2 main groups

*14 Digestive System Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal, or

GI, tract)—continuous, coiled, hollow
And Body Metabolism tube
These organs ingest, digest, absorb,
Part 1: Anatomy & Physiology of the defecate
Digestive System Accessory digestive organs
The Digestive System Functions Include teeth, tongue, and several
large digestive organs

▪Ingestion—taking in food
Assist digestion in various ways

▪Digestion—breaking food into nutrient Organs of the Alimentary Canal

molecules Gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut. 9m (30 feet)
long
▪Absorption—movement of nutrients into the
bloodstream

▪Defecation—excretes to rid the body of

indigestible waste

Digestion (absorbs)
o Breakdown of ingested food
o Absorption of nutrients into the blood
o Mouth- oral cavity
Metabolism  Lips (Labia) – protects the
anterior opening
o Production of cellular energy (ATP)
 Cheeks- from the lateral walls
o Constructive and degradative cellular
 Hard Palate – forms the anterior
activities
roof
Anatomy of the Digestive System  Soft Palate- forms the posterior
roof
 Uvula- fleshy projection of the
soft palate
 Vestibule – space between lips
externally and teeth and gums
internally
 Oral cavity – area contained by
the teeth
 Tongue – attached at hyoid and
styloid processes of the skull, and
by the lingual frenulum
 lingual frenulum- a fold of
mucous membrane, secures the
tongue to the floor of the mouth
and limits it posterior movements.
  Tonsils  Innermost, moist membrane
 Palatine Tonsils consisting of:
 Lingual Tonsil- covers  Surface epithelium that is mostly
the base of the tongue just simple columnar epithelium
beyond. (except for esophagus—stratified
squamous epithelium)
Processes of the mouth
 Small amount of connective
 Mastication (chewing) of food tissue (lamina propria)
 Mixing masticated food with  Scanty smooth muscle layer
saliva  Lines the cavity (known as the
 Initiation of swallowing by the lumen)
tongue o Submucosa is found just beneath the
 Allowing for the sense of taste mucosa
 Just beneath the mucosa
 Soft connective tissue with blood
o Pharynx vessels, nerve endings, mucosa-
 Nasopharynx- not part of the associated lymphoid tissue, and
digestive system lymphatic vessels
o The muscularis externa is a muscle layer
 Oropharynx- posterior oral cavity
typically made up of an inner circular
 Laryngopharynx- below the
layer and an outer longitudinal layer of
oropharynx and connected to the
smooth muscle cells.
esophagus
o The serosa outermost layer of the wall;
Function contains fluid-producing cells
 Visceral peritoneum—innermost
 Serves as a passageway for air
layer that is continuous with the
and food
outermost layer
 Food is propelled to the
 Parietal peritoneum—outermost
esophagus by
layer that lines the
two muscle layers
abdominopelvic cavity by way of
o Longitudinal inner layer
the mesentery
o Circular outer layer
 Food movement is by alternating Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses
contractions of the muscle layers
 All are part of the autonomic
(Peristalsis)
nervous system
o Esophagus
 Three separate networks of nerve
 Runs from pharynx to stomach
fibers
through the diaphragm
o Submucosal nerve plexus
 Conducts food by peristalsis
o Myenteric nerve plexus
(slow rhythmic squeezing)
o Subserous plexus
 Passageway for food only
(respiratory system branches off
after the pharynx)
4 tissue layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
o Mucosa
o Stomach Function
 Located on the left side of the
 Acts as a storage tank for food
abdominal cavity
 Site of food breakdown
 Food enters at the
 Chemical breakdown of protein
cardioesophageal sphincter
begins
 Regions of the stomach
 Delivers chyme (processed food)
 Cardiac region- near the
to the small intestine
heart
 Fundus
 Body
 Phylorus- funnel-shaped Specialized Mucosa of the Stomach
terminal end
 Food empties into the small
intestine at the pyloric sphincter
 Rugae- internal folds of the
mucosa
 External regions
 Lesser curvature
 Greater curvature
 Layers of peritoneum attached to
the stomach  Simple Columnar epithelium
 Lesser omentum- attaches o Mucous neck cells-produce a
the liver to the lesser sticky alkaline mucus
curvature o Gastric glands- secrete gastric
 Greater omentum- juice
attaches the greater o Chief cells- produce protein-
curvature to the posterior digesting aams (Pepsinogens)
body wall o Parietal cells- produce
 Contains fat to insulate, hydrochloric acid
cushion, and protect o Endocrine Cells- produce gastrin
abdominal organs
 Structure
o Gastric pits formed by folded
mucosa
o Glands and specialized cells are
in the gastric glad region
  Chemical Digestion in the Small
Intestine
o Source of enzymes that
are mixed with chyme
 Intestinal cells
 Pancreas
o Bile enters from the gall
bladder
o Small intestine
 The body’s major digestive organ
 Site of nutrient absorption into the
blood
 Muscular tube extending form the
pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal
valve
 Suspended from the posterior
abdominal wall by mesentery.
Villi of the Small intestine

