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A Comparative Study Between Direct Torque Control and Predictive Torque

Control for Axial Flux Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines

Article in Journal of Electrical Engineering · November 2013

DOI: 10.2478/jee-2013-0052

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 Journal of ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, VOL. 64, NO. 6, 2013, 346–353

A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN DIRECT TORQUE

CONTROL AND PREDICTIVE TORQUE CONTROL FOR AXIAL
FLUX PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
∗ ∗∗ ∗∗∗
Mohsen Siami — S. Asghar Gholamian — Mosayeb Yousefi

This paper presents a comparative study between direct torque control (DTC) and predictive torque control (PTC) of
Axial Flux Permanent magnet Machines (AFPM). In conventional DTC method for permanent magnet machines, only six
actives voltage vectors of inverter are used to control torque and flux of machine. But in predictive torque control, in addition
to six active voltage vectors, zero voltage vectors are used to control machine. So number of voltage vectors to control AFPM
increases that leads to lower ripple of torque and flux. In predictive torque control, the response of torque and flux are
computed for all possible switching states of inverter at every sample time according to discrete time model of machine, and
then the switching state that optimizes ripple of torque and flux, will be applied in next discrete-time interval. Simulation
results which compare the results of implementation of both methods and confirm the good performance of the proposed
predictive torque control are presented.
K e y w o r d s: axial flux permanent magnet machine, direct torque control, predictive control, synchronous machine
drives, torque ripple

1 INTRODUCTION motor drive control that mainly associated with modula-

tion techniques [7–11]. The application of this family of
Permanent magnet (PM) machines due to the advan- nonlinear control techniques for torque and flux control in
tages such as small size with high efficiency and high reli- induction machines (IMs) has received attention from re-
ability, have been receiving much attention. PM machines searchers due to the technique’s qualities of fast dynamic
are divided to tow general groups include of Radial Flux torque response, low torque ripple, and reduced switch-
Permanent Magnet (RFPM) machine and Axial Flux Per- ing frequency [12–14]. Predictive method was also used to
manent Magnet (AFPM) machine. AFPMs have higher control of PM synchronous machine [15] An alternative
torque to inertia ratio and thus faster dynamic torque technique for controlling the torque and flux of an IM
response with respect to RFPMs [1]. based on state space models has also been investigated
Two widely used control schemes that are used in com- [16].
mercial are field-oriented control (FOC) and direct torque A Predictive direct torque control method has been
control (DTC). DTC technique was developed for induc- proposed to overcome drawbacks of DTC for PMSM [17].
tion motor drivers [2]. It was applied to permanent mag- In this approach the torque ripple is supposed to be con-
net drives in 1997 [3]. DTC has faster dynamic torque stant. At every sample time, active time (the interval of
response with respect to FOC. In DTC, the appropriate exerting active voltage vector) and the zero time (the in-
inverter configuration is selected from a switching table, terval of exerting zero voltage vector) are calculated for
according to the signs of the errors between the references every 6 active voltage vectors according to discrete time
of torque and stator flux and their actual values, In order torque model of machine as if that voltage vector is used
to keep torque and stator flux within a hysteresis band. in the next interval, the torque will not exceed from the
The main advantage of DTC in comparison with FOC is band limit. Then the voltage vector that leads to mini-
a faster torque dynamic response. Furthermore DTC is mum ripple in flux will be applied in next discrete-time
independent of motor parameters except for stator resis- interval. So in this method two voltage vectors (active
tance. There are some disadvantages like torque ripple, voltage vector and zero voltage vector) and therefore two
current distortion and mainly needing the high sampling switching states is applied in every time interval.
frequency for digital implementation that are due to the But another approach for predictive torque control has
hysteresis based scheme and therefore due to the vari- been presented for induction machine fed by matrix con-
able switching frequency. Many studies have been done verter [18]. In this method, torque and flux are evaluated
to solve these problems [4, 5]. for every valid switching state of the converter based on
Predictive control is a control theory that was devel- predictions obtained from a discrete time model of the
oped at the end of the 1970s [6]. Variant types of this system. Then the best switching state that minimizes the
control strategy have been used for power conversion and cost function will be used in next time interval.

