BASIC ELECTRONICS and

PROJECT MANUAL
A step-by-step guide for anyone to start learning electronics.

CONTAIN EXPERIMENTS THAT WILL OPEN UP YOUR MIND TO TECH

CREATIVITY AND INNOVATIONS SUCH AS; LIGHT DISPLAY, FAN WITH
CONTROL, TOY CAR MOTION CONTROL, PHONE CHARGER, FLASHING LIGHT,
SIMPLE AMPLIFIER, LIGHT CONTROLLED SWITCH AND LOTS MORE

PROJECT OLUWATAYO SOMOTUN

EXODUS UCHENNA OKEKE
BASIC ELECTRONICS and
PROJECT MANUAL
A step-by-step guide for anyone to start learning electronics.

By

Oluwatayo Somotun

Uchenna Okeke

EDUSOD Logistics Service

…LEARN, APPLY AND DEVELOP
Basic Electronics and Project Manual
A step-by-step guide for anyone to start learning electronics.
By Oluwatayo Somotun and Uchenna Okeke

DISCLAIMER

While the author has used good faith efforts to ensure that the information and instructions
contained in this work are accurate, the author disclaim all responsibility for errors or omissions,
including without limitation responsibility for damages resulting from the use of or reliance on this
work. Use of the information and instructions contained in this work is at your own risk.

CREDITS

The CAD software for schematic and breadboard design is an open-source initiative called Fritzing.
For more information about this tool, please visit [Link]
Photo credit to the owners of original images and pictures used in this book obtained from the
internet.

SAFETY WARNING

This book is suitable for personal and instructional purposes

Not suitable for children under 4 years of age

Adult supervision is required for younger users

Always observe safety precautions at all times - “Safety First”

No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the author, with
the exception that the program listings may be entered, stored, and executed in a computer
system, but they may not be reproduced for publication.

© 2018 By EDUSOD Logistics Services. All rights reserved.

For supports, training resources and other services from EDUSOD Logistics Services, contact;

Tel: 08094244576, 07015813133

Email: edusodservices@[Link]
:
 DEDICATION
This book is dedicated to the Most High God; the Father, the Son and the Holy
Ghost.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I, Oluwatayo Somotun appreciate Uchenna Okeke and Tosin Oluwunmi for their contribution
and dedication in making these resources available through the EDUSOD Logistics Services.
We could not have had this opportunity while growing up but we definitely believe that
through our little contributions, we could help someone on the path to fulfilling his/her
dreams in life.

My profound gratitude goes to Mr. and Mrs. P.O. Somotun, Mr. and Mrs Okeke, Mr. and Mrs.
Oluwunmi, our siblings and relatives.

I also like to appreciate the immerse contributions of Mr. Femi Oluwaferanmi in this work
and for setting an example for us through the Reality Tech Training Centre, Abeokuta.

To all those who have given brilliant ideas and objective insights for the actualization of this
work Pastor Festus Owara, Michael Oyegbola, Victor Choji, Rasheed Sholanke, Tumininu
Adeyiga, Michael Adedeji to mention but a few, we say thank you all.

To the Rev. E. K Ajose and other past Priests and members of St. John’s Anglican Church
Aboru, I appreciate you all.

I will also like to appreciate all the staffs of the Department of Physics, University of Lagos,
who have made efforts in adding value to our lives.

Finally, to everyone who sees possibilities in life; everyone who is ready to make trials and
learn from mistakes until the goal is achieved; everyone who will not despair; let us know
that better days are ahead.

If we believe, with passion and focus, we can achieve the unimaginable!

THANK YOU.
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….viii
How To Use This book…………………………………………………………………… ix

SECTION ONE: THEORY

PART 1……………………………………………………………………………………2
Chapter 1……………………………………...…………………………………………..3
1.0 The breadboard………………………………………………………………………..3
1.1 Sizes of breadboards…………………………………………………………………..4
1.2 Other features of the breadboard……………………………………………………...4
1.3 Wires, cables and connectors………………………………………………………….6
1.4 Common breadbord connection mistakes……………………………………………..7
1.5 Making permanent connection………………………………………………………...7
Chapter 2………………..………………………………………………………………..8
2.0 The multimeter………………………………………………………………………..8
2.1 Types of multimeters…………………………………………………………………..8
2.2 Parts of a multimeter…………………………………………………………………..8
Chapter 3………………………………..……………………………………………….10
3.0 Cells and Batteries……………………………………………………………………10
3.1 How a battery works………………………………………………………………….11
3.2 Water analogy of the operation of a battery………………………………………….11
3.3 Describing a battery…………………………………………………………………..12
3.4 DC sources……………………………………………………………………………12
3.5 Ways of producing dc………………………………………………………………..13
3.6 Application of dc……………………………………………………………………..13
3.7 AC sources……………………………………………………………………………14
3.8 Application of ac……………………………………………………………………..14
3.9 Electricity, voltage, current, resistance and ohm’s law………………………………15
3.9.1 Voltage……………………………………………………………………..17
3.9.2 Current……………………………………………………………………...17
3.9.3 Resistance…………………………………………………………………..18
3.9.4 Ohm’s law………………………………………………………………….18
Chapter 4…………………………..…………………………………………………...20
4.0 Resistors……………………………………………………………………………...20
4.1 Resistor units ………………………………………………………………………..20
4.2 Resistor types and circuit symbols…………………………………………………...21
4.3 Resistor categories…………………………………………………………………....21
4.4 Understanding resistor color codes…………………………………………………..22
4.4.1 Four-band colour code……………………………………………………..22
4.5 Resistor power rating………………………………………………………………...24
4.6 Basic functions of resistors in a circuit……………………………………………..24
4.7 Resistance, resistivity and conductance……………………………………………25
4.8 Electrical energy, power and current heating effect………………………………..27
4.9 Power consumer and producers…………………………………………………….28
4.9.1 How to calculate power…………………………………………………..28
4.9.2 Power and ohm’s law relationship………………………………………..29
4.10 Heating element…………………………………………………………………...30
4.11 Understanding power rating………………………………………………………30
Chapter 5 ………………...……………………………………………………………31
5.0 Light Emitting Diode (LED) ………………………………………………………31
5.1 What are leds? ……………………………………………………………………..31
5.2 Filament bulb vs led………………………………………………………………..31
5.3 Types of led………………………………………………………………………...32
5.4 How an led works………………………………………………………………….32
5.5 Led forward voltage and maximum current…………………………………….….33
5.6 Understanding electric circuit and schematics……………………………………..34
5.6.1 Short circuit……………………………………………………………....35
5.6.2 Open circuit………………………………………………………………35
5.7 Understanding circuit schematics…………………………………………………..36
5.8 Tips for proper circuit schematics or diagram drawing……………………………37
Chapter 6……………...……………………………………………………………….39
6.0 Fuses……………………………………………………………………………….39
6.1 How a fuse works…………………………………………………………………..39
6.2 Types of fuse……………………………………………………………………….40
6.3 Safety handling tips………………………………………………………………...41

PART 2………………………………………………………………………………...42
Chapter 7…..…………………………………………………………………………..43
7.0 Series and Parallel…………………………………………………………………..43
7.1 Series arrangement………………………………………………………………….43
7.2 Parallel arrangement………………………………………………………………..44
7.3 Calculating total resistance in series arrangement………………………………….45
7.4 Calculating total resistance in parallel arrangement………………………………..46
7.5 Combining series and parallel connections…………………………………...……47
7.6 Cells in series and parallel arrangement……………………………………...……47
Chapter 8……..……………………………………………………………………….49
8.0 Variable resistors and voltage divider……………………………………………..49
8.1 Variable resistors…………………………………………………………………...49
8.2 Voltage divider…………………………………………………………………….50
8.3 Voltage divider equation…………………………………………………………...51
Chapter 9…...…………………………………………………………………………52
9.0 Capacitors…………………………………………………………………………52
9.1 Unit of a capacitor…………………………………………………………………53
9.2 Making a capacitor………………………………………………………………...53
9.3 Factors affecting the capacitance of a capacitor…………………………………..54
9.4 Internal working of a capacitor……………………………………………………56
9.5 Charging and discharging of a capacitor…………………………………………..57
9.6 Energy stored in a capacitor……………………………………………………….58
9.7 Capacitor value calculator…………………………………………………………59
9.8 Capacitor specifications……………………………………………………………60
9.9 Types of capacitors………………………………………………………………...60
9.10 Capacitors in series and parallel arrangement……………………………………61
9.10.1 Capacitor in parallel…………………………………………………….62
9.10.2 Capacitors in series……………………………………………………..62
9.11 Basic function of capacitors in a circuit………………………………………….62
9.12 Circuit troubleshooting guide…………………………………………………….64

PART 3……………………………………………………………………………….65
Chapter 10……………………………………………………………………………66
10.0 Switches…………………………………………………………………………66
10.1 How does a switch works………………………………………………………..66
10.2 Switch characteristics and description…………………………………………...67
Chapter 11……………………………………………………………………………69
11.0 Relays…………………………………………………………………………....69
11.1 How an electromagnetic relay works…………………………………………….69
11.2 Describing a relay………………………………………………………………..70
11.3 Types of electromechanical relay packages…………………………………………71
11.4 Using relays in circuits…………………………………………………………...71
11.5 Introduction to electromagnetism………………………………………………...72
Chapter 12……………………………………………………………………………73
12.0 Diode and transistor……………………………………………………………..73
12.1 Diodes……………………………………………………………………………74
12.1.1 How to use a diode…………………………………………………….74
12.1.2 Diode specifications……………………………………………………76
12.1.3 Diode applications……………………………………………………...78
12.2 Transistors………………………………………………………………………..79
12.2.1 Bipolar Junction transistors (BJT) …………………………………….79
12.2.2 Bipolar Junction transistors (BJT) construction and pins……………...79
12.2.3 Transistor operation……………………………………………………80
12.2.4 Different operation modes of a transistor……………………………...81
12.3 Transistor packaging types………………………………………………………83
12.4 Simple transistor applications……………………………………………………87
 12.4.1 Transistor switch……………………………………………………….....87
12.4.2 Transistor as an amplifier…………………………………………………89
12.4.3 Transistor Configurations………………………………………………...89
12.5 Other useful Transistor circuits……………………………………………………..92

SECTION TWO: EXPERIMENTS

COMPONENT PARTS LIST………………………………………………………....95
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS……………………………………………………………98
EXPERIMENT 1-30………………………………………………………………..99 - 262
APPENDIX …………………………………………………………………………...264
 INTRODUCTION

We're living in an age of Information Technology. Electronics is at the very heart of the
Information and Computer age. Electronics has made deep impacts in several vital areas
such as ICT, Entertainment, Agriculture, Medical diagnosis and treatment,
Transportation, Air and space travel etc

It is sometimes unbelievable, how many electronic gadgets we carry these days such as
digital wristwatches, calculators, mobile phones, digital cameras, video cameras and so
on. There are even other electronic devices we now operate in our homes and offices.

In short, the economic developments of several countries are directly linked to their
technological strengths in form of designs, manufacturing and services of various
electronic devices. So, apart from learning how to read and write, electronics has
become an essential part of a modern society. We therefore need to develop a very
good knowledge of electronics in our country so as to favorably compete with other
developed nations.

Thus, Electronics has become a "Basic Science". Just as we teach Physics, Chemistry,
Biology and Mathematics in our Primary and Secondary schools. It is high time we
started teaching our children electronics as a separate subject by itself as this will be
important for indigenous technological literacy and development. If one wants to gain a
good understanding of electronics, he or she should have a hands-on skill on how to
build circuits and solve problems with it.

EDUSOD Logistic Services has therefore organized BASIC ELECTRONICS AND PROJECT
MANUAL, for personal and instructional purposes. This manual will be useful for
acquiring basic practical knowledge of the characteristics of different electronic devices
and hands-on construction of various circuits. This book is focused on providing the
knowledge required to have a foundational understanding of electronics.

I Hear and I Forget,

I See and I Remember,
EDUSOD Logistics Service I Do and I Understand
…LEARN, APPLY AND DEVELOP …Confucius

viii
HOW TO USE THE BOOK
 CHAPTER INFORMATION:
This book is divided into two parts; Section One and Section Two. Section One is
divided into three (3) parts with a total of twelve (12) chapters. It forms the
introduction to Electrical/Electronic concepts and devices that will we come across in
the experiments included in this book and in other related studies.
Section Two is where we will be involved in setting up a total of thirty (30) experiments
which have been selected to equip the users with different knowledge of making an
electronic circuit on breadboard. Each experiment is a hands-on activity to be done
with the kit provided and requires active participation for better understanding.
 CONTENT INFORMATION:
WARNING: Whenever you see warning information, it is very important to strictly
observe the instruction given. An example of warning sign and information is shown
below.

WARNING: Working with AC current and voltage

from wall socket at homes or any other AC source
without proper safety…

NOTE: Notes are given to draw attention to and give extra information about a concept
or device and possible results for an action taken. An example of a note is shown below

NOTE: Conventional current flows from the positive (+) to the negative (-) electrode
while the actual electron flow is from the negative (-) to the positive (+) electrode.