 Fingerlike structures formed by the

mucosa
 Give the small intestine more surface
area
 Small projections of the plasma
membrane
 Found on absorptive cells
Structures of absorption of nutrients

 Absorptive cells
 Blood capillaries
 Lacteals (specialized lymphatic
 Subdivisions of the Small
capillaries)
Intestine

▪
o Duodenum
 Attached to the Peyer’s patches
stomach  Collections of lymphatic tissue
 Curves around  Located in submucosa
the head of the  Increase in number toward the end of
pancreas the small intestine
o Jejunum  More are needed there because
 Attaches remaining food residue contains much
anteriorly to the bacteria
duodenum
o Ileum o Large Intestine
 Extends from the
jejunum to large
intestine
 ▪ Sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal
are located in the pelvis
▪ Anal canal ends at the anus

▪ Anus—opening of the large intestine

 External anal sphincter—
formed by skeletal muscle and
is voluntary
 Internal anal sphincter—
formed by smooth muscle and
▪ Larger in diameter, but shorter in length at is involuntary
1.5 m, than the small intestine  These sphincters are normally
closed except during
▪ Extends from the ileocecal valve to the
defecation
anus
▪ The large intestine delivers
▪ Subdivisions (detailed next)
indigestible food residues to the
 Cecum
body’s exterior
 Appendix
 Colon ▪ Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus to
 Rectum lubricate the passage of feces
 Anal canal
▪ Muscularis externa layer is reduced to
▪ Cecum—saclike first part of the large three bands of muscle, called teniae
intestine coli
 Appendix ▪ These bands of muscle cause the wall
▪ Hangs from the cecum to pucker into haustra (pocketlike
sacs)
▪ Accumulation of
lymphoid tissue that Accessory Digestive Organs
sometimes becomes
▪ Teeth
inflamed (appendicitis)
▪ Colon ▪ Salivary glands

 Ascending—travels up right ▪ Pancreas

side of abdomen and makes a
turn at the right colic (hepatic) ▪ Liver
flexure ▪ Gallbladder
 Transverse—travels across the
abdominal cavity and turns at
the left colic (splenic) flexure
 Descending—travels down the
left side
 Sigmoid—S-shaped region;
enters the pelvis
Teeth and function
 Incisors—cutting
 Canines (eyeteeth)—tearing or
piercing
 Premolars (bicuspids)—grinding
 Molars—grinding
▪ Two major regions of a tooth
1. Crown
2. Root
1. Crown—exposed part of tooth above the
gingiva (gum)