∗
Center of Excellence for Power Systems Automation and Operation, Electrical Engineering Department, Iran University of Science
∗∗
and Technology, Tehran 1311416846, Iran, siami@[Link] Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Babol University of
∗∗∗
Technology, Babol, Iran, Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering Shahid Beheshti University, Evin, Tehran, Iran

DOI: 10.2478/jee-2013-0052, Print ISSN 1335-3632, On-line ISSN 1339-309X, c 2013 FEI STU

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 Journal of ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 64, NO. 6, 2013 347

3 CONVENTIONAL DTC

According to (4) torque can be controlled as fast as

possible by keeping the amplitude of the stator flux link-
age constant and increasing the rotating speed of the sta-
tor flux linkage and so increasing the angel between stator
and PM flux. It will be shown in this section that both
the amplitude and rotating speed of the stator flux linkage
can be controlled by selecting the proper stator voltage
vectors [3].
When the stator windings are connected to an inverter
as shown in Fig. 1, the voltage vectors in α − β plane can
defined determined by the status of the three switches,
Fig. 1. Simplified representation an inverter-fed AFPM Sa , Sb and Sc so that their respective components are

Vdc 
vs(α) =

2Sa − Sb − Sc , (5)
3
The objective of this paper is to present a new pre-
Vdc
vs(β) = √ Sb − Sc .


dictive torque control and to compare the results of im- (6)
plementation of the proposed method and conventional 3
DTC method for a 250 V and 0.5 HP surface mounted According to the combination of the switching modes, the
axial flux permanent magnet synchronous machine. voltage vectors are specified for eight kinds of vectors.
There are six nonzero voltage vectors: V1 (100), V1 (110),
. . . and two zero voltage vectors: V7 (000) and V8 (111) .
2 PM MACHIN EQUATIONS The six nonzero voltage vectors are 60◦ apart from each
other as in Fig. 2, [3].
The equations of the AFPM synchronous machine are
same as PMSM. Therefore the machine equations in the
rotor reference frame are [19]

did
vd = Rs id + Ld − Lq ωiq , (1)
dt
diq
vq = Rs iq + Lq + Ld ωid + ωϕm , (2)
dt
3
Te = p [ϕm iq − (Lq − Ld )id iq ] (3)
2

where
vd , vq stator voltage on d and q axes;
Fig. 2. The movement of stator flux in the space-vector plane
id , iq stator current on d and q axes;
Rs stator armature resistance, Ω;
Ld , Lq direct and quadrature inductance, H; The stator flux linkage of an AFPM in the stationary
reference frame can be expressed as
ω rotor speed in electrical rad/s;
Z
Te electromagnetic torque, N m; ϕs = (vs − Rs is )dt . (7)
p pole pairs;
δ angle between stator and rotor flux linkage; During the switching interval, each voltage vector is con-
ϕs , ϕm stator and rotor magnet flux linkage; stant, and (7) is then rewritten as
Z
For the Surface mounted AFPM (AFPM with uniform φs = vs t − Rs is dt + ϕs t = 0 . (8)
air gap) Ld = Lq = Ls , and (3) can be simplified as
According to (8), the trajectory of the stator flux vector
3pϕs ϕm will move in the direction of the applied voltage vector
T = sin δ . (4) if the stator resistance is neglected (Fig. 2). ϕs t = 0 is
2Ld
the initial stator flux linkage at the instant of switching.
According to Fig. 3, the component voltage vector along

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348 M. Siami — S. A. Gholamian — M. Yousefi: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL AND . . .

and dT are the outputs of the hysteresis controllers for

flux linkage and torque, respectively. θ(1)– θ(6) are the
region numbers for the stator flux linkage positions. It
should be noticed that the flux linkages ϕα and ϕβ at
the k th sampling instant are calculated by discrete time
model as [3]