CONNECTION TABLE: the section two contains experiment connection table which
contain the information on the type of devices, device images, connection information
and the position of components on the breadboard which have well labelled for easy
setup. An excerpt of such table is show below.

ix
SECTION ONE

THEORY

1
 ELECTRONICS: HELLO WORLD! PART 1

Welcome! This is where we begin our journey into the world of electronics. In this humble beginning,
we will be introduced to devices and concepts that will form the foundation for the various applications
and developments in electronics.
I encourage you to learn by actively participating in the various activities taught and also get involved
in setting up the various experiments in this book for concrete understanding of the devices and
concepts.

2
CHAPTER 1 THE BREADBOARD

Breadboards are one of the most fundamental pieces when learning how to build circuits. It can
be a very useful tool for both beginners and advanced electronic hobbyist. Breadboard is a
solderless board for setting up temporary circuits and for prototyping (testing and modifying of
circuits).
It has array of small sockets arranged vertically and horizontally. The components are inserted
into the sockets in order to make connections. In the early years of circuit design, electronic
hobbyists used the kitchen breadboard for prototyping and that brought about the name
“breadboard”.

Figure 1-1 Circuit on Kitchen breadboard Figure 1-2 Circuit on Electronic breadboard

The major parts of a breadboard are the power rail, terminal strips and the Dual In Line Package ( DIP) or
Integrated Circuit ( IC) support.

 Power Rail: this is the portion where you connect the power supply to power the circuits on the
breadboard. One end of the power rail is for the positive power connection while the other end
is for negative power connection.
Table 1-1 Breadboard power connections
Positive Negative
(+) (-)
Power Ground
Red Black or
Blue

 Terminal strips: this is the part of the breadboard where the through-hole components are
mounted. It contains vertical strips with alphabets and number labels which are useful for
connection guide on the breadboard.

3
 DIP and IC Support: this is the area that allows easy connection of components with dual in line
package and integrated circuit. It is located horizontally at the centre of the breadboard and has
a groove that allows the components to be removed easily.

Figure 1-3 Breadboard with back opened

Figure 1-4 Breadboard parts label

Figure 1-5 Breadboard socket
holding a component
1.1 SIZES OF BREADBOARDS

There are different sizes of breadboards

available in electronic store namely; the full
plus size, full size, half and the mini sizes.

Figure 1-6 Different sizes of breadboard.

1.2 OTHER FEACTURES OF THE BREADBOARD

 Making Connections: Connections are made on the breadboard with the help of
jumper wire wires. Jumper wires could be prefabricated (Prefab) or custom made
from a piece of solid hook-up wires.

(a) (b)

4
 Figure 1-7 (a) Prefabricated jumper wire wire
with header pins (b) Custom jumper wire wire
stripped at both end used for jumper wire (c)
Custom jumper wire wires with 𝟗𝟎𝟎 bend
(c)

 Separate Power Connection: The power rail of the breadboard has a break half
way which is very useful for providing separate power options for the circuits. A
jumper wire could be used for bridging the two halves of the power rail as shown
in Figure 1-9 (b) below.

Figure 1-8 (a) Breadboard with connection layout (b) IC placed on a breadboard

 Extending Connection Area: when working on a project that requires a larger area
for connection, it can be made possible to extend the area of the breadboard by
joining them using the provided attachment extension and groove on its sides.

(a)
(b)

Figure 1-9 (a) Four Small breadboards of different colors joined side-by-side
(b) power rail gap linking with a jumper wire on the breadboard

5
1.3 WIRES, CABLES AND CONNECTORS

Wires and cables are made from conductors which provide low resistance for electric current,
that is, allow electric current flow easily through them. The common conductors used inside
wires and cables are Copper, Silver and Aluminium.

A wire consists of a solid or stranded core conductor covered by an insulator which includes
plastics and rubbers. Cables consist of two or more insulated wires bounded together by
another extra insulation usually called a sheath. Solid wire are used in places where the wire
will not be move, like on the wall while stranded wires are used when the wire is required to
be movable or vibrate. The size of a wire conductor can be measured with the standard wire
gauge.
Connectors are components that are attached to the end of wires and cable that allow them
to be easily connected to other wires and devices.

DOS AND DON’TS WHEN USING THE BREADBOARD

(a)

(d)

(c)

(b)

(e)
(c)

Figure 1-10 (a) Solid and stranded wire and cables (b) Connectors (c) Examples of conductors with
gauge number (d) Wire stripper (e) Standard wire gauge

6
 1.4 COMMON BREADBORD CONNECTION MISTAKES
Connecting a Component Lead to The Same
Vertical Slot: A common connect error is seen
when the two leads of a component is placed on
the same vertical slot as seen on Figure 1-11, the
correct connection of the leads should be on
Figure 1-11 Connection to different and the different vertical slot.
same vertical slots.
Crossing the Leads of Components on the
Breadboard: When the lead of components
are touching or twisted, Figure 1-12, these
could result to a short circuit and may
damage some components. Ensure to keep
the leads of each component separated from
Figure 1-12 Lead of components crossing and
each other and keep the circuit tidy.
touching each other
Disconnection in a Breadboard Connection: When
a connection is made in such a way that instead of
connecting two components to the same vertical
slots, it is placed on different slots as seen image of
Figure 1-13. This leads to a break in the circuit and
prevent the circuits from functioning. Ensure to
Figure 1-13 Components wrongly check your connections carefully.
connected on the breadboard
1.5 MAKING PERMANENT CONNECTION
After setting up a connection on the breadboard and it works as expected, if you desire to make a
permanent connection of such circuits, then you would need to set up the circuit on permanent
board type e.g a perforated board, Printed Circuit Board (PCB). In order to do this, the components
will be required to be soldered with a soldering lead using a soldering iron.

(a)

(d) (b) (c)

Figure 1-14 (a) Soldering iron and lead with stand (b) Printed Circuit Board (PCB) (c) Perforated
Board (d) PCB with components and soldering

7
CHAPTER 2 THE MULTIMETER

The multimeter is an instrument which can be used for testing and measuring the values of
components and different circuit quantities which includes voltage, current and the resistance in
a circuit. It is called a multimeter because it combines the voltmeter (measures voltage),
ohmmeter (measures resistance) and ammeter (measures current) into one single measuring
device.

2.1 TYPES OF MULTIMETERS

Analogue Multimeter: this type of multimeter uses a moving

pointer deflection which is placed over a marked scale to indicate
the value of what is measured. It is not so precise and difficult
to read out the measured values.
Digital Multimeter: this type of multimeter uses electronic circuit
to convert the measurements into digital display reading, that is,
the measurements will be in numerical form. There are no
Figure 2-1 Digital and
moving parts and it is very precise. We will be working with digital
Analogue multimeter showing
multimeter throughout this lesson.
their display formats.

2.2 PARTS OF A MULTIMETER

A digital multimeter has a Digital Display

for showing measured values. It can show
up to four digits, indicate negative reading,
low battery and other useful information.
It also has a Dial with a rotary part which
has a Selector for pointing to the units to
be measured.

Figure 2-2 Parts of a digital Multimeter

8
On the dial, there are different ranges for each units and the selected on depends on the amount
of the value to be measured. You may come across some autorange multimeter for which you
do not need to select the range but it will be done automatically by the processing unit of the
multimeter. For example, to measure voltage, the selector will be rotated to the section of the
dial indicating direct current voltage (DCV) and the range will be selected.

Another important part of the multimeter is the Port for plugging in the leads, which are used for
measurement. There are usually three ports present on the multimeter, these are;

 COM
 VΩmA
 10ADC
The multimeter has a detachable part called the Leads which connects the multimeter to the
points to be tested in the components or the circuits. The leads are of two colours; Red and Black.
One end of the lead has a banana connector for plugging in to the ports while the other end has
a steel probe which is the part that is used for touching the circuit.

Figure 2-3 Ports on a digital multimeter and

the correct lead connection

Figure 2-4 Multimeter leads and

different lead attachments for
making measurements

Figure 2-5 (a) Touching a component with the

multimeter probe (b) using an alligator attachment
for firmer grip on objects.

9
CHAPTER 3 CELLS AND BATTERIES

A battery is a source of direct current (DC) voltage.

NOTE: Energy sources can either produce a direct current also called DC or alternating
current also called AC. (See the subtopic on DC and AC in the chapter).

Batteries can be used to power electric circuit that uses DC. A battery is made up of two or more
cells. A cell is made up of two conductors called electrodes, the positive(+) and the negative(-)
electrodes, separated by a chemical called electrolyte that converts chemical energy to electrical
energy and causes electrons to flow through a circuit.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3-1 (a) A Wet cell (b) A Dry cell (c) Addition of cells in a battery

If the electrolyte is a liquid, the cell is called a wet

cell. If the electrolyte is made from paste-like or
gel substance, the cell is called a dry cell. Cells
that are non-rechargeable (must be thrown
away) after the energy of the cell has been used
Figure 3-2 Symbols of cells and battery up are called primary cells while cells that can
Figure
be recharged and reused after the cell has been drained are called secondary cells.

10
3.1 HOW A BATTERY WORKS
When a battery positive terminal called cathode and the negative terminal called anode are
connected to an external circuit, there will be a chemical reaction between the anode(-) and the
electrolyte which generates electrons making them flow through the circuits and back to the
battery through the cathode(+) where another chemical reaction takes place. When the
chemical reaction between the electrolyte and the electrode is no longer able to generate
electrons to flow in a circuit, then the battery is said to be drained or dead.

3.2 WATER ANALOGY OF THE OPERATION OF A BATTERY

Figure 3-3 The water pump
pushes the water through the
pipe from a higher pressure to
a lower pressure while doing
work in rotating the wheel. The
battery generates the energy
to pump current through the
conductor from a higher
potential to a lower potential
to make the fan blades rotate.

(a) (b)
Figure 3-4 (a) The Zinc rod is the anode (-) while the copper rod is the cathode (+). The solutions
in the two containers are connected by a salt bridge and the direction of current and electron
flow are shown. (b) The conventional current and the actual electron flow are always in
opposite direction.

NOTE: Conventional current flows from the positive (+) to the negative (-) electrode while
the actual electron flow is from the negative (-) to the positive (+) electrode.

11
3.3 DESCRIBING A BATTERY

 Nominal Voltage: the nominal voltage of a battery is the voltage stated by the
manufacturer. It is usually the voltage of the battery before it is used or discharged.
 Capacity: this is the rating of the battery that indicates how much electrical energy it can
deliver over a period of time at a specific voltage. It is usually given in ampere-hour (Ah)
and milliampere-hour (mAh). A battery with large capacity will last longer when
discharged at the same rate when compared with another with lesser capacity.
 Cell Sizes and Common Names: there are different standard sizes for cells and as well
common name for cells depending on the type of electrolyte used as given in the table
below.
Table 3-1 Battery specifications

Battery Nominal Amp/ Anode /cathode

Type Voltage hour combination
(V) (mAh)

Alkaline 1.5 2122 Zinc /

Manganese
dioxide
Zinc- 1.5 591 Zinc /
Carbon Manganese
dioxide
Lithium - 3.6 853 Lithium/ Sulfur-
ion oxygen chlorine
Figure 3-4 Battery sizes and common names

3.4 DC SOURCES

We will be working with only direct current (DC) source in this book. A DC voltage or current sources is
one that electrons flow in only one direction. When considering DC sources, we talk of positive (+) and
negative (-) terminals.
Figure 3-5 Water Analogy of Direct Current

Figure 3-6 Relationship between the current

and time for a Direct Current (DC)

12
3.5 WAYS OF PRODUCING DC

1. Using an alternating current (AC) generator which has a commutator (a cylindrical contact with
made of multiple segments separated by small gaps) connected to its armature to produce a DC.
AC generator converts magnetic energy into electrical energy.
2. Use of a device called a rectifier (an electrical device that converts AC to DC) connected to a AC
source to convert it to DC.
3. Chemical cells or batteries produce DC by converting chemical energy to electrical energy.
4. Solar Cells also produce DC by converting light energy to electrical energy.

Figure 3-7 Chemical cell for producing a direct

current as found in a battery.

Figure 3-8 Generator for producing

AC and the commutator.
Figure 3-9 Solar cell converts light to electricity.

Figure 3-11
Rectification process
for producing DC from
AC.

3.6 APPLICATION OF DC

Some of the common equipments that operate using DC include;

 Cell phone
 Flashlight
 Electric vehicles
 Any device that uses an AC adaptor (internally or externally )

13
3.7 AC SOURCES

Alternating Current (AC) is one that the current or voltage changes direction periodically, that is, for a
duration of time it has positive value and then sometimes later it changes to negative value. AC is
produced using a generator called an alternator. In Nigeria, the AC output from the wall socket is about
240 [Link] terminals a called Live(L) , Neutral(N) and Earth(E) .

WARNING: Working with AC current and voltage from wall socket at

homes or any other AC source without proper safety measures, could
lead to shock or electrocution. Don’t play around with AC sources.