▪ Teeth masticate (chew) food into smaller

fragments
 Enamel—covers the crown
▪ Humans have two sets of teeth during a
 Dentin—found deep to the
lifetime enamel and forms the bulk of the
1. Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth tooth, surrounds the pulp cavity
▪ A baby has 20 teeth by  Pulp cavity—contains connective
age 2 tissue, blood vessels, and nerve
fibers (pulp)
▪ First teeth to appear are  Root canal—where the pulp
the lower central incisors cavity extends into the root
2. Permanent teeth 2. Root
Cement—covers outer surface
▪ Replace deciduous teeth
and attaches the tooth to the
between ages 6 and 12 periodontal membrane (ligament)
▪ A full set is 32 teeth (with  Periodontal membrane holds
tooth in place in the bony jaw
the wisdom teeth) Note: The neck is a connector between the
▪ Teeth are classified according to shape crown and root
  Region in contact with the gum ▪ Secretes enzymes into the duodenum
Salivary Glands ▪ Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes
▪ Three pairs of salivary glands empty neutralizes acidic chyme coming from
secretions into the mouth stomach
1. Parotid glands ▪ Hormones produced by the pancreas
▪ Found anterior to the ears  Insulin
 Glucagon
▪ Mumps affect these
salivary glands Liver
2. Submandibular glands
▪ Largest gland in the body
3. Sublingual glands
▪ Both submandibular and ▪ Located on the right side of the body
sublingual glands empty under the diaphragm
saliva into the floor of the ▪ Consists of four lobes suspended from the
mouth through small
ducts diaphragm and abdominal wall by the
falciform ligament
▪ Saliva
▪ Digestive role is to produce bile
 Mixture of mucus and serous
fluids  Bile leaves the liver through the
 Helps to moisten and bind food common hepatic duct and enters
duodenum through the bile duct
together into a mass called a
bolus  Bile is yellow-green, watery
 Contains: solution containing:
▪ Bile salts and bile
▪ Salivary amylase—begins
pigments (mostly
starch digestion
bilirubin from the
▪ Lysozymes and breakdown of
antibodies—inhibit hemoglobin)
bacteria ▪ Cholesterol,
 Dissolves chemicals so they can
phospholipids, and
be tasted
electrolytes
Pancreas  Bile emulsifies (breaks down) fats

▪ Soft, pink triangular gland Gallbladder

▪ Found posterior to the parietal peritoneum ▪ Green sac found in a shallow fossa in the
 Mostly retroperitoneal inferior surface of the liver
 When no digestion is occurring,
▪ Extends across the abdomen from spleen bile backs up the cystic duct for
to duodenum storage in the gallbladder
▪ Produces a wide spectrum of digestive  While in the gallbladder, bile is
concentrated by the removal of
enzymes that break down all categories of water
food  When fatty food enters the
duodenum, the gallbladder spurts
 out stored bile
▪ Peristalsis—alternating
waves of contraction and
Functions of the Digestive System relaxation that squeeze
food along the GI tract
▪ Overview of gastrointestinal processes ▪ Segmentation—
and controls movement of materials
 Digestion back and forth to foster
 Absorption mixing in the small
▪ We will cover six more specific processes intestine
3. Food breakdown: mechanical
next breakdown
Overview of Gastrointestinal Process and
Controls ▪ Examples
o Mixing of food in
the mouth by the
tongue
o Churning of food
in the stomach
o Segmentation in
the small
intestine
▪ Mechanical digestion
prepares food for further
degradation by enzymes
▪ Essential processes of the GI tract
(continued)
4. Food breakdown: digestion
▪ Digestion occurs when
enzymes chemically
break down large
molecules into their
building blocks
▪ Each major food group
uses different enzymes
o Carbohydrates
are broken down
to
monosaccharides
(simple sugars)
▪ Essential processes of the GI tract o Proteins are
1. Ingestion—placing of food into the broken down to
mouth amino acids
2. Propulsion—movement of foods o Fats are broken
from one region of the digestive down to fatty
system to another acids and
 glycerol