ϕα (k) = ϕα|k−1 + (vα|k−1 − Rs iα )Ts , (9)

ϕβ (k) = ϕβ|k−1 + (vβ|k−1 − Rs iβ )Ts , (10)
q
ϕs (k) = ϕ2α (k) + ϕ2β (k) (11)

and torque calculated as

Fig. 3. Effect of components of voltage vector on amplitude and
rotational speed of stator flux
3  
T = p ϕα (k)iβ (k) − ϕβ (k)iα (k) (12)
2
Table 1. Switching Table for DTC of AFPM Drive
where Ts is the sampling interval and the variables with
subscript k − 1 are the previous samples. As seen this
ϕ θ equations are independent of motor parameters except
T
θ(1) θ(2) θ(3) θ(4) θ(5) θ(6) for stator resistance. But The initial values of ϕα and
ϕβ are not zero for PM machines. These can be obtained
dT = 1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V1
dϕ = 1 from an encoder. But if the initial values of ϕα and ϕβ
dT = 0 V6 V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
can be estimated, the encoder may entirely be eliminated.
dT = 1 V3 V4 V5 V6 V1 V2 For example we can use an external magnet to locate the
dϕ = 0
dT = 0 V5 V6 V1 V2 V3 V4 rotor in a special position so we can estimate the initial
values of ϕα and ϕβ .

the flux vector alters the amplitude of stator flux and the
vertical component alters the rotating speed of stator flux 3 PROPSED PREDICTIVE TORQUE CONTROL
vector.
It is seen from (8) when zero voltage vectors are ap- Predictive torque control (PTC) consists of choosing
plied, ϕs will stay at its original position. This is true one of the 8 feasible switching states of the inverter, at
for an induction motor since the stator flux linkage is fixed sampling intervals. The strategy to select the switch-
uniquely determined by the stator voltage. In the case ing state for the every time interval is based on minimiza-
of a PM machine, ϕs will change even when the zero tion of quality function. The quality function QF repre-
voltage vectors are applied since the magnets rotate with sents the evaluation criteria in order to select the best
the rotor. Therefore, zero voltage vectors are not used for switching state for the next sampling interval. For the
controlling in AFPM. In other words, ϕs should always computation of QF , by means of a mathematical model
be in motion with respect to the rotor flux linkage. of the AFPM the electric torque Te , and the stator flux
According to the torque (4), by controlling the am- ϕs on the next sampling interval are predicted, for each
plitude and rotational speed of ϕs , the electromagnetic valid switching state. These predicted values are indicated
torque can be controlled effectively. If the actual torque is by the superscript “ p” and are compared with their ref-
smaller than the reference, the voltage vectors that keep erence values denoted by the superscript “ ∗ ” within QF .
rotating in the same direction are selected. The angle in- A proportional-integral (PI) controller is used to generate
creases as fast as it can, and the actual torque increases the reference torque Te∗ for the predictive algorithm.
as well. If the actual torque is greater than the reference,
the voltage vectors that keep rotating in the reverse direc- 3.1 Quality Function QF
tion are selected. The angle decreases, and the torque de-
creases also. By selecting the voltage vectors in this way, The quality function represents the evaluation criteria
ϕs is rotated all the time and its rotational direction is used to decide which switching state is the best to apply.
determined by the output of the hysteresis controller for The function is composed of the absolute error of the
the torque. predicted torque, the absolute error of the predicted flux
According to this approach and taking into account magnitude, resulting in
the region that flux vector is located, a switching table
as shown in Table 1, can be obtained. In Table 1, dϕ QF = λT Te∗ − Tep + λvarphi |ϕ∗s | − |ϕps | (13)