Figure 3-14 Bruch for

DC (top) and brushes
Figure 3-12 AC waveform Figure 3-13 AC Generator
AC (bottom)

Figure 3-16 A wall plug and socket

for AC. The Live (L), Neutral N) and
Figure 3-15 Production of AC from a generator connected Earth (E) are shown with the colour
to a slip ring codes.

3.8 APPLICATION OF AC

Some of the common equipments that operate using AC include;

 Home filament bulbs

 Electric iron
 Electric cooker
 Electric motor
 Transformers

14
 Figure 3-17 Power generation and distribution of AC; the distribution follows the label from A
through F.

3.9 ELECTRICITY, VOLTAGE, CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND OHM’S LAW

In here, we are going to have the understanding of voltage, current and resistance. In
every circuit you will come across, you will need these knowledge to understand how
circuit works and how to change circuit design to your taste. Voltage current and
resistance are not visible and cannot be touched but with the aid of measuring tools we
can visualize them in a circuit.

Figure 3-18 Electric circuits and the current, voltage and resistance information given
to understand the circuit.

Firstly, let’s understand what electricity means. Electricity is the flow of electric charges.
When charges can flow continuously, it is referred to as current electricity. When charges
cannot flow continuously, then it is referred to as static electricity. There are two types of
charges namely; Positive(+) and Negative(-) charges. The unit of electric charge is the
Coulomb (C).
15
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3-19 (a) The atom and the components (b) Charges and their interactions (c) A conductor
having lots of free electrons which allows it to conduct electricity easily.

Electron are mobile negative charges in an atom and therefore majorly responsible for electric
current when a force (called electromagnetic force, EMF) is applied on it. Material with lots of
mobile or free electrons are called conductors, examples of good conductors are copper, silver
and aluminum. Materials with immobile electrons are called insulators and examples of good
insulators are rubber, plastic and glass. The ability of a material to limit the flow of electric
charges is called the resistance i.e insulator have very high resistance while conductors have
very low resistance.

Figure 3-20 (a) Examples of common conductors (c) Example of common insulators

The atoms (Orange) inside the

conductor are surrounded by lots of
free electrons (Blue) as shown in
Figure 3-21. In the insulator, there
are no free electrons to allow for
electricity conduction. Insulators are
Figure 3-21 Atoms inside Insulator and very useful to preventing electricity
conductor flow in any desired place.

Since we now know that charges can attract or repel each other when placed near each other,
we say a charge has a potential energy in its field (surrounding), and this means that a charge
has the ability to do work on another around it by pushing or pulling it. The amount of work
done depends on the strength of the two charges interacting.

16
 Figure 3-22 Charge and their fields. The direction of the field for the positive charge points
outward while that of the negative charge points inward.
3.9.1 VOLTAGE
The kind of work done in moving a charge from one point to another in an electric field is
called electric potential energy measured in joule(J) which is the unit of work done. The
amount of electric potential energy at a point divided by the number of charges at that point
is called the electric potential. Now, the difference in electric potential between two points
in a field is called the voltage or potential difference. The unit of voltage is the volt (V).
When a voltage or potential difference is placed across a conductor, it gives free electrons
within the conductor a push known as the electromotive force (e.m.f).
Figure 3-23 Water analogy of voltage
The voltage is compared to the water
pressure in Figure 3-23. The higher the tank
is from the ground, the more the pressure
and therefore more water flows through the
pipe. Likewise, a battery with higher voltage
will cause more current to flow through a
load when compared with another battery
with a lower voltage.

Figure 3-24 Positive charges are at higher potential while negatives charges are at lower
potential (Left). The work done in moving a positive charge from one point to another in a field
(Middle). Electrons moving in the same direction under the influence of an e.m.f (Right)
3.9.2 CURRENT
Current is the amount of charges flowing through a point in the circuit within a period of
time. Current is measured in amperes (A). When 6.02 × 1018 electrons pass through a point
in a circuit in one second, this means one ampere (1A) of current flow through that point.

17
 In the figure 3-25, the current flowing through the section
of the conductor is determined by measuring the amount
of charges (electron charge, q) flowing pass the cross-
sectional area (A) of the conductor. For one ampere to
flow, then 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 electrons must have crossed
the area, A, of the conductor in one second.
Figure 3-25 Charges flowing through an area of a conductor.

The water flowing through the tank represents the current.

When we consider two tanks of the same size and same
height from the ground, the amount of water that will flow
through the pipe will be determined by the size of the pipes
connected to the tanks, as seen in figure 3-26. The wider
pipe allows lots of water to flow out while the thinner one
allows less water to flow out.
Figure 3-26 Water analogy of the amount of current flow

3.9.3 RESISTANCE
The resistance is the ability of a material to hinder the amount of charges that can flow
through it. The higher the resistance, the lower the current that will flow and vice versa. The
unit of resistance is the Ohm. The Ohm is represented by the Greek alphabet Omega (Ω). One
Ohm is the resistance that will cause 6.02 × 1018 electrons to flow between two points when
a voltage or potential difference between the two points equals one volt (1V).
Figure 3-27 Water analogy of resistance
The pipes in the figure 3-27 are similar to resistances.
The smaller pipe represents large resistance while
the larger pipe represents small resistance. The
smaller pipe allow very small amount of water to
flow as a large resistance allows very small amount of
current to flow. An example of a small resistance is
10Ω while a large resistance is 1,000,000Ω. A smaller
resistance will make a battery to quickly run down
because more current will flow out of the battery.

3.9.4 OHM’S LAW

The Ohm’s law show the relationship between the voltage, current and resistance in a circuit by an
equation given as;

18
 𝑽 = 𝑰 × 𝑹 --Ohm’s Law
Where 𝑉 - Voltage in volt
𝐼 - Current in ampere
𝑅 - Resistance in Ohm
When the value of two of the quantities in the Ohm’s law is known, the third quantity can be
obtained by rearranging the Ohm’s law as;

𝑽 𝑽
𝑽 = 𝑰 × 𝑹 or 𝑰 = ( )
𝑹
or 𝑹=( ) Ohm’s law
𝑰

Figure 3-28 Water analogy of Ohm’s law The tank at a height (h) represents the voltage,
the pipe represents the resistance and the water
flowing through the pipe represents the current
as seen in figure 3-28. When the tank is raised
higher, more water flows; when the tank is
lowered, less water flows. When the tank is at
the same height, the pipe size can be changed by
opening or closing the tap. When the tap is
opened, more water flows while when the tap is
closed less water flows. By using the Ohm’s law,
the changes in voltage, resistance and current
can be calculated so easily.

Example 1: Use the diagram in Figure 3-29 to calculate

the current in each case and confirm Ohm’s law.
Solution
𝑉
(a) Voltage = 1V, Resistance = 1Ω, using 𝐼 = (𝑅), then
1
Current, 𝐼 = ( ) =1A
1
𝑉
(b) Voltage = 1V, Resistance = 2Ω, using 𝐼 = (𝑅), then
1
Current, 𝐼 = ( ) = 0.5A
(a) (b) 2
Figure 3-29 Ohm’s law calculation For the (b) part we can confirm that Ohm’s law holds by

using the equation, 𝑉 = 𝐼 × 𝑅; where Resistance = 2Ω and Current = 0.5A. therefore,

Voltage, 𝑉 = 0.5 × 2 = 1V. This is the same for as the value given in part (b) above.

19
CHAPTER 4 RESISTORS

Resistors are one of the common components you will usually see in an electric circuit and we will also
work with resistor in the lesson. A resistor is an electrical device that limits the flow of electrons through
circuit. Resistors are an example of passive elements (components that can only consume power but
cannot generate it, the opposite of passive elements is active elements).

Figure 4-1 Resistor uses definition

Resistors are devices which are specifically designed to be used in an
electric circuit to make more current or less current flow. Resistors
have resistance values which are determined by the manufacturer
by using different resistive materials.

4.1 RESISTOR UNITS

The unit used to express the amount of electrical resistance of a resistor is called the Ohm (Ω). The symbol
of the Ohm is a Greek alphabet called Omega. The metric conversion table below is used for writing a
short hand form of values of units by eliminating the multiples of zero represented by alphabets.

Table 4-1 Metric conversion Example 1:

20
4.2 RESISTOR TYPES AND CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

The examples of different resistor types and their symbols are shown in figure 4-2. In a circuit with one
than one resistors, you will represent each resistor by a capital R followed by the number to identify it.

Figure 4-2 Common resistor types

WHAT IS INSIDE A RESISTOR

There are different material that could be used for making a resistor which includes Carbon, metals
and metal-oxide. The mode of achieving the resistance value depends on the material property and its
geometry.

Figure 4-3 Composition of resistors

4.3 RESISTOR CATEGORIES

There are different ways of categorizing a resistor, which are;

1. Mounting: the types of mountings are through-hole or surface mount. The through –hole requires
that a hole be made to the surface which the resistor is to be placed while the surface mount does
not require making hole.

Figure 4-4 Through-hole and surface mount resistors

through 21
 2. Fixed or Variable Values: the resistance value of a resistor could be made to be fixed or variable.
The resistance of variable resistors can be adjusted to the desired resistance value.

3. Packaging: resistor can either be made as a standalone or in a package containing one than one
resistor in single package.

(a)

(b)

Figure 4-5 (a) Fixed resistor (b) Variable resistor Figure 4-6 Different resistor packages

4.4 UNDERSTANDING RESISTOR COLOR CODES

The colour on axial resistors can be used to determine their resistance. The colour codes are usually of
four, five or six bands.

4.4.1 Four-Band Colour Code

If there are only four bands on a resistor, then the first two bands represents the first digits, the second
band the second digit, the third band is a multiplier which multiplies the first two digits by a power of ten.
The fourth band represents the tolerance value.

Table 4-2 Resistor colour code

Figure 4-7 Example of resistor with colour code

calculated
22
Let us take an example as we read the resistance value of the resistor shown in figure 4-7 using the colour
code.
NOTE: At first, this might seem difficult to read but as you practice more using the colour code
chart; you get familiar with the colour values.

Example 2: The colour bands of the 560kΩ resistor are;

1st Band: Green (Value =5)

2nd Band: Blue (Value = 6)

3rd Band: Yellow ( Value = 4)

Now, put the first two values together as; GreenBlue (value = 56). Next multiply the first two bands by 10
to the power of the value of the third band as;

Multiplier value= 10(𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑟)

= 104 =10000
When we put it all together, we will have;

GreenBlue x 10𝒚𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 = 56 x 104

= 560000Ω or 560kΩ

Note: The colour

combination
represents the
three bands for
all the standard
resistor value.
Using this chart
will allows you
become familiar
with the resistor
colour code.
Figure 4-8
Standard colour
code with colour
combinations.

23
 Table 4-3 Resistor standard value
for tolerance of ±5% (Left) and
metric conversion for values of
Ohms, Kilohms and Megohms
(Bottom)

Ohms Kilohms Megohms

1Ω 0.001k 0.000001M
10 0.01k 0.00001M
100Ω 0.1k 0.0001M
1000Ω 1k 0.001M
10,000Ω 10k 0.01M
100,000Ω 100k 0.1M
1,000,000Ω 1,000k 1M

4.5 RESISTOR POWER RATING

Usually, the sizes of resistors are an indication of the amount of power that the resistor can handle. The
power determines the maximum voltage or current that a resistor can withstand before getting damaged
by the heat generated within it. The higher the power of a resistor the higher the current or voltage it can
withstand.

Figure 4-9 Resistors of different sizes and their respective power ratings

Note: The rule of thumb in selecting a resistance value for an application is to

ensure that the resistor power rating is at least twice the calculated or expected
value.

4.6 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF RESISTORS IN ACIRCUIT

When used in a circuit, the resistor can basically be used to limit current flow and to set voltage level
within the circuit;

24
a. As a Current Limiter: When used as a current limiter, the resistor determines the maximum current
that can flow from the source through it to any other component or device on the same circuit path.
b. Voltage Level Setting: when used to set voltage level in a circuit, the resistor is connected into a
network that divides the voltage from the power source into smaller voltage output.

𝑅2
𝑉𝑅2 = ( )𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑆𝑈𝑃𝑃𝐿𝑌

Figure 4-10 Resistor used for setting the Figure 4-11 Two resistors placed in series (end-
maximum current flowing through the to-end) connection are used to make a voltage
LED. divider by applying Ohms law.

4.7 RESISTANCE, RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTANCE

Let’s take a closer look at the resistance of a conductor and the factors that affect it. It has been
experimentally proven that the resistance of a wire is related to its cross-sectional area and its
length by a relationship given as;

𝒍
R= 𝝆 𝑨
R – resistance of the wire(Ω)
𝜌 - a constant called the resistivity(Ωm)
𝑙- length of the wire(m)
A- cross-sectional area of the wire(m2)

From the above equation, it can be derived that for a piece of wire of the same material;
i. The longer the length of a wire, the higher its resistance
ii. The higher the diameter of a piece of wire, the lower will be the resistance

The resistivity (ρ) is a property of the wire that does not depend on the length or the cross-

25
sectional area of the wire but on the material the wire is made from. It is unique for each material.
𝑨
The resistivity can be written as; 𝝆 = R𝒍

(a)
(b)

Figure 4-12 (a) Resistance variation with wire length (b) Resistance variation with wire cross-
sectional area
The unit of resistivity is the (Ωm) and it tells us how much a conductor will oppose the flow
of electrons through it. The opposite of resistivity is the conductivity, which tells us how
much a conductor will allow electrons to flow through it.