Functions of the Digestive System

▪ Essential processes of the GI tract
(continued)
5. Absorption
▪ End products of digestion
are absorbed in the blood
or lymph
▪ Food must enter mucosal
cells and then move into
blood or lymph
capillaries
6. Defecation
▪ Elimination of
indigestible substances
from the GI tract in the
form of feces

Activities occurring in the mouth, pharynx,

and esophagus
▪ Food ingestion and breakdown ▪ Nasal and respiratory
 Food is placed into the mouth passageways are blocked
▪ Physically broken down ▪ Food propulsion—swallowing and
by chewing peristalsis (continued)
2. Pharyngeal-esophogeal phase
▪ Mixed with saliva, which
(continued)
is released in response to
mechanical pressure and ▪ Peristalsis moves the
psychic stimuli bolus toward the stomach
▪ Salivary amylase begins ▪ The cardioesophageal
starch digestion sphincter is opened when
 Essentially, no food absorption food presses against it
occurs in the mouth
▪ Food propulsion—swallowing and Activities of the stomach
peristalsis
 Pharynx and esophagus have no
digestive function
▪ Serve as passageways to
the stomach
 Pharynx functions in swallowing
(deglutition)
▪ Two phases of
swallowing ▪ Food breakdown
1. Buccal phase  Gastric juice is regulated by
2. Pharyngeal- neural and hormonal factors
esophageal phase
 Presence of food or rising pH
▪ Food propulsion—swallowing and causes the release of the
peristalsis (continued) hormone gastrin
1. Buccal phase  Gastrin causes stomach glands
▪ Voluntary to produce:
▪ Protein-digesting
▪ Occurs in the mouth
enzymes
▪ Food is formed into a ▪ Mucus
bolus
▪ Hydrochloric acid
▪ The bolus is forced into
the pharynx by the tongue ▪ Food breakdown (continued)
▪ Food propulsion—swallowing and  Hydrochloric acid makes the
peristalsis (continued) stomach contents very acidic
2. Pharyngeal-esophageal phase  Acidic pH
▪ Involuntary transport of ▪ Activates pepsinogen to
the bolus by peristalsis pepsin for protein
 digestion (continued)
▪ Provides a hostile  Pancreatic enzymes play the
environment for
major role in the digestion of
microorganisms fats, proteins, and
carbohydrates
▪ Food breakdown (continued)  Alkaline content neutralizes
 Protein-digestion enzymes acidic chyme and provides the
proper environment for the
▪ Pepsin—an active
pancreatic enzymes to operate
protein-digesting enzyme
 Chyme breakdown and absorption
▪ Rennin—works on (continued)
digesting milk protein in
infants; not produced in  Release of pancreatic juice
adults from the pancreas into the
 Alcohol and aspirin are duodenum is stimulated by:
virtually the only items ▪ Vagus nerves
absorbed in the stomach
▪ Local hormones that
▪ Food propulsion
travel via the blood to
1. Peristalsis: waves of peristalsis influence the release of
occur from the fundus to the pancreatic juice (and bile)
pylorus, forcing food past the o Secretin
pyloric sphincter o Cholecystokinin
2. Grinding: the pylorus meters (CCK)
out chyme into the small
▪ Chyme breakdown and absorption
intestine (3 ml at a time)
3. Retropulsion: peristaltic waves (continued)
close the pyloric sphincter,  Hormones (secretin and CCK)
forcing contents back into the also target the liver and
stomach; the stomach empties gallbladder to release bile
in 4–6 hours ▪ Bile
Activities of the small intestine
o Acts as a fat
emulsifier
▪ Chyme breakdown and absorption o Needed for fat
 Intestinal enzymes from the absorption and
brush border function to: absorption of fat-
soluble vitamins
▪ Break double sugars into (K, D, E, and A)
simple sugars
▪ Chyme breakdown and absorption
▪ Complete some protein
(continued)
digestion  A summary table of hormones
Intestinal enzymes and pancreatic enzymes is presented next
help to complete digestion of all food groups
▪ Chyme breakdown and absorption
▪ Chyme breakdown and absorption (continued)
  Water is absorbed along the ▪ Bacteria
length of the small intestine
 End products of digestion ▪ Water
▪ Most substances are ▪ Propulsion of food residue and
absorbed by active defecation
transport through cell
membranes
 Sluggish peristalsis begins
when food residue arrives
▪ Lipids are absorbed by  Haustral contractions are the
diffusion movements occurring most
 Substances are transported to frequently in the large intestine
the liver by the hepatic portal  Mass movements are slow,
vein or lymph powerful movements that
▪ Chyme propulsion occur three to four times per
day
 Peristalsis is the major means
of moving food ▪ Propulsion of food residue and
 Segmental movements defecation (continued)
▪ Mix chyme with digestive  Presence of feces in the rectum
causes a defecation reflex
juices
▪ Internal anal sphincter is
▪ Aid in propelling food
relaxed
Activities of the large intestine
▪ Defecation occurs with
▪ Nutrient breakdown and absorption relaxation of the
voluntary (external) anal
 No digestive enzymes are sphincter
produced
 Resident bacteria digest
remaining nutrients
▪ Produce some vitamin K Part 2: Nutrition and Metabolism
and some B vitamins
▪ Release gases
▪ Most foods are used as metabolic fuel