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 Journal of ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 64, NO. 6, 2013 349

where λT and λvarphi are weighting factors that handle Substituting (19) in (15), the electromagnetic torque at
the relationship between torque and flux conditions. To instant t(k + 1) is obtained as follows [20]
maintain QS as a magnitude without a physic interpre-
tation, λT is measured in N/m and λvarphi in weber
inverse. The quality function must be calculated for each 3 n
Te (k + 1) = pϕm iq (k)+
of the 8 feasible switching states. The state that gener- 2
ates the optimum value, in this case a minimum, will be Ts  o
vq (k) − Rs iq (k) − Ld ω(k)id (k) − ω(k)ϕm (20)
chosen and applied during the next time interval. The Lq
state that generate the higher predictions of torque error
and flux error will be penalized with higher values of QF ,
and thus, will not be selected. In this sense, the technique
For prediction of stator flux, we should calculate sta-
assigns costs to the objectives reflected in g , weighted by
λT and λvarphi and then chooses the switching state that tor flux components in α – β system of coordinates. Since
presents the lowest cost. the calculations are realized in an α – β stator frame of
coordinates, (1) and (2) are transformed into α – β coor-
3.2 Models Used to Obtain Prediction dinates. The flux in each stator fixed axis can be split
into one term depending on the rotor position and the
In this section, a mathematical discrete-time model PM flux and a second originated by the current in the
is derived to predict the behavior of the system under corresponding axis as follow
a given switching state, based on the well-known equa-
tions of the surface-mounted PM synchronous machine.
The voltage equations in a d- q system of coordinates are ϕsα = Rs isα + ϕmα , ϕmα = ϕm cos(θ) , (21)
expressed as (1) and (2). The electromagnetic torque de-
veloped by the AFPM can be expressed as follows ϕsβ = Rs isβ + ϕmβ , ϕmβ = ϕm cos(θ) . (22)

3  
Te = p ϕm iq − (Lq − Ld )id iq . (14)
2 Thus, the voltage equations result in
For simplicity a surface mounted AFPM is considered
(Lq = Ld = Ls ). The electromagnetic torque expressed diα
in (14) is simplified to vα = Rs isα + Ls − ωϕm sin(θ) , (23)
dt
diβ
3 vβ = Rs isβ + Ls + ωϕm sin(θ) . (24)
Te = pϕm iq . (15) dt
2

The derivative of the electromagnetic torque is

According to (8), the components of stator flux in α – β
dTe 3 diq stator frame at instant t(k + 1) are
= pϕm . (16)
dt 2 dt
Z
Resolving for the derivative of iq in (2) ϕsα (k + 1) = ϕsα (k) + vα (k)Ts − Rs iα dt , (25)

diq 1
Z
= [vq − Rs iq − Ld ωid − ωϕm ] . (17) ϕsβ (k + 1) = ϕsβ (k) + vβ (k)Ts − Rs iβ dt . (26)
dt Lq

In order to predict the current and torque values for the

next sampling instant t(k + 1), a discrete-time set of
equations can be derived from the continuous-time model.
For small values of the control sampling time Ts , the
quadrature axis current iq at t(k + 1) can be calculated
as follows

d
iq (k + 1) = iq (k) + iq (k)Ts . (18)
dt

Substituting in (16) yields

iq (k + 1) = iq (k)+
Ts
[vq (k) − Rs iq (k) − Ld ω(k)id (k) − ω(k)ϕm ] . (19)
Lq Fig. 4. Current iα during a switching interval

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350 M. Siami — S. A. Gholamian — M. Yousefi: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL AND . . .