𝟏 𝟏
σ= 𝝆 and 𝝆= 𝛔 - conductivity of the material
𝛔
The unit of conductivity is the Siemen, 𝝆 - resistivity of the material
1
Siemen, S = or (Ωm)-1
(Ωm)

The resistivity and conductivity of a material can be affected by temperature changes. For
most conductors, the resistivity increases as the temperature increases.
Table 4-4 Resistivity of common conductors and effect of temperature on resistance

Resistivity
Conductor Material ( Ohm meters @
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑪)
Silver 1.64 × 10−8
Copper 1.72 × 10−8
Aluminum 2.83 × 10−8
Tungsten 5.50 × 10−8
Nickel 7.80 × 10−8
Iron 12.0 × 10−8
Constantan 49.0 × 10−8
Nichrome II 110 × 10−8

26
4.8 ELECTRICAL ENERGY, POWER AND CURRENT HEATING EFFECT

It is very important that we understand the concept of power and why engineers want devices and
circuits that consume small amount of power but firstly, let’s define energy. Energy is the ability to
do work, that is, the influence of an object to make another object move from one place to another.
There are different forms of energy which include light energy, heat energy, sound energy, chemical
energy e.t.c
Energy in one form can be transformed to energy in another form, for example, electrical energy is
converted to light energy in a light source and en electric iron converts electric energy to heat
energy. Devices that transform a physical quantity to electrical energy or vice versa are called
transducers. Examples of physical quantities include temperature, pressure, sound, light e.t.c.
The amount of energy produced will always equal the amount of energy used and energy cannot be
created nor destroyed.

Figure 4-13 Work done in moving

an object through a distance

Figure 4-15 Examples of transducers

Figure 4-14 Different forms of energy
When we consider power, it tells us how much of energy is generated or consumed within
a period of time by a device i.e power is the rate at which energy is transferred (total energy
produced or consumed divided by the time taken to produce or consume the energy). The
more the power consumed for example by a device, the more the cost of using that device
as compared to with another device that can deliver the same result with lower power
consumed.
The tanks in figure 4-16 (a) has a small pipe
connected between them while the tanks in
(b) has a large pipe connected to them. Small
power consuming devices (or high resistances)
represent small pipes; it takes a longer time
(a) (b) for the water in the upper tank to be emptied
Pipe Size =Resistance; Water flow = Current into the lower tank. High power consuming
Tanks = Energy Source devices (or small resistances) represent large
Figure 4-16 Power consumption represented pipes; in this case the water is emptied quickly
by different pipe sizes. into the lower tank.

27
4.9 POWER CONSUMER AND PRODUCERS
A component in a circuit can either produce or consume power. In both cases, energy is
transformed from one form to another. For example, a battery which produces power
converts chemical energy within it into electrical energy while a LED converts electrical
energy into light energy. In this regard, the components that convert another form of
energy to electrical energy are a “producer” while those that convert electrical energy to
other forms of energy are a “consumer”.

Table 4-5 Power consumers and producers

POWER CONSUMER POWER PRODUCERS
Resistors, Light Battery, Solar Cell,
Emitting Diode (LED), Wind Turbine,
Radio set, Electric Iron, Alternator e.t.c
Television set e.t.c Figure 4-17 Energy conservation

NOTE: The total energy produced in a circuit will always equal the total energy
consumed in that same circuit; this is called the conservation law of energy.
4.9.1 HOW TO CALCULATE POWER

We now like to know to calculate the power produced by a component or circuit. The
generalized power law tell us that if we can determine the current through a device and the
voltage across it, then the power used by the device is given as;

𝑷=𝑽 ×𝑰 NOTE: Although the power tells us the

rate at which the energy is used up, it
Where 𝑷 - power used
does not tell us about the forms of
𝑽 - voltage across device
energy the electrical energy was
𝑰 - current through the device
transformed to.

(b)
(a)
Figure 4-18 (a) Power Chart (b) Parameters of a resistor connected to supply

28
 4.9.2 POWER AND OHM’S LAW RELATIONSHIP
For any device that obeys the ohm’s law, it is observed that the power consumed by such a device is
entirely converted to only heat energy. For an ohmic device such as a resistor, we can relate the power
law and the Ohm’s law as;

Where 𝑷=𝑽 ×𝑰 and since 𝑽 = 𝑰 × 𝑹, we can write

𝑽
𝑷 = (𝑰 × 𝑹) × 𝑰 and 𝑷=𝑽 × ( )
𝑹
𝑽𝟐
𝑷=𝑽 ×𝑰 or 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 × 𝑹 or 𝑷 = ( )
𝑹 Power –Ohmic law
This means that in a circuit, the heat produced is as a result of the ohmic devices or material within
it. When components convert one form of energy to another, a part of the energy is converted to
heat. For example, a LED will convert electrical energy to light and heat energy as a result of the
ohmic property of the material used in fabricating it and this is a source of power loss. As we now
know that during the cause of energy transfer from one form to another, there exits an “unwanted”
energy produced in form of heat. For this reason, scientist continue to research for new materials
with high energy transfer efficiency , that is, have low heat generation during energy transfer or
low power loss. For example, when we compare the LED and a filament bulb which reveals that the
LED is a more efficient light source. Also, the more power a device require to operate it, the more it
will quickly run down the energy of the power supply connected to it power make it work.

(a) (b)

Figure 4-19 Power dissipation for (a) Ohmic materials (b) Non-ohmic materials

Example: If a current flowing through a resistor of 10kΩ is 20mA. What is the heat dissipated
in the resistor? Note: A resistor of power rating of less than
Solution; 𝑅 = 10𝑘Ω, I = 20mA 4W would be damaged by such amount of
current. The rule of thumb in selecting a
𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = (0.02)2 𝐴 × 10,000𝛺 resistance value is to ensure that the resistor
power rating is at least twice the maximum
∴ 𝑃 = 0.0004𝐴 × 10,000𝛺 = 4𝑊
expected value.

29
4.10 HEATING ELEMENT: The ability of ohmic materials to dissipate large amount of heat when current
passes through them has been used for making useful electrical devices such as electric iron, soldering
iron and electric cookers e.t.c. The major part of these devices which is responsible for heating is a low
resistance wire called heating element made from alloys which does not oxide in air when it gets hot.
It is usually coiled so as to concentrate the heat.

Figure 4-20 Example of appliances which

operate using heating elements.

Figure 4-22 The simplified diagram of an

electric cooker. The cooker’s main part is
the heating element which is connected
to an AC source. It has a control unit for
Figure 4-21 Heating element becomes red hot changing the temperature and protection
when connected electricity. unit for safety in case it malfunctions.

4.11 UNDERSTANDING POWER RATING

Electrical devices usually have power rating which give the information on how much energy it is able
to consume when connected to a power supply. The power rating also gives information on the
usage as to know the working voltage and current of the component. If the working voltage or
current is exceeded, it could lead to a large dissipation of heat inside it which could damage or totally
destroy the device.
Table
TABLE 4-6ORCommon appliances and their power ratings

A GENERIC DEVICE.
30
CHAPTER 5 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

Almost all small light sources we can see in our phones, cars, homes and on every other electronic
gadget around us are LEDs. (LED is pronounced as ell-ee-dee)

5.1 WHAT ARE LEDS?

The Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a type of diode

(Diodes will be discussed in a later chapter) that
are designed to produce visible or infrared light.
Figure 5-1 LED and the symbol
LEDs convert electrical energy to light energy.

5.2 FILAMENT BULB VS LED

Filament bulbs were the common light sources available before the discovery of the LEDS. In a
filament bulb, the conversion of electrical energy to light energy is made possible by passing sufficient
current through a thin wire, so that it heats up and become hot so much that it starts to produce
visible light. LEDs on the other hand are made from semiconductor material (semiconductors have
both conductor and insulator property).

Table 5-1 comparing an LED and filament bulb

Comparison LED Filament Bulb

Life span 50,000 hours 1,200 hours
(Average)
Power 6 -8 watts 60 watts
consumption
Cost Very cheap High
Sensitivity to No Some
humidity
Durability Very durable Not very durable
Sensitivity to None Some
low
temperature
Contribution to Very Low High
𝑪𝑶𝟐 emission Figure 5-2 Filament Bulb

31
5.3 TYPES OF LED

1. Visible- Light LED: common colours of visible light LEDs include the green, yellow, orange
and red lights.
2. Infrared LEDs: these LEDs emit infrared light. They are the type found on television
remotes.
3. Blinking LEDs: these LEDs have internal circuitry that makes it blink or flash when
powered. They have uses in light flasher.
4. Multicolour LEDs: can emit more than one kind of light colour depending on the circuit
design. For a multi-colour LED with Red-Green-Blue (RGB) combination, it can be made to
produce all the rainbow colours by changing the brightness of each colour.

(c)

(a)

(d)
(b)

Figure 5-2 (a)Generic Red LED (b) Multicolour LED (C) Infrared LED and receiver (d) 7-
Segment, 14-Segment and 5x7 Matrix Display

5.4 HOW AN LED WORKS

The LED is made by joining different types of semiconductor materials. When connected to a
battery, it produces light at the point where the two materials join. The kind of light produced
depends on the type of materials used and the type of transparent casing used for the LED. The
LED behaves like an electronic switch which
emits light when current flows in only one direction
and will not give light when current flow in the
opposite direction. For the LED to give light, the
current must flow from only the anode to the
cathode. The brightness of the LED can be adjusted
by varying the amount of current flowing through
it.
Figure 5-3 Internal structure of an LED

32
 (a) (b)

Figure 5-4 (a) LED (glowing) connected in the forward bias mode through a series resistor (b) LED
(not glowing) when connected in the reverse bias (battery polarity swapped)

5.5 LED FORWARD VOLTAGE AND MAXIMUM CURRENT

Before an LED will emit light, the voltage across the anode and the cathode terminals must be
greater than the forward voltage (VLED). If the current through an LED get too high beyond the
maximum current (ILED) the LED can handle, it can result to it being destroyed by the heat
generated within it. The current through the LED can be limited by using a resistor.

The forward voltage (VLED) and the maximum current (ILED) depend on the colour and material
used for making the LED. These values are usually given by the manufacturer. Typically, for low
intensity LEDs the forward voltage (VLED) is about 2V and the maximum current (ILED) is about
20mA. Table 5-1 Typical value of VLED and ILED

NOTE 1: The above Voltage and Current ratings are

based on several everyday generic LEDS in the 3mm and
Figure 5-5 LED circuit and the physical
5mm ranges.
NOTE 2: Blue colour LEDS may typically have forward
connection
working voltages exceeding those used in the above
example. Forward working voltages for some Blue
colour LEDS may also fall in the 4.9 to 5.5Volt range.

33
5.6 UNDERSTANDING ELECTRIC CIRCUIT AND SCHEMATICS

What is an electric circuit?

An electric circuit is a closed path which allows current to flow from the positive side of a power
source through a network of components (resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors
e.t.c) and then back to the negative side of the power supply. When you make a connection
from the positive terminal of your battery to a resistor which is connected in the same path to an
LED and then make a connection back to the negative terminal of the battery so that the LED is
lit; that arrangement is called an electric circuit. In an electric circuit, we allow electricity to do
useful work.

Figure 5-6 An electric circuit with a closed path for electric current to flow
In an electric circuit, there is always a reference point in a circuit called the reference or common
point. It is usually referred to also a s the earth or ground when dealing with electrical
installations. In this case, there is an actual connection made between the circuit and the earth
or ground, a process known as earthing. The circuit above can now be redraw with a common
point used in the connection.

(a) (b)

Figure 5-7 (a) A circuit with its equivalent drawn with ground connection (b) Grounds

In an electric circuit, we will usually have at least a source of energy to power the circuit, a load
and connecting wires. Power consuming components and devices are referred to as loads while
power producing components and devices are referred to as sources.
Two different sources are shown having the
Pipe Size same capacity but connected to different
=Resistance loads. The load of the first is a light load
(small pipe) because it allows small current
Water flow
(little water) to flow while the other is a
= Current
heavy load (large pipe) allowing high current
Figure 5-8 Source loading water analogy (large water) flow.

34
A light load or high resistance component or devices requires small amount of current to made it
work while a heavy load or low resistance component is one that requires very large amount of
current to make it work. The higher the current a component from the power supply ( in this case a
battery) the faster it drains the battery till it is dead.

5.6.1 SHORT CIRCUIT

A short circuit happens when a wire is used to connect the positive side of a power
supply (e.g. a battery) to the negative side without any load connected in the path of the current.

WARNING: Short circuit can lead to fatal injuries and should be avoided in a circuit.