 Water, vitamins, ions, and  Foods are oxidized and

remaining water are absorbed transformed into adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
 Remaining materials are
eliminated via feces  ATP is chemical energy that
drives cellular activities
▪ Nutrient breakdown and absorption
▪ Energy value of food is measured in
(continued)
kilocalories (kcal) or Calories (C)
 Feces contains:
Nutrition
▪ Undigested food residues

▪ Mucus
▪ Nutrient—substance used by the body
for growth, maintenance, and repair
▪ Major nutrients  Five food groups are arranged
by a round plate
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Water
▪ Minor nutrients
 Vitamins
 Minerals
▪ A diet consisting of foods from the
five food groups normally guarantees
adequate amounts of all the needed nutrients

▪ The five food groups

▪ Carbohydrates
 Dietary carbohydrates are
sugars and starches
 Most are derived from plants
such as fruits and vegetables
 Exceptions: lactose from milk
and small amounts of
glycogens from meats
▪ Lipids
 Saturated fats from animal
Dietary Sources of the Major Nutrients products (meats)
 Unsaturated fats from nuts,
▪ Healthy Eating Pyramid seeds, and vegetable oils
 Cholesterol from egg yolk,
 Issued in 1992
meats, and milk products
 Six major food groups
(dairy products)
arranged horizontally
▪ Proteins
 Complete proteins—contain all
essential amino acids
▪ Most are from animal
products (eggs, milk,
meat, poultry, and fish)
▪ Essential amino acids:
those that the body cannot
make and must be
obtained through diet
▪ MyPlate  Legumes and beans also have
proteins, but the proteins are
 Issued in 2011 by the USDA
 incomplete Carbohydrate Metabolism

▪ Carbohydrates are the body’s

preferred source to produce cellular
energy (ATP)
▪ Vitamins ▪ Glucose (blood sugar)
 Most vitamins function as  Major breakdown product of
coenzymes carbohydrate digestion
 Found mainly in fruits and  Fuel used to make ATP
vegetables ▪ Cellular respiration
▪ Minerals  As glucose is oxidized, carbon
 Mainly important for enzyme dioxide, water, and ATP are
activity formed
Foods richest in minerals: vegetables, ▪ Events of three main metabolic
legumes, milk, and some meats
pathways of cellular respiration
Metabolism 1. Glycolysis
▪ Occurs in the cytosol