Fig. 5. Block diagram for DTC of AFPM drive

Fig. 6. Block diagram for proposed Predictive Torque Control of AFPM drive

Table 2. AFPM Parameters in Simulation Model [t(k), t(k + 1)] are

diα
Parameter Description Value iα (t) = iα (k) + t, (27)
dt
p number of pole pairs 4 diβ
R (Ω) stator resistance 0.2 iβ (t) = iβ (k) + t. (28)
dt
Ld , Lq (mH) stator inductance 8.5
Resolving for the derivative of iα and iβ in (27) and
ϕm (Wb) rotor magnet flux 0.175
(28),
j (kg m2 ) rotor inertia 0.089
B damping coefficient 0.005 diα 1
= [vα − Rs iα + ωϕm sin(θ)] , (29)
VDC (V) DC voltage 250 dt Ls
ωr (rpm) rated speed 300 diβ 1
= [vβ − Rs iβ − ωϕm cos(θ)] , (30)
TN (N m) rated torque 11 dt Ls
− power switches IGBT Thus according to (25)–(30),
n
ϕsα (k + 1) = ϕsα (k) + vα (k)Ts − Rs Ts iα (k)+
The current within a switching interval has the trajec- Rs Ts2 o
tory shown in Fig. 4. So iα and iβ during time interval [vα − Rs iα (k) + ωϕm sin(θ)] , (31)
2Ls

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 Journal of ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 64, NO. 6, 2013 351

flux are compared to their reference values in hysteresis

controllers. According to hysteresis controllers and the
region that stator flux is located, the voltage vector and
thus the switches state will be selected from the switching
table.
In modeling, it is assumed the band widths of torque
and flux hysteresis controllers are 0.01Te∗ and 0.01ϕ∗s
respectively. And also, it is assumed that the rotor starts
at its initial position θ = 0 , so the initial region of flux
is θ(1). The reference torque changes abruptly from 11
to −11 Nm at t = 0.175 s and from −11 to 11 Nm at
t = 0.175 s.
According to (8) and Fig. 3, it is clear that voltage
magnitude of DC link and also sample time, have impor-
tant effect on torque and flux changes and smaller sample
time leads to smaller ripples of torque and flux. In this
paper Ts = 10 µs is assumed for simulation.

Fig. 7. Flowchart of the proposed predictive control

n
ϕsβ (k + 1) = ϕsβ (k) + vβ (k)Ts − Rs Ts iβ (k)+
Rs Ts2 o
[vβ − Rs iβ (k) + ωϕm cos(θ)] . (32)
2Ls

Equations (20), (31) and (32) are used to obtain pre-

dictions of torque and flux for each of the 8 valid switching
combinations. Then the switching state that minimizes
(13), will be applied in next time interval.
It should be noticed that the change of the reference
flux amplitude between no-load and rated torque condi-
tions is not large; nevertheless, its correction according
to the actual torque enhances the overall efficiency of the
system. Thus the amplitude of the stator flux results from
the constant value of the PM flux as
s
 2 T ∗ L 2
∗ e s
|φs | = ϕ2m + . (33)
3 pϕm

4 SIMULATION RESULTS
Fig. 8. Torque response of AFPM: (a) — conventional DTC, (b)
A SIMULINK model was used in order to verify the — predictive torque control
behavior of the proposed predictive torque control and
compare it with conventional DTC that are presented in
this paper. Simulation parameters (such as AFPM and The torque response is shown on Fig. 8a. As this figure
voltage source inverter) are listed in Table 2. shows, the actual torque follows reference torque very
fast when reference torque changes. In steady state when
4.1 Simulation of a AFPM Drive with DTC
reference torque is constant, actual torque is controlled
The block diagram of the conventional DTC is shown within the bandwidth. Figure 9a. shows stator flux that
in Fig. 5. As shown in this figure the torque and flux mo- is controlled within the bandwidth too. The trajectory
tor are calculated by means of machine equations in sta- of ϕα and ϕβ is a circle as expected that is shown on
tionary reference frame. Then magnitudes of torque and Fig. 10a.

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352 M. Siami — S. A. Gholamian — M. Yousefi: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL AND . . .

However, drawback of predictive torque control with

regard to DTC is that the DTC controllers as shown on
Fig. 5 and (9)–(12) are independent of motor parameters
except for the stator resistance, which affects only the
low-speed performance of the drive and can be compen-
sated. The inductances and back EMF constant, which
change with the saturation and temperature, respectively,
are not used in the controller, and, therefore, there is no
need to be compensated for the saturation and back EMF
constant variation. But since predictive torque control
uses machine mathematical model that is estimation of
actual model in ideal state and dependents on all machine
parameters, so changes of The inductances and back EMF
constant due to saturation and temperature, can disturb
Fig. 9. Stator flux: (a) — conventional DTC, (b) — predictive control process. Furthermore, unlike DTC method, pre-
torque control
dictive torque control needs rotor speed. So the drive
needs a speed sensor that increases volume and cost of
drive.