(a) (b)

Figure 5-9 (a) Short circuit of a resistor and light bulb (b) Short circuit of a battery

When a short circuit takes place, it will cause a infinite (very large) amount of current flow between
the terminals of the battery. Usually, when you have a circuit with a connected load, it will provide a
resistance that limits the current flow in the circuit given by the Ohm’s law relationship but for a
short circuit, there is no connected load (Resistance = 0) and there for will cause an infinite(very high)
current flow according to the Ohm’s law relationship.
When a power supply (e.g. a battery) is allowed to supply an infinite amount of current, it makes it
get hot as well as the connecting wires and damage these cause it to get damage and even lead to a
fire outbreak. Short circuit could be cause when the insulation of conductors get peeled and make
contacts. A fuse can be used in a circuit to prevent a short circuit by setting a maximum current that
will flow.

5.6.2 OPEN CIRCUIT

Open circuit is the opposite of a short circuit. An open circuit represents a broken connection in any
part of a circuit resulting from a break in a component or wire. An open circuit will result to no
current flowing through the circuit because it places an infinite resistance in the path of the current
flow. A damage component e.g. a resistor can sometime develop infinite resistance when damaged.
A multimeter can be used to check for an open circuit.

35
5.7 UNDERSTANDING CIRCUIT SCHEMATICS

Communication is an essential part of life as it aids continuity and proper documentation. If one
has to describe a circuit in words, then some information may not be captured and language
differences may limit knowledge transfer. Electronics designers have therefore come up with a
means of communicating their ideas and results by adopting universal signs and symbols which are
representatives of circuit elements and concepts. These signs and symbols are called circuit
schematics or circuit symbols. A diagram of schematics representing an electric circuit is called
schematics or circuit diagram. Schematics symbols and diagram are like guides to help us design,
interpret, troubleshoot (fault finding) and modify electronic circuits. Once you acquire the basic
knowledge of circuit schematics, you will be equipped with the skills to interpret circuit diagram and
even start drawing your own. Examples of schematic symbols are shown below.

Figure 5-10 Examples of Schematics symbols

Resistor

36
5.8 TIPS FOR PROPER CIRCUIT SCHEMATICS OR DIAGRAM DRAWING

A circuit schematic or diagram must communicate sufficient information for others to understand.
Below are some of the things to note when drawing circuit diagrams;

1) Each component symbol in the circuit must have a name and a value to identify it. For
example, the names for resistors are represented by R’s while capacitors are represented by
C’s. The value of the component tells us size or type of the component.

2) If there is more than one component with the same name in a circuit, each similar
component should be labelled with a number to identify it. For example you can write R1,
R2, C2 e.t.c
3) For large value component labels, the use of abbreviations will keep the schematics tidy.

37
5) Always ensure to indicate the polarity of the components if any. When representing
integrated circuits(IC), the names are written on the inside while the pin numbers are on the
outside.

6) When drawing circuit schematics the input is usually placed on the left side while the
output will be at the right side. Also, the positive supply will usually be place at the top
while the negative (common ground or reference point) will be at the bottom. If there are
more than one voltage levels, it should be clearly indicated in the circuit diagram.

7) Always keep functional groups (circuit segments that perform a similar function) such
as voltage divider, filters e.t.c separated within the schematics.

8) Whenever the waveform of a signal is to be shown in a circuit, the exact waveform

diagram should be placed at the location where the waveform is needed.

9) Finally but not limit to the list in the guide, learn from already drawn schematics from
other source such as textbooks and online resources.

38
CHAPTER 6 FUSES

A fuse is a protective component that is required to cause a break (or open circuit) in circuit
connection when the current flowing is more than the limit set by the fuse. The maximum current
capable of making a fuse to blow up resulting to an open circuit will usually be known. The major
reason for very large current flow is a short circuit or power surge (sudden increase in voltage).
The fuse is usually placed on the positive side of the power supply for DC and on the live wire for
AC.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6-1 (a)Cartridge fuses (b) Blade fuses (c) Fuse circuit symbols

Figure 6-2 Fuse assist in protecting a circuit from damage during short circuit

6.1 HOW A FUSE WORKS

A fuse consists of a container having electrical contacts on both ends having a piece of bare (un-
insulated) conductor or wire strand connecting the terminals. When a certain amount of current
is allowed to flow through the fuse, the piece of conductor or wire strand will usually gets heated
till it melts and break up the circuit connection. The current amount of current required to melt
the fuse will get given by the manufacturer.

39
 Figure 6-3 Internal structure of a fuse showing how a fuse
interrupts a circuit when current get too high as predetermined.

In practice, when selecting a fuse, the fuse current rating should be 50 percent more than the
nominal current expected for that circuit path. A blown fuse must always be replaced with
another fuse with the same current rating. For example, a 5A fuse should be replaced with
another 5A fuse not a 10A fuse.
Warning: Do not replace a fuse with another fuse of higher current rating. This may lead
to over-current flow leading to damage of devices and fire outbreak. For re-wireable
fuses, the same wire gauge of conductor should be used when the fuse blows.

6.2 TYPES OF FUSE

Fuses come in different shapes and sizes and with different current ratings. A fuse is usually house
in a fuse holder for firm connection to its contacts. Fuses also have colour codes which have
standard current rating as shown in the table below.

Table 6-1 Fuse colour code and their

current ratings

Figure 6-4 images of different kinds of fuse and

their holder which are used for holding the fuse in
place when connected in a circuit.

40
6.3 SAFETY HANDLING TIPS

1. Do not attempt repairs on line-powered circuits with the power on. Always remove
the main power first.
2. Wear eye protection: large plastic-lens eyeglasses or safety goggles.
3. Don’t wear any jewelry or other articles that could accidentally contact circuitry and
conduct current.
4. When building power supplies and other instruments, make sure that all wires and
components are enclosed in a metal box or insulated plastic enclosure.
5. Make sure all components that are connected to ac power lines meet required
power ratings.
6. Use only shielded (insulated) lead probes when testing circuits. Never allow your
fingers to slip down to the metal probe tip when testing a “hot” circuit. Also, make
sure to remove power from a circuit when making a connection with wires and
cables.
7. Perform as many tests as possible with the power off and the equipment unplugged.
8. Switch off electrical appliances which do not need to be left on when equipment is
not in use.
9. Keep work area clean and tidy during and after use and unplug/ switch off
equipment after use.
10. When working on ac-line circuits, wearing rubber-bottomed shoes or sneakers, or
standing on a sheet of rubber or wood, can reduce possible shocks.
11. Soldering:
a. Wear safety glasses and avoid inhaling the fumes produced
b. Always place soldering iron in holder
c. Always solder over a workbench
d. Always treat iron as hot
e. Unplug with 5 to 10 minutes left in class
12. Never plug in an electronics project without first asking the instructor
13. Never work on electronics equipment with wet hands/ in wet areas
14. Never work on energized electronics equipment with both hands
15. If you were not trained how/ asked to use it in this class, don’t touch it.
16. Open flames should not be left unattended and no open flames should be used near
flammable solvents.
17. Keep fire escape routes clear at all times.
18. Before starting work, all staff and students are to become familiar with the fire
procedures and location and use of fire-fighting equipment within the laboratory.

41
ELECTRONICS: GOING FURTHER PART 2

42
CHAPTER 7 SERIES AND PARALLEL ARRANGEMENTS

We are going to take this lesson further as we learn about different circuit arrangement. A simple
circuit is easy to setup and understand, that is, having a power supply and a load connected
together by wires. In reality, we could have more than one sources connected to a networks of
components which forms a load in a circuit.
There are two major ways of combining sources and components to form a complex circuit
namely; series and parallel arrangements.
7.1 SERIES ARRANGEMENT
In a series arrangement, the current flows through only a single path which starts from the
positive terminal of the power supply through the load and then back to the negative terminal of
the same source.

(a)
Figure 7-1 (a) Examples of series connection of
resistors and LED. (b) The definition of a series
connection circuit. (b)
The series arrangement forms an end-to-end connection of the circuit and for this reason, the
same amount of current flows through all the components in the series network. If any of the
components along a series connection is removed or gets damaged so that it has an infinitely
high resistance (or an open circuit), it will prevent the flow of current in the circuit and the circuit
will not function.

(a) (b)

Figure 7-2 (a) Three resistors connected in series are added to give one equivalent resistor
(b) A faulty bulb in series prevent the whole circuit from functioning

43
The same current flows through all the components in a series arrangement but the voltage
across each component may not be the same but divided in a given proportion as determined by
their resistances. When the voltage across all the components in the series arrangement is added
up, it will be equal to the voltage from the power source.

7.2 PARALLEL ARRANGENT

In a parallel arrangement, the components are connected in such a way that the voltage across
each of them is the same. In that case, the components are independent of each other because
the current flows through each component separately. Each of the components in parallel forms
a branch of network for current. The total current flowing from the positive terminal of the power
source gets divided along each branch of the network in a given proportion determined by their
resistances. The current then flows out of each component branch to get combined and then
flows back into the negative terminal of the power supply.

(b)
(a)
(b) The definition of a parallel
Figure 7-3 (a) Examples of parallel connection of resistors connection circuit.

Unlike the series arrangement, when any of the components in the branch of the parallel
arrangement is removed or get damaged so that it leads to an open circuit, the circuit should still
function. But if the damage or open circuit is along the main path from which each branch is
tapped, then the rest of the network after that open circuit will not function. Also, sum of the
currents through all the branches in a parallel arrangement will usually equal to the total amount
of current supplied by the power supply. Table -7-1 Series Vs Parallel
Points for Arrangements of bulbs in:
comparison Series Parallel
Number of Only one path: current passes 2or more paths: current splits up and passes
paths for the through components one after through each branch at the same time: paths are
electric current the other independent of each other
Brightness of Dimmer Brighter
bulbs
If one bulb is Electric current cannot flow Electric current can still flow through the other
removed or through the circuit, the path and the other bulb still light up.
damaged remaining bulb will not light up
Application Used for the placement of Used in all possible connection of circuits in
switches and fuses in circuits houses and other related installation works

44
 (a)
(b)

Figure 7-4 (a) Current relationship in a parallel circuit (b) A faulty bulb in parallel does
not affect the rest of the circuit from functioning.

7.3 CALCULATING TOTAL RESISTANCE IN SERIES ARRANGEMENT

When resistors are connected in series, the total resistance can be determined by adding the
voltage drops across each of the resistors.

𝑉𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉4 … (1)

The dots means the resistors can be as many as possible. The equation (1) above is also known
as the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). The same current flows through series circuit so that we
can re-write the equation (1 ) as;

𝑉=𝐼𝑅 - from Ohm’s law

𝐼𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3 + 𝐼𝑅4 … (2)

(c) Example 1
(a) (b) Solution; 𝑅1 = 1𝑘𝛺, 𝑅2 = 2𝑘𝛺, 𝑅3 = 6𝑘𝛺
𝑉𝑃𝑆 = 9𝑉
Figure 7-5 (a) Equivalent resistance for two 𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = 1𝑘𝛺 + 2𝑘𝛺 + 6𝑘𝛺
resistances in series. (b) The voltage relationship
𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 9𝑘𝛺
for resistances in series. The sum of their
voltage drop will equal to the voltage of the 𝑉𝑃𝑆
From Ohms law, 𝐼 = ⁄𝑅
𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿
power supply. 𝐼 = 9𝑉⁄9𝑘𝛺 = 1𝑚𝐴

45
If we factorize the current (𝐼) on both sides if the equation, we get

𝐼𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 ) … (3)

Eliminating the 𝐼 on both sides gives

𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 … EQUAVALENT RESISTANCE IN SERIES

When resistors are connected in series, the result is a amounts to a higher resistance value than
the resistor with the highest resistance.

7.4 CALCULATING TOTAL RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT

When we connect resistors in parallel, the total resistance of such arrangement can be calculated
by summing the current flowing through each of the branches and then applying the Ohm’s law
to the current equation as follows;

𝐼𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 … (1)

The above equation (1) is known as the Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL). Using the Ohm’s law, we
can replace the current as follows;

𝑉
𝐼 =( ) from Ohm’s law
𝑅
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
So that, = + + + …
𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4

(a) (b)
Example 2
Figure 7-6 (a) Equivalent resistance for Solution; 𝑅1 = 10𝑘𝛺, 𝑅2 = 10𝑘𝛺
𝑅1 × 𝑅2 10𝑘𝛺× 10𝑘𝛺
two resistances in parallel. (b) Two 𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = = = 5𝑘𝛺
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 10𝑘𝛺+ 10𝑘𝛺
resistances in parallel and their current 𝑉𝑃𝑆
From Ohms law, 𝐼 = ⁄𝑅
relationship. The sum of the current for 𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿

each of the branches will equal the 𝐼𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 9𝑉⁄5𝑘𝛺 = 1.8𝑚𝐴

total current.
𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 9𝑉⁄10𝑘𝛺 = 9𝑚𝐴

46
We can then factorize the voltage (V) from both side of the equation and eliminate it.

𝑉 1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿
= 𝑉(𝑅 + 𝑅2
+ 𝑅3
+ 𝑅4
)
1

1 1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿
=𝑅 + 𝑅2
+ 𝑅3
+ 𝑅 … EQUVALENT RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL
1 4

The parallel arrangement of resistance produces an equivalent resistance of lower value than the
lower resistance in the arrangement.