▪ Metabolism is all of the chemical ▪ Energizes a glucose

reactions necessary to maintain life molecule so it can be
 Catabolism—substances are split into two pyruvic
broken down to simpler acid molecules and yield
ATP
substances; energy is released
and captured to make ▪ Events of three main metabolic
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) pathways of cellular respiration
 Anabolism—larger molecules (continued)
are built from smaller ones 2. Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
▪ Occurs in the
Carbohydrate, Fat, and Protein Metabolism in mitochondrion
Body Cells
▪ Produces virtually all the
 carbon dioxide and water Fat Metabolism
resulting from cellular
respiration
▪ Yields a small amount of
ATP
▪ Events of three main metabolic
pathways of cellular respiration
(continued)
3. Electron transport chain
▪ Hydrogen atoms removed
during glycolysis and the
citric acid cycle are
delivered to protein
carriers
▪ Hydrogen atoms are split
into hydrogen ions and
electrons in the
mitochondria
▪ Electrons give off energy
in a series of steps to
▪ Fats
enable the production of
ATP  Insulate the body
 Protect organs
▪ Hyperglycemia—excessively high
 Build some cell structures
levels of glucose in the blood (membranes and myelin
 Excess glucose is stored in sheaths)
body cells as glycogen or  Provide reserve energy
converted to fat
▪ Excess dietary fat is stored in
▪ Hypoglycemia—low levels of glucose
subcutaneous tissue and other fat
in the blood depots
 Glycogenolysis,
gluconeogenesis, and fat ▪ When carbohydrates are in limited
breakdown occur to restore supply, more fats are oxidized to
normal blood glucose levels produce ATP
 Excessive fat breakdown
causes blood to become acidic
(acidosis or ketoacidosis)
▪ Breath has a fruity odor

▪ Common with:
o “No
carbohydrate”
diets
 o Uncontrolled
▪ Glucose molecules are
diabetes mellitus
o Starvation converted to glycogen
and stored in the liver
 Glycogenolysis—“glycogen
Protein Metabolism splitting”
▪ Proteins form the bulk of cell structure ▪ Glucose is released from
and most functional molecules the liver after conversion
from glycogen
▪ Proteins are carefully conserved by
 Gluconeogenesis—“formation
body cells of new sugar”
▪ Amino acids are actively taken up ▪ Glucose is produced from
from blood by body cells fats and proteins
▪ Amino acids are oxidized to form ATP ▪ Fats and fatty acids are picked up by
mainly when other fuel sources are not the liver
available  Some are oxidized to provide
▪ Ammonia, released as amino acids are energy for liver cells
 The rest are either stored or
catabolized, is detoxified by liver cells broken down into simpler
that combine it with carbon dioxide to compounds and released into
form urea the blood
▪ Blood proteins made by the liver are
The Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism
assembled from amino acids
▪ Liver is the body’s key metabolic  Albumin is the most abundant
protein in blood
organ  Clotting proteins
▪ Roles in digestion ▪ Liver cells detoxify ammonia
 Manufactures bile  Ammonia is combined with
 Detoxifies drugs and alcohol carbon dioxide to form urea,
 Degrades hormones which is flushed from the body
 Produces cholesterol, blood in urine
proteins (albumin and clotting
proteins) ▪ Cholesterol metabolism and transport
 Plays a central role in
metabolism
▪ Liver can regenerate if part of it is
damaged or removed
▪ To maintain homeostasis of blood
glucose levels, the liver performs:
 Glycogenesis—“glycogen
formation”
 cholesterol is destined for
breakdown and
elimination