Fig. 10. Torque response of AFPM: (a) — conventional DTC, (b)

— predictive torque control

4.2 Simulation of a AFPM Drive with proposed

Predictive Torque Control

The block diagram of the proposed predictive torque

control is shown in Fig. 6. As shown in this figure, unlike
DTC this control method does not need switching table,
and the proper switching state in each time interval is
selected according to flowchart that is shown in Fig. 7.
To calculate torque and flux for each possible switching
state the discrete time model of machine is used that has
been presented in this paper.
The motor torque with this control method is shown
in Fig. 8b. As it is observed, in comparison with motor
torque in DTC method that is shown in Fig. 8a, torque
ripple is reduced in predictive torque control. Further-
more, dynamic torque response is improved too, when
reference torque changes.
Stator flux is shown in Fig. 9b, and as it shows, the Fig. 11. Three phase stator currents of AFPM: (a) — conventional
flux ripple is reduced too, in comparison with DTC. The DTC, (b) — predictive torque control
trajectory of ϕα and ϕβ is a circle with less ripple as
expected that is shown on Fig. 10b.
Stator currents for both DTC and predictive torque 5 CONCLUSION
control have been shown on Fig. 11. As observed the
ripple current for predictive control is less than DTC that Two control methods for Permanent Magnet Syn-
leads to less harmonics and losses in stator coil. chronous Motor include of Direct Torque Control and

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 Journal of ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 64, NO. 6, 2013 353

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Supplied Electrical Drives, in Proc. Conf. Rec. IEEE (Power S. Asghare Gholamian was born in Babolsar, Iran, in
Electron. Spec. Conf.), vol. 2, 2000, pp. 761–766. 1976. He received a BSc, degree in electrical engineering from
[8] MOON, H.-T.—KIM, H.-S.—YOUN, M.-J. : A Discrete-Time K.N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran in 1999
Predictive Current Control for PMSM, IEEE Trans. Power Elec- and a MSc degree in electric power engineering (electrical
tron. 18 No. 1 (Jan 2003), 464–472. machine) from university of Mazandaran, Babol, Iran in 2001.
[9] WIPASURAMONTON, P.—ZHU, Z. Q.—HOWE, V : Pre- He also received the PhD degree in electrical engineering from
dictive Current Control with Current-Error Correction for K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran in 2008. He
PM Brushless AC Drives, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 42 No. 4 is currently an assistant professor in department of Electrical
(Jul/Aug 2006), 1071–1079.
engineering at the Babol University of Technology, Iran. His
[10] BÉLAI, I.—ŽALMAN, M. : Predictive Current Controller of the research interests include power electronic design , simulation,
Vector-Controlled of Asynchronous Motor, Journal of Electrical modeling and control of electrical machines (motor, generator
Engineering 48 No. 7-0 (1997), 201–204.
and transformer).
[11] GEYER, T.—PAPAFOTIOU, G.—MORARI, M. : Model Pre-
dictive Direct Torque Control, Part I: Concept, Algorithm and Mosayeb Yousefi was born in Nour, IRAN, in 1986. He
Analysis, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 56 No. 6 (Jun 2009), received his BSc degree in electrical engineering from Uni-
1894–1905. versity of Guilan, Rasht, IRAN in 2009 and his MSc degree
[12] CORREA, P.—PACAS, M.—RODRÍGUEZ, J. : Predictive in electrical engineering at Shahid Beheshti University, Evin,
Torque Control for Inverter-Fed Induction Machines, IEEE Tehran, Iran. His research interests include motor control and
Trans. Ind. Electron. 54 No. 2 (Apr 2007), 1073–1079. power electronics.

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