7.5 COMBINING SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTIONS

It is possible to make a combination of both series and parallel connection. When such an
arrangement is made, it will possess the characteristics of both the series and parallel
arrangements.

The first arrangement (1) can be calculated as:

(𝑅1 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑅2 )𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑅3 𝑜𝑟 (𝑅1 // 𝑅2 ) + 𝑅3

𝑅 ×𝑅
𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = ( 1 2) + 𝑅3
𝑅 +𝑅 1 2

The second arrangement (2) can be calculated in similar way:

(1) (2) 𝑅1 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠(𝑅2 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑅3 ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑅1 + (𝑅2 //𝑅3 )

𝑅2 × 𝑅3
𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝑅1 + ( )
𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Figure 7-7 A series-parallel arrangement of

resistances can be calculated by applying the same
principle of series and parallel arrangement
discussed.

7.6 CELLS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT

Cells can also be added in series, parallel or a combination of series-parallel arrangement.
When cells are added in series the result will give a setup with an overall larger voltage which is
the sum of all the voltage of the individual cells. For a parallel arrangement of cells, this will give
a setup with an overall high current output capacity.

47
 (b)
(a)
(c)

Figure 7-8 Voltage and current obtained from cells in (a) series
(b) parallel (c) series-parallel arrangement

Cells are not 100% efficient due to an internally existing resistance inside them which tends to
limit the current flow and is responsible for heating up the cells when in use, according the power
ohmic law. This inherent resistance in cells is called the internal resistance, Rin. The internal
resistance also develops a voltage drop which lowers the nominal voltage of the cell when a load
is connected to it.

(b)
(a)

(d)
(c)
Figure 7-9 (a) Ideal cell and typical (b)
Cell voltage drop resulting from
internal resistance of a cell when
connected (c) Cells in series and
parallel with internal resistance (d)
Series cell create dual polarity supply.

48
 CHAPTER 8 VARIABLE RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVIDER

Variable resistors and voltage divider circuit are very useful for varying the current and voltage
from a power supply. If the voltage from the power supply available is higher than the voltage
required powering a circuit, with the aid of a variable resistor or a voltage divider circuit, the
power supply voltage can be reduced to the needed voltage. Variable resistors have been known
to be used as manual volume controls in electronic devices.

8.1 VARAIBLE RESISTORS

A variable resistor is a resistor which has the feature that allows for adjusting the resistance of
the resistor. The change in resistance could be from a very low resistance to a very high resistance
value. A variable resistor which is made to vary the current flow in a circuit is called a rheostat
while a variable resistor which is designed to divide voltage is called a potentiometer (commonly
called pot). A trimmer is a type of potentiometer which is design to be adjusted occasionally
within a circuit.

IMAGES OF BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CURRENT CHANGING AND

POTENTIAL DIVIDER

IMAGES OF RHEOSTAT,
(b) POTENTIOMETER,
(c) TRIMMER
(d) AND SYMBOLS
(a)

(e)
(f)

Figure 8-1 (a) Potentiometer (b) Rheostat (c) Trimmer

(d) Laboratory rheostat (e) Circuit symbols for variable
resistances (f) internal structure of a Laboratory
rheostat (g) internal structure of a potentiometer (g)

The values of variable resistors are usually marked as follows; 100k, 10k, 20k e.t.c These values
indicate the maximum obtainable resistance from the variable resistor.
49
 (b)
(a)

Figure 8-2 (a) A potentiometer converted to a rheostat is used for varying current
through the load in the circuit. (b) A potentiometer (R2) used for achieving variable
voltage output from a power supply.

8.2 VOLTAGE DIVIDER

As the name goes, it is a circuit that can be used to divide up a voltage to obtain several fractions
voltages from just one voltage source with respect to a reference point. It can also be used to get
a dual polarity output voltage from a power supply. It can be constructed from resistors arranged
in a series connection between the terminals of the source voltage. The joints of the resistors will
form the outputs for the voltage divider.

(c)
(a) Figure 8-3(a) Voltage divider constructed from fixed resistors
(b) a single battery has been used to create dual polarity supply
using a voltage divider of two resistors, with the reference at
the middle of the resistors. (c) 𝑽𝑨𝑩 means the voltage of A
starting from B. If +1V equal a step on the stairs, then we take
three (3) steps upward to move from +5V to +8V. A downward
(b)
step means negative voltage change -1V.

50
 8.3 VOLTAGE DIVIDER EQUATION

Recall that the voltage across resistors in series adds up to give the source voltage. For any
number of resistor in series in a voltage divider, the general equation for the voltage across any
resistor is given as;

𝑅𝑥
𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉𝑆𝑂𝑈𝑅𝐶𝐸 (𝑅 )
𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿

where 𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 …

For a two-resistor, the equation can be written as:

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑆𝑂𝑈𝑅𝐶𝐸 (𝑅 ) and 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑆𝑂𝑈𝑅𝐶𝐸 (𝑅 )
𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿

DERIVATION OF THE GENERALIZED AND THE

TWO-RESISTOR DIVIDER EQUATION
VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE OF THUMB AND
EXAMPLE CALCULATION
LOADING EFFECT ON VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
(a)
(b)

(c)

(d)

(a)Without 𝑅𝐿 connected (b) With 𝑅𝐿 connected

𝑅𝑋𝑌 = 25𝛺 (Resistance in
𝑅𝑋𝑌 = 50𝛺 Parallel) Figure 8-4 (a) to (d) Example
𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 × ( ) 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 × (
𝑅𝑋𝑌
) calculation of voltage divider and
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑋𝑌
50
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 12𝑉 × ( ) 25 decrease in voltage when a load is
50+ 50 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 12𝑉 × ( )
50+ 25
= 6.0𝑉 connected.
= 4.0𝑉

51
CHAPTER 9 CAPACITORS

The capacitor is another component you will usually find in a typical electric circuit. The capacitor
is also a passive component just like the resistor which we have discussed. A capacitor can
perform different functions in a circuit, one of which is the ability to store charges which can be
release back into the circuit to perform useful work. A capacitor can be charged and discharged
as many times as possible in just on second. Unlike a battery, a capacitor can withstand a short
circuit without damaging it. A capacitor is therefore suitable for applications that require quick
high current flow in a circuit. It is also very useful for separating a mixture of DC and AC signal
(electrical voltages or current carrying useful information) in a circuit.

(a)

Table 9-1 Comparison of capacitor and battery

Batteries
Pros Cons
Power density Limited cycle life
Storage capacity Voltage and current
limitations
Better leakage current Long charging times
than capacitors
Constant voltage that More temperature
can be turned off and sensitive than
(c) on capacitors
Capacitors
Pros Cons
Long cycle life Low specific energy
High load currents Linear discharge
voltage
(b)
Short charging times High cell discharge
Excellent temperature High cost per watt
performance
Figure 9-1 (a) Different capacitor types (b)
Capacitor circuit symbols and different standards
(d) (c) Short circuit a battery leading to damages (d)
Difference between the battery and capacitor
circuit symbols
52
9.1 UNIT OF A CAPACITOR

The unit used to express the amount of charges that a capacitor can store is called the
capacitance. The capacitance can be obtained as the ratio of the charges on a capacitor plate to
the voltage applied across the leads of the capacitor. Capacitance can is measured in farad, F.

𝑄
𝐶 =
𝑉
Where 𝐶- capacitance in farad (F)
𝑄 - charges on capacitor plate in coulomb (C)
𝑉 – applied voltage in volt (V)

Figure 9-2 (a) Straight line graph of

(a)
charge against voltage. The
capacitance is the slope of the graph.
(b) Water analogy of a capacitor. The
capacitor is like a container that
stores water (charges; current flow
for a specify time). The height of the
water stored is the capacitor voltage
The pipe with a tap (resistance)
determines how fast the container
(b) will be filled up.

9.2 MAKING A CAPACITOR

A simple capacitor can be constructed by placing two parallel metals plates close each other, so
that they are separated from each other by an electrical insulator (referred to as dielectric) placed
between them. When one metal plate of the capacitor store positive charges on it, the other will
store negative charges during the same time. The dielectric has the ability to support the flow of
electric field (i.e. be polarized) but does not conduct electricity. The different materials that can be
used for the metal plates include; aluminium, tantalum and silver e.t.c. The materials used as
dielectric in the capacitor include; air, paper, glass, rubber, ceramic, plastics e.t.c.

53
 Figure 9-3 Parallel plate
capacitor showing the
internal structure.

9.3 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CAPACITANCE OF A CAPACITOR

The capacitance of a capacitor depends on some factors which include the area of the metal
plates (A), the distance between the plates (d) and the material used for the dielectric of the
capacitor. For a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance can be written in terms above
mentioned factors as;

𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀
𝑑
Where 𝐶- capacitance in farad (F)
𝐴- Area of metal plate in meter-squared (𝑚2 )
𝑑- distance between plates in meter (m)
𝜀- permittivity of the dielectric

In vacuum or free space, the permittivity is given as

𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝐶 2 /𝑁. 𝑚2

The relationship between the dielectric permittivity and the permittivity of free space is given as

the relative permittivity, 𝜀 𝑟:

𝜀
𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀0

So that we can write,

𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0
𝑑
For multiple-plate capacitors, the capacitance is given as;
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 (𝑛 − 1)
𝑑
Where n – the number of plates.

54
 Table 9-2 Dielectric constant and breakdown
strength for different materials

Figure 9-4 Parallel plate capacitor

with charges on its plates and
dielectric permittivity.

On limitation of storing as many charges as we would have like to is the factor referred to as the
dielectric strength. The dielectric material has a maximum amount of charges per voltage build up
that they can handle. For example, for a paper dielectric, if the voltage on the mil is about 600𝑉,

1 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
NOTE: A mil is the thousandth of an inch,1 𝑚𝑖𝑙 = ; 1 inch = 2.5 cm
1000

the paper starts to conduct because the opposite charges on the metal plates begin to jump across
the paper to recombine. This leads to static current flow through the capacitor. This will not be a
delight to have happen in a typical capacitor.

(b)
Figure 9-5 (a) Dielectric breakdown leading to a spark
jumping from one conductor to another conductor nearby
(a) through air. The air becomes a conductor during the
process. (b) Dielectric breakdown in a capacitor.

55
9.4 INTERNAL WORKING OF A CAPACITOR

When a voltage is applied across the leads of a capacitor, it causes charges to build up on the plates of
the capacitor. On one of the plate is the positive charges while on the other plate will be stored negative
charges. These charges also cause the atoms within the dielectric material to get polarized (having a
little separation within the atom).
Figure 9-6 Charges (positive
and negative) building up on
a capacitor plates when
connected to power supply.

Before a dielectric is introduced into the capacitor, the opposite charges build up on the plates of the
capacitor sets up an attraction to each other leading to the creation of an electric field. The electric field
therefore sets up a corresponding electric field potential and a voltage. The voltage existing as a result
of this field acts in opposition to the applied voltage on to the capacitor. The process of building up
charges on the capacitor plates from the applied voltage is called charging. When the opposing voltage
on the capacitor plates is equal to the applied voltage, the capacitor is said to be fully charged.

Figure 9-7 Electric field

between the positively
charged plate and the
negatively charged plate
as charges build up on the
plates.
When we consider a dielectric, we observe that it has the property of an insulator. Since the electrons
in an insulator are free to move, it will not allow the aid electricity but then in the presence of an electric
field, it forces a little separation between the rest of the atom and the electron within the atom. The
separation within the atom is referred to polarization and the atom is said to be polarized.

Figure 9-8 A dielectric becomes

polarized by the presents of an
electric field inside the capacitor. The
polarization leads to lower electric
field strength.
When the dielectric is placed in the capacitor, it gets polarized by the electric field between the metal
plates. The opposite charges of the metal plate and the dielectric then get attracted to each other within
the capacitor. This recombination causes the electric field strength to become lowered and
consequently, the opposing voltage of the capacitor. Since there is a difference between the applied
voltage and the opposing voltage, the capacitor begins to charge once more leading to more charges
being stored on the capacitor plate.

56
The overall effect of the dielectric is the ability to store more charges. The higher the dielectric
relative permittivity𝜺𝒓 , the higher will be the capacitance for the same metal plate area and
the same separation.

Figure 9-9 The dielectric

polarization give the capacitor
to store more charges and the
capacitance is increased by a
factor k, which is the dielectric
constant.

Once the charges on the capacitor plates sets up another opposing voltage which equal the
applied voltage, the charges stop flowing to the plates and the capacitor becomes fully
charged again.

9.5 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR

The process of charging a capacitor means charges are flowing to the metal plates in the capacitor.
If by any mean, the charges on the metal plates of the capacitor are made to leave, then the capacitor
is said to discharging. When it is discharging, the charges flowing out of it can be put to do useful
work. In practice, a resistor is usually placed in series with the capacitor in order to regulate the
charging and discharging, this means it will take some time to charge and discharge the capacitor. In
the absence of the resistor, the charging and discharging will be instantaneous (very rapidly).