Body Energy Balance

▪ Energy intake = Total energy output

heat + work + energy storage
 Energy intake is the energy
liberated during food oxidation
▪ Energy produced during
glycolysis, citric acid
cycle, and the electron
transport chain
 Cholesterol is not used to make
 Energy output
ATP
 Functions of cholesterol: ▪ Energy we lose as heat
(60%)
▪ Structural basis of
steroid hormones and ▪ Energy stored as fat or
vitamin D glycogen
▪ Building block of plasma ▪ Interference with the body’s energy
membranes balance leads to:
 Most cholesterol (85%) is  Obesity
produced in the liver; only  Malnutrition (leading to body
15% is from the diet wasting)
 Cholesterol and fatty acids
cannot freely circulate in the ▪ Regulation of food intake
bloodstream  Body weight is usually
 They are transported by relatively stable
lipoproteins (lipid-protein ▪ Energy intake and output
complexes) known as LDLs
remain about equal
and HDLs
 Low-density lipoproteins  Mechanisms that may regulate
(LDLs) transport cholesterol to food intake
body cells ▪ Levels of nutrients in the
▪ Rated “bad lipoproteins” blood
since they can lead to ▪ Hormones
atherosclerosis
 High-density lipoproteins ▪ Body temperature
(HDLs) transport cholesterol ▪ Psychological factors
from body cells to the liver
▪ Rated “good ▪ Metabolic rate and body heat
lipoproteins” since production
  Nutrients yield different maintain homeostasis and maintain a
amounts of energy constant weight
 Energy value is measured in ▪ Body temperature regulation
kilocalories (kcal)
 When foods are oxidized, more
▪ Carbohydrates and than 60% of energy escapes as
proteins yield 4 heat, warming the body
kcal/gram  The body has a narrow range
▪ Fats yield 9 kcal/gram of homeostatic temperature
▪ Must remain between
▪ Basic metabolic rate (BMR)—amount
35.6ºC and 37.8ºC
of heat produced by the body per unit
of time at rest ▪ (96ºF and 100ºF)

▪ Average BMR is about 60 to 72 ▪ Body temperature regulation

kcal/hour for an average 70-kg (154-  The body’s thermostat is in the
lb) adult hypothalamus
 Hypothalamus initiates
mechanisms to maintain body
temperature
▪ Heat loss mechanisms
involve radiation of heat
from skin and
evaporation of sweat
▪ Factors that influence BMR ▪ Heat-promoting
 Surface area—a small body mechanisms involve
usually has a higher BMR vasoconstriction of skin
 Gender—males tend to have blood vessels and
higher BMRs shivering
 Age—children and adolescents ▪ Fever—controlled hyperthermia
have higher BMRs
 Results from infection, cancer,
 The amount of thyroxine
allergic reactions, CNS injuries
produced is the most important
 If the body thermostat is set
control factor
too high, body proteins may be
▪ More thyroxine means a denatured, and permanent
higher metabolic rate brain damage may occur
▪ Total metabolic rate (TMR)—total
amount of kilocalories the body must
consume to fuel ongoing activities
▪ TMR increases dramatically with an
increase in muscle activity
▪ TMR must equal calories consumed to
  Gastroenteritis—inflammation
of the gastrointestinal tract; can
occur at any time
 Appendicitis—inflammation of
the appendix; common in
adolescents
▪ Metabolism decreases with old age

▪ Middle-age digestive problems

 Ulcers
 Gallbladder problems
▪ Later middle-age problems
 Obesity
 Diabetes mellitus
▪ Activity of the digestive tract in old
age
 Fewer digestive juices
Part 3: Developmental Aspects of the  Peristalsis slows
Digestive System and Metabolism  Diverticulosis and
gastrointestinal cancers are
▪ The alimentary canal is a continuous, more common
hollow tube present by the fifth week
of development
▪ Digestive glands bud from the mucosa
of the alimentary tube
▪ The developing fetus receives all
nutrients through the placenta
▪ In newborns, feeding must be
frequent, peristalsis is inefficient, and
vomiting is common
▪ Newborn reflexes
 Rooting reflex helps the infant
find the nipple
 Sucking reflex helps the infant
hold on to the nipple and
swallow
▪ Teething begins around age 6 months

▪ Problems of the digestive system