interrogative :

Example: 1. Would you like our house ?
2. Would you mind if I smoke ?

(f) To express past possibility :

Example : Sunita would be about sixty when she died.

(g) ‘Would’ is used in Indirect Speech as the Past Tense form of ‘will’ :
Example : He said, “I will go to Agra”
He said that he would go to Agra.
 Article

‘A’ , ‘An’ , ‘The’ are called Article. Article is used before Noun.

Article

Indefinite article Definite article

( A , an ) ( The )

Where are article used ?

• An article comes before the noun.
Example : She is a student.

• If an adjective qualifies the noun, the ‘article’ comes before the ‘adjective’
Example : She is an excellent student.

• If an ‘adverb’ qualifies the ‘adjective’ qualifying ‘noun, the ‘article’ comes

before the ‘adverb’.
Example : She is a very excellent student.

Use of A/An : -
1. A/An are used before indefinite singular countable nouns.
Example :
1. Priya sings a song. He is reading a book.
2. An is used before vowel sounds and A is used before consonant sound
Example :
An umbrella A university
An honest man A one repee note
 Correct use of A/An

A ewe An hour
A uion An onion
A European An M.a. / [Link]
A Historical place An heir
A humble suggestion An honorium
A unity An empire
A useful feature An eve
A utensil An indian
A one rupee note An honourable person
A university An F.I.R.
A house An L.L.B
A one eyed man An M.L.A/ M.P/S.H.O

3. In exclamatory sentences, A/An us used after ‘what’ and ‘how’ and before
the singular countable noun that comes in the sentence.
Example:
1. What a grand building !
2. What a pretty girl !

4. In place of ‘Per’, a/an is used.

Example :
1. This car runs twenty kilometres a litre.
2. I learn ten thousand a month.
3. This train runs 27 kilometres an hour.

5. With a few words that denote the number of countable nouns such as
‘Hundred’ , ‘thousand’ , million, ‘dozen, ‘couple; etc. ‘a’ is used
Example :
1. A dozen of bananas.
2. I have a hundred pens.

6. ‘A’ is used before fractions and half/fractions.

Example :
𝟏
1. 2 - two and a quarter meter.
𝟒
2. She has to run half a mile everyday.
7. When a verb is used as a noun, it takes article ‘A/An’ before it
Example :
1. He goes for a walk daily
2. He has gone for a ride.

8. If many/ rather/ quite/such takes a singular noun after them. A/ An/ is

use Before the noun.
Example:
1. Many a citizen would welcome would welcome such a reform.
2. It is rather a pity.
3. It was quite an impossible task.
9. In a few phrases, A/An are used. Some of these phrase are:
In a fix, in a hurry, in a nutshell, make a noise, make a foot, keep a secret,
as a rule, at a stone’s throw, a short while ago, at a loss, take a fancy to ,
take an interest in, take a liking, a pity, tell a lie.

Example : 1. Never tell a lie.

2. Do not make a noise.
3. Twelve inches make a foot.

Where do we did not use A/An :-

1. It should not be used with a plural noun.

Example :
1. A boys have come ( X )
2. Boys have come (√ )

2. A/An is not used with uncountable noun.

Advice, Accommodation, Baggage, Luggage, News, Permission, Progress.
Scenery, weather, Traffic, Knowledge, Music, Wine, Equipment,
Information, Poetry, Furniture, Hair, Business, Mischief, bread, Stationery,
Crockery, Postage, Wasstage, Money, Jewellery, Breakage, Work,
Evidence.

Example : He gave me an advice ( remove ‘an’ )

I will buy a furniture today. ( remove ‘a’ )
Note : a few words are used before certain uncountable nouns to make
them countable.
Example: 1. I have a piece of information for you.
2. I had a slice of bread.
3. He gave me a piece of work to do.

3. Articles are not used before nouns in sentences starting with ‘what
kind of ‘ what short of’ what type of and ‘what variety of’
Example: 1. What sort of a man he is ( wrong )
2. What sort of man he is ( Right )

Definite Article

Use of Definite Article ‘The’ :-

‘The’ is used befor Countable or Uncountable Noun.
(1) When we talk of a particular person or a thing as already mentioned,
known or under discussion :
for example : I met a boy yesterday. The boy wore a distinct dress. He told
me that the dress was given to him by his father.
(2) Ranges of Mountains :-
E.g. The Andes, The Alps, The Vindhyas, The Himalayas, The Eastern Ghats etc.
Note : but ‘The’ is avoide with individual hill or island and Mountain peak
E.g. The Mt. Everest, The kanchanjunga, The Kamet, The K2, The Mt. Abu, The
Nanda Devi, The Dhaulagiri, The Java, The Sumatra, etc

(3) Rivers( ) , Groups of Islands( ), Seas( ),

Srtaits( ) Oceans( ) , , bays( ), Canals ( )
E.g. Rivers – The Ganga , The kaveri, The Nile, The Danube, The Thames,
The Mississippi etc.
 Sea :- The Red Sea, The Mediterranean Sea, The Arabian Sea, etc
Ocean :- The Atlantic Ocean, The Pacific Ocean, The Great Indian Ocean
Strait :- The Palk Strait
Bay :- The Bay of Bengal, The Bay of Biscay
Group of islands :- The Philippines, The Bahamas, etc.
Canal :- The K.P Canal, The Suez Canal, The Erie Canal, The Albert
Canal, The Panama Canal, etc.
(4) Epics :- The Paradise Lost, The Ram Charit Manas, The Bible, The Quran,
The Geeta, etc
Note :- But if the auther name is in Possessive case then ‘The’ is not use
E.g. The John Milton’s Paradice Lost , The Valmiki’s Ram Charit Manas

(5) adjective superlative degree :-

E.g. He is The tallest boy in the village.
(6) Before an adjective when it represents a common noun
E.g. The rich should help the poor.
(7) Before comparative degree in case of a choise.
E.g. Sonia is the better of two friends.
He is the better of the two boys.
(8) Historical buildings :- The Taj Mahal, The Red Fort, etc.
( 9) Unique Things :- The Earth, The Venus, The Sun, The Moon, etc,
(10) Post :-The Chief Minister of Bihar, The Governor of Utter Pradesh
The Editor etc.
Note :- But if Post + Person Name then ‘the’ is not used
E.g. The Prime Minister Narendra Modi , The prince Charles
(11) Before Musical instruments and invention :- The violin , The guitar,
The x- ray, The telephone, etc.
E.g. He can play the flute.
She is fond of playing the harmonium.
(12) Before proper noun for the sake of comparison :-
E.g. Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India.
(13) Before the Politival Parties
E.g. The BJP , The labour Party , The Janta Party
(14) Before the Armed forces
E.g. The Army, The police , The Air Force
(15) Before the dynasties, empires, wars, revolution, centuries.
Eg. The Gupt Dynasty, The british Empire, The red revolution The vedic ages
The Civil war, The sixty century
(16) Before the dates
E.g. The 10th of May. ,The 5th of September.
(17) Before the organs of government
E.g (i) The judiciary (ii) The Legislature
(18) Before Cast and communities.
E.g. The Rajputs are brave people.
The Marathas are brave working.

Best of Luck for Your Exam