(a)
(b)
Figure 9-10 Capacitor (a) Charging (b) Discharging
In product of the series resistance and capacitance of the capacitor is called the time
constant, 𝝉 (pronounced, Tau). A practical capacitor actually never gets charged to the applied
voltage but is approximated to be fully charged at 5 times the value of its time constant (𝝉). The unit
of time constant (𝝉) is second, s. The capacitor voltage will always acquire 63.2 percent of the
difference between the applied voltage and the stored opposing voltage, for each time constant (𝝉).
For each 𝜏, 𝜏 = 𝑅 × 𝐶 unit in second (s)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 63.2% × (Applied Voltage − Voltage On Capacitor )

57
After, 5𝑅𝐶, 𝑉𝑐 ≅ 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 Capacitor Approximated Fully Charged

and 5𝑅𝐶, 𝑉𝑐 ≅ 0 Capacitor Approximated Fully Discharged

Figure 9-11 (a) Charging a capacitor

through a series resistor. Charges up
in about 5RC. (b) Charging curve (top)
and discharging curve (bottom).

9.6 ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR

The energy stored in the capacitor is given as;

1
𝐸𝐶𝐴𝑃 = 𝑄𝑉
2
𝑄
Since, 𝐶 = , we can also write
𝑉
1 1
or 𝐸𝐶𝐴𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 2 or 𝐸𝐶𝐴𝑃 = 𝑄 2 /𝐶
2 2

58
9.7 CAPACITOR VALUE CALCULATOR
Max Operation Voltage
Code Max Voltage

1H 50V
2A 100V
2T 150V
2D 200V
2E 250V

Tolerance
Capacitance Conversion Values
Microfarads (𝝁𝑭) Nanofarads (𝒏𝑭) Picofarads (𝒑𝑭) Code Percentage
B ±0.1𝑝𝐹
0.00000𝟏 𝝁𝑭 0.001 𝒏𝑭 1 𝒑𝑭 C ±0.25𝑝𝐹
0.00001 𝝁𝑭 0.01 𝒏𝑭 10 𝒑𝑭 D ±0.5𝑝𝐹
0.0001 𝝁𝑭 0.1 𝒏𝑭 100 𝒑𝑭 F ±1%
0.001 𝝁𝑭 1 𝒏𝑭 1000 𝒑𝑭 G ±2%
0.01 𝝁𝑭 10 𝒏𝑭 10,000 𝒑𝑭 H ±3%
0.1 𝝁𝑭 100 𝒏𝑭 100,000 𝒑𝑭 J ±5%
1 𝝁𝑭 1000 𝒏𝑭 1,000,000 𝒑𝑭 K ±10%
10 𝝁𝑭 10,000 𝒏𝑭 10,000,000 𝒑𝑭 M ±20%
100 𝝁𝑭 100,000 𝒏𝑭 100,000,000 𝒑𝑭
Z
+80%, −20%

Figure 9-12 Chart of capacitor

value calculator showing the
metric conversion, maximum
voltage and tolerance (top).
(a) (a) An electrolytic capacitor
showing the capacitance
information, breakdown
voltage and lead markings.

(b) Capacitor becomes

bloated by making wrong
(b) polarity connection or
connecting a voltage higher
than its DC working voltage.

59
9.8 CAPACITOR SPECIFICATIONS

Below are some of the basic factors to be considered when choosing a capacitor:

 DC Working Voltage (DCWV): This is the maximum DC voltage that can be applied on a
capacitor. If a higher value of voltage is applied to the capacitor, it will lead to a dielectric
breakdown and damage the capacitor.
 Capacitor Polarity: some capacitors have polarity markings on them to indicate how to
be connected in a circuit. Care must be taken in making sure the given polarity is follow
so as not to damage the capacitor. An example is the electrolytic capacitor.
 Temperature Coefficient: this is the change in the capacitance resulting from changes in
the temperature of the capacitor. It usually reduces the efficiency of the capacitor.
 Tolerance: this is the range in which the capacitor value can vary. Apart from the nominal
capacitance stated on it body, the tolerance will also be indicated.

9.9 TYPES OF CAPACITORS

Capacitors are usually named after the kind of material used as their dielectric. Below is a
summary of capacitors and their properties.

Figure 9-13 Types of capacitor

60
 Table 9-3 Capacitor types and their characteristics

9.10 CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT

Capacitors can likewise be arranged in both series and parallel arrangement as discussed earlier.

61
9.10.1 Capacitor in Parallel:

When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance will be the sum of the individual
capacitance of the capacitors. This is similar to the result obtained for resistors in series. The total
capacitance in parallel will produce a higher capacitance value.

Total capacitance in parallel is given as:

𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + 𝐶4 …

The maximum voltage that must be applied to the

parallel arrange of capacitor must be less than the
value of the capacitor with the least DC working
voltage.

Figure 9-14 Capacitors in parallel

9.10.2 Capacitors In Series

When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance can be calculated as;

1 1 1 1 1
𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿
=𝐶 + 𝐶2
+ 𝐶3
+𝐶
1 4

The total capacitance in series will result to a lower value of total capacitance.

Figure 9-15 Capacitors in series

The advantage of having the capacitance in series is that it can be used to obtain a capacitor that
can withstand a higher voltage. The trade off is the lower capacitance.

9.11 BASIC FUNCTION OF CAPACITORS IN A CIRCUIT

1. AC coupling and DC Blocking: a capacitor can be used to allow only AC signals to pass
from one part of a circuit to another while blocking off any DC signal. This is also called a
high pass filter. As a high pass filer, it allows high frequency signal while blocking low
frequency signals.

62
 Figure 9-16 DC blocking or High pass
filter circuit

2. Capacitor Bypass: this is when the capacitor is connected in a way to remove AC or high
frequency signals while allowing on DC signals to pass through it. It is also called a low
pass filter. This capacitor application is used in the rectification of AC signals to DC signals.

(a)
(b)

Figure 9-17 (a) Low pass filter circuit (b) Capacitor used for bypass

Figure 9-18 Application of filter circuits for frequency separation

63
9.12 CIRCUIT TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE

64
ELECTRONICS: STEPPING UP PART 3

65
CHAPTER 10 SWITCHES

A switch is a component designed for the purpose of opening or closing a circuit path. It could
also be used to control the flow of current from one part of a circuit to another. In this topic,
our focus will be on mechanical switches.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Figure 10-1 (a) Pushbutton (b) Toggle (c) Slide (d) Rocker (e) Rotary (f) DIP

10.1 HOW DOES A SWITCH WORKS

A simple switch usually will have two terminals for external connections and a movable part
which does the work of connecting and disconnecting the terminals. The movable part which
does the work of bridging the two terminals usually employs a push, slide contacts or other
physical forces e.g. magnetic effect and heat effect. When the switch is closed, it should have
zero resistance (resistance = 0) while an opened switch should have infinite resistance.

(a) (b)

Figure 10-2 (a) Switch action (b) Simple Switch closing and opening circuit path.

66
 (a) (b)

(d)
(c)

Figure 10-3 Internal working of some switches

The action of opening or closing a circuit path depends on how the switch is connected and not
necessarily on the physical mechanism of the switch. The contacts of a switch are required to be
very firm so as to prevent sparks across the contacts and this will also prevent unwanted
resistance within the switch.

(a)
(b)

Figure 10-4 (a) Partial contact in a switch (b) Placement of switch in a circuit

10.2 SWITCH CHARACTERISTICS AND DESCRIPTION

 Maintained and Momentary: a maintained switch can be operated so that when it is

opened or closed, it stays in that position until it is operated to change it position.

67
 An example of the maintained switch is the wall switches at homes. Another type of
switch is called the momentary switch. The momentary switch is a type of switch that will
only maintain its opened or closed position as long as there is a force on it to keep it
opened or closed. An example of the momentary switch is the keys on a computer
keyboard.
Figure 10-5
Examples of (a)
Maintained switch
(b) Momentary
(a) switch
(b)
 Poles and Throws: the pole of a switch represents the number of independent pairs of
contacts a switch can control. It is usually represented by the letter “P” in switch
description. The throw indicates the number of separate contacts that can be controlled
by a single moveable bridging parts. It is usually represented by the letter “T” in switch
description. For one pole or throw, it is usually represented by the letter “S” in switch
description. When the two features are combined, we have, single pole single throw
(SPST) switch, single pole double throw (SPDT) switch e.t.c
Figure 10-6
Examples of
switch symbols
with the Poles
and Thrown
label.

 NORMALLY OPEN AND NORMALLY CLOSED: these terms is only used when describing
the momentary switch. A normally closed (NC) switch has its contacts already closed so
that any press on it will only open the switch contacts. A normally open (NO) switch has
it contacts unconnected from the poles so that any force on the switch will only close the
switch contacts.

(a) (b)

Figure 10-7 (a) Normally open push button (b) Normally closed push button

68
CHAPTER 11 RELAYS

Relays are electrically controlled switches. A relay has the capacity of switching ON/OFF a large
amount of current at o ne part of a circuit using a small control voltage at another part of a circuit.
This makes it possible for the control circuit of the relay to be in a separate location from the relay
itself. There are two major types of relays which are the electromechanical relays and the solid-state
relay.

(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 11-1 (a) Solid-State Relay (b) Electromechanical Relay c) Relay symbol

An electromechanical relay has some moving parts that assist in making contacts when powered while
the solid state relay is entirely electronically controlled and has no moving part to make contact. The
advantages of a solid state relays over the electromechanical relay include the efficiency, very fast
switching and small control power. The scope of the book will be limited to the electromechanical relays.
Figure 11-2 (a) Inside a solid-state relay
showing printed circuit board and no
moving parts (b) Inside an
(a) (b) electromagnetic relay showing the coils
and contacts and the
11.1 HOW AN ELECTROMANETIC RELAY WORKS

An electromechanical relay uses a magnetic coil which generates a magnetic field in achieving the
switching from one contact to another. When the relay is powered, current flows through the circuit part
connected to the coil leading to the generation of a strong magnetic field. The magnetic field is designed
to attract an Armature which holds the Common Contact used for making contacts. The conductive plate
is usually connected to a common lead at one side while the other side is used for switching between
contacts. Inside the relay, there is a spring connected to the magnetic rod which helps to pull the contacts
of the conductive plate back to the former position before the relay was powered. The voltage for

69
controlling the relay can either be an AC or DC. If a relay with a DC coil is powered by AC, the conductive
plate flips back and forth within the relay.

(b)

(a)

(c)

Figure 11-3 (a) Diagram of an electromagnetic relay showing the parts of the relay. (b) Common
contact and the normally closed (NC) and normally open (NO) contacts. (c) Unpowered relay
with common contact connected to the normally closed (NC) contact (Left) Relay coil is
energized so that it develops a magnetic field for attracting the armature through which
current can flow through the common contact to the connected load (right).

11.2 DESCRIBING A RELAY

Like a switch, the electromechanical relay can also be described by their poles (P) and throws (T) and also
as either normally opened (NO) or normally closed (NC).

Figure 11-4 Poles and

Throws identification for
some relay units

70
11.3 TYPES OF ELECTROMECHANICAL REALY PACKAGES

Relays come in various sizes, packages and capacities as shown below;

11.4 USING RELAYS IN CIRCUITS

When a relay is connected in a transistor circuit as shown below, it is usually required that a diode, called
Flywheel Diode, is connected in the reverse bias across the coil of the relay. This is help in eliminating
voltage spikes arising from within the relay because of the changing voltages when operating the relay.

Figure 11-5 Flywheel diode connected across relay

71
11.5 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETISM

The earth moves round the Sun under the influence of the Sun’s gravitational pull, so also does
electric and magnetic fields affects the motion of any charged particle around such fields. The atoms
of matter have electron moving around the nucleus in an orbit and when a moving electron passes
through a magnetic field, it can cause a change in the motion of such electron. Charged particles
possess not only electric properties but also magnetic property which interacts with external
electric and magnetic field around them. A
magnetic field can be found around a magnet which has two poles namely; North and South poles.
The like poles of a magnet repel each other while the unlike poles attract each other. Magnet was
naturally discovered in nature and was observed to have the ability to attract other ferromagnetic
materials such as iron. Magnets can also be made artificially for various purposes. Apart from a
magnet, it was also discovered that a current carrying conductor has the ability to produce magnetic
fields around it. This magnetic field can also interact with other ferromagnetic materials. This
discovery shows the relationship between electricity and magnetism.

(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 11-6 (a) Magnetic field around a magnet (b) Electromagnetic
induction (c) Induced magnetic flux in an iron core

It was observed experimentally that when a magnet is moved towards/away from a coil or when a
coil is moved towards/away from a magnet, an electric current is induced in the coil. The amount
of current and the directions of current can be determined by various factors which can be
determined using the Lenz and Faraday’s Laws. The electromagnetic principle has found
applications in speaker, antenna, motors, radio communication, inductors and transformer.

Figure 11-7 Examples of applications of electromagnetism

72
CHAPTER 12 DIODE AND TRANSISTOR

A diode and a transistor are examples of the semiconductor devices made from semiconductor
materials that lead to a revolution in the world of electronics. The semiconductor devices are the
heart of modern electronic gadgets, such as a digital wristwatch, a computer and a satellite. So,
what is a semiconductor? A semiconductor, as the name implies is a material that is part -
conductor and part-insulator. It behaviour is in between that of a conductor and insulator, and
exhibits both properties. By controlling some factor around the use of a semiconductor, it can be
IMAGES SHOWING CONDUTION BAND , SEMICONDUCTOR BAND AND THE INSULATOR BAND.
made to behave as a conductor or as an insulator. Examples of semiconductor materials are
TABLE(Si)
Silicon SHOWING THE VALUES
and Germanium OF VARIOUS CONDUCTORS AND INSULATOR AND SEMICONDUCTOR
(Ge).
CONDUCTIVITY AND RESISSTIVITY.

EXCERPT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE SHOWING THE AREA FOR CONDUCTORS , SEMICONDUCTORS AND
INSULATORS.

(b)
(a)

Figure 12-1 (a) Periodic table of elements (b) Electron distribution in different materials

Scientist have been able to enhance the ability of pure semiconductors to behave more like a
conductor by the addition of impurities through a process known as doping. The result of doping
gave two major types of semiconductor materials which are the n-type semiconductor and the
p-type semiconductor materials. The n-type semiconductors have more negative charges
carriers (called electrons) and achieve the conduction of electricity through it by the movement
of electrons. The p-type semiconductors have more positive charge carriers (called holes) and
achieve conduction of electricity through it by the movement of holes. The various
semiconductor devices available are constructed majorly from the different combinations of n-
type and p-type semiconductor materials.

73
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 12-2 (a) Pure Silicon semiconductor (b) n-type doping (p-type doping)

12.1 DIODES

A diode is a semiconductor device which acts as a one-way switch to electric current flow. This
means that current can pass through the diode in only one direction. When the current is made
to flow in the reverse direction, the diode will not allow it and circuit will disconnected at that
point.

(a)

(d)

(b) (c)
Figure 12-3 (a) Electron flow for an n-type and p-type material when connected to power
supply (b) N-type and P-type joined together (c) P-N junction develops depletion layer
where no charge exist after recombination (d) P-N junction diode symbol

12.1.1 HOW TO USE A DIODE

The diode has two terminals for connections in a circuit, one side is positive called the anode
while the other side is negative called the cathode. An ideal diode can allow current to flow only
from the anode to cathode but will prevent current from flowing from cathode to anode. The
physical diode has a mark on it which indicates the cathode and also corresponds to straight line
drawn on the triangle of the circuit symbol of the diode.

74
When the diode is connected to a power supply so that the anode is made more positive than
the cathode, it behaves as a closed switch and will allow current to flow through it, then the diode
is said to be forward biased. When the cathode is made more positive than the anode, then no
current flows through it and the diode is said to be reversed biased.

(a)

Figure 12-4 (d) Water

(b)
analogy of a diode
showing the forward and
reverse flow. Water can
only flow in one direction
through the pipe as show
above.
Figure 12-4 (a) Forward
bias showing depletion
layer becomes narrow (b)
Reverse bias showing
depletion layer widen (c)
I-V characteristics of an
(c) ideal diode (Left) and a
practical diode (Right)

75
12.1.2 DIODE SPECIFICATIONS

A practical diode will usually require a minimum voltage to make it start working when forward
biased. This voltage is about 0.6V for diodes made from Silicon semiconductor material and about
0.2V for diode made from Germanium semiconductor materials. This minimum voltage to
forward bias the diode is a called diode forward voltage (𝑽𝑭 ). A practical diode also does not
totally cut off the current when reversed biased but allow a very small amount of current to flow.
Also, there is a maximum allowable current that can flow through the diode which will not cause
it to get damaged. This maximum current the diode can allow is called the maximum forward
current (𝑰𝑭 ). The breakdown voltage (𝑽𝑩𝑹 ) is the maximum voltage that can be placed on diode
in the reverse bias without damaging it. All these information are usually provided by the
manufacturer in a book known as the datasheet.

Diode Type Application Diode Type Application

Emits visible light Used as a
when forward constant voltage
biased. source. Operates
in the reverse
bias.
Mostly used as Used for
rectifier, for producing Laser
converting AC to radiations and
DC. circuits.
Acts as a variable High current
capacitor when diode used for
reverse bias. high current
applications.

Produces reverse Used in

current when oscillators circuit
light falls on it. and microwave
applications.

Figure 12-5 Diode symbols, types and application

76
Table 12-1 Diode Datasheet

77
12.1.3 DIODE APPLICATIONS

(a)

(b)
Figure 12-6 (a) Single diode used for rectification of AC signal to produce a positive half
wave output (b) Application of diodes in making logical OR and AND gates.

Example 1:

78
12.2 TRANSISTORS

Transistors are the core functional devices that make it possible to develop various electronic
systems. A transistor is a three- terminal devices and uses and can control both voltage and
current flow in a circuit. It is an example of an active element (active elements can control the
flow of electric energy).

Figure 12-7 Transistors family tree

A transistor operates in a way that it uses small voltage or current applied to one of its leads to
control a large current or voltage change in the other leads of the transistor. The transistor can
be used majorly as an electronic switch and an amplifier. There are two major classes of
transistors, namely, the bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and the field-effect transistors (FET).
This lesson will be focused on only the bipolar transistors (BJT).

12.2.1 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJT)

There are also two types of bipolar transistors (BJT) which are the PNP and the NPN. PNP is an
acronym for layers P-type: N-type : P-type while NPN stands for layers N-type: P-type : N-type.
The two bipolar junction transistors (BJT) variant can be used to accomplish the same results and
they also complement each other in various applications.

(b)
(a)
Figure 12-8 (a) BJT schematic symbol (b) mnemonics for recalling the transistor arrow direction.

12.2.2 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJT) CONSTRUCTION AND PINS

Transistor internal structure can be represented by using a p-n diode approximation. When we
compare the diode approximation model and the transistor symbol, we observe that the arrow
on the diode and that of the transistor circuit symbols are pointing outward in the same direction.

79
In the PNP, the arrow is seen pointing inward. The three leads of a transistor are base (B),
collector (C) and emitter (E). The direction of the diode in the base to emitter shows the direction
in which the current should flow in the transistor.

(b)
(a)
Figure 12-9 (a) BJT two-diode model (b) BJT water analogy showing base as the control lead.

An actual transistor has three layers made from the combination of n-type and p-type
semiconductor material given as layers P-type: N-type : P-type (PNP) and layers N-type: P-type :
N-type (NPN).

Figure 12-10 layers of and NPN and PNP Transistors

12.2.3 TRANSISTOR OPERATION

For explanation purposes, we will focus more on the operation of the NPN transistor. From the
knowledge of a p-n junction diode operation, we know that the forward bias occur when
electrons flow from the n-type material to the p-type material. In an actual transistor, electrons
can flow from the p-type region to the n-type region when the n-p diode in the base-emitter
region is forward biased. As the name goes, the emitter region is where the electrons are
“generated” while the electrons are “collected” in the collector region and a small part of the
electrons will flow through the base region. In terms of the conventional current flow, the small
base current flowing into the emitter acts as a control to make a large current flow in the emitter-
collector region.

80
 (a)

The current
relationship in the
npn and pnp
transistor is given as:

𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑪 + 𝑰𝑩

(b)

Figure 12-11 (a) Biasing the transistor showing layer structure (b) transistor biasing

12.2.4 DIFFERENT OPERATION MODES OF A TRANSISTOR

The name transistor is derived from the compound word, transfer of resistor. This means the
transistor operation can be considered as a non-linear (i.e. does not obey Ohm’s law) resistor
with the ability to control the current flowing from the collector to the emitter. The three main
operation modes describing how much current is flowing from the collector to the emitter of a
transistor are the cut-off, active and saturation modes.

 Cut-off mode: when the transistor is in the cut-off mode, it acts like an open circuit. This
means no current flows from the collector to the emitter and no current is flowing into
the base of the transistor.
In the cut-off region, the voltage relationship
between the collector, emitter and base is
given as:

𝑽𝑬 > 𝑽𝑩 and 𝑽𝑪 > 𝑽𝑩

Figure 12-12 Transistor in cut-off region

81
 Active mode: in the active mode, the transistor acts like a resistor and has a linear
characteristics. The change in the base current is directly proportional to the change in
current flowing from the collector to emitter of the transistor. This mode is used for
amplification design.
In the active region, the voltage
relationship between the collector,
emitter and base is given as:

𝑽𝑪 > 𝑽𝑩 > 𝑽𝑬

Figure 12-13 Transistor in active

region

 Saturation mode: when the transistor is in saturation, it acts like a short circuit. The base
current is so high and the maximum current flows from the collector to the emitter.
Change in base current is not proportional to changes in collector to emitter current.

In the saturation region, the voltage

relationship between the collector,
emitter and base is given as:

𝑽𝑬 < 𝑽𝑩 and 𝑽𝑪 < 𝑽𝑩

Figure 12-14 Transistor in saturation

region

Figure 12-15 Voltage, current and polarity distribution for operating the BJT

82
 Table 12-2 Summary of voltage relationship for all three regions
Applied Voltage B-E junction B-C junction Mode (NPN)
bias (NPN) bias (NPN)
E<B<C Forward Reverse Forward -active
E<B>C Forward Forward Saturation
E>B<C Reverse Reverse Cut-off
Applied Voltage B-E junction bias B-C junction bias Mode (PNP)
(PNP) (PNP)
E<B<C Reverse Forward Reverse -active
E<B>C Reverse Reverse Cut-off
E>B<C Forward Forward Saturation

12.3 TRANSISTOR PACKAGING TYPES

Below is a collection of various transistor packages you may come across;

TRANSISTOR SPECIFICATION AND DATA SHEET

83
Table 12-3 Transistor datasheets

84
85
86
 12.4 SIMPLE TRANSISTOR APPLICATIONS

The transistor can be used for two major ways in various applications namely; switch and
amplifier.

12.4.1 Transistor Switch: when a transistor is used as a switch, it will be operated in the cut-off
and the saturation mode. The transistor will be changing states between ON and OFF. The
transistor switch is entirely electronically controlled without any moving part or mechanism
within it. See the table below for the comparison between a transistor switch and a relay. The
small DC base current (𝐼𝐵 ) is related to the DC large collector current (𝐼𝐶 ) by a gain factor
represented by (𝛽 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝐹𝐸 ). It is the ratio of the collector DC current to the base DC current.

𝐼𝐶
𝛽𝐷𝐶 =
𝐼𝐵
For a good switch to be fully turned ON, the transistor minimum base current should be high
enough so that it will drive the transistor into saturation when powered. The base voltage should
be greater than the emitter voltage (base-emitter voltage, 𝑉𝐵𝐸 ) by about 0.6𝑉 for the transistor
to be turned ON, for an NPN while for the PNP, the base voltage should be less than the emitter
voltage by 0.6𝑉. The transistor switch can be used for the following applications; digital logic
circuit, H-bridge or DC motor control circuit, pulse oscillator and multivibrators.
Table 12-4 Transistor and relay switch
Example 2: comparison
Transistor Relay
Long-term Excellent Limited
reliability
Can switch in DP No Yes
or DT mode
Can switch large Limited Yes
currents
Can switch Usually Yes
alternating not
current
Trigger able by Usually Optional
alternating not
current
Suitable for Excellent Very
Miniaturization limited
Able to switch at Yes No
very high speed
Price advantage No Yes
for high
voltage/current
Price advantage Yes No
for high
voltage/current
Current leakage Yes No 87
when
nonconducting
Example 3:

88
12.4.2 Transistor as an Amplifier:

Transistor amplifier can be used to change the level or amplitude of a very small signal at it input,
for example 0.0001V to a voltage of about 100V at its output. When a transistor is used as an
amplifier, it is usually operated in the active region of the load line. The load line is a straight line
drawn on the I-V characteristics curve of a transistor, from the vertical axis (A) when collector
current is maximum and collector-emitter voltage is zero (𝐼𝐶(𝑚𝑎𝑥) 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0) to a point (B)
where the collector current is zero while the collector-emitter voltage is equal to the supply
voltage (𝐼𝐶 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 ) as shown below.

Figure 12-16
Transistor
characteristic
curves showing
all three regions
and the load line.

The transistor would have to be biased to a point (Q-point) on the load line where the collector
emitter voltage is about half the supply voltage connected to the collector. At the Q-point, when
1
a signal is sent into the transistor for amplification, it will have equal of 𝑉 swing for both
2 𝐶𝐶
positive and negative waveforms.
1
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 …………. Q-point
2

Amplifiers categorized into different class depending on the amount of an input signal that each
transistor can successfully amplify. The classes include Class A, Class B, Class AB, Class D e.t.c.
Amplifiers have found application in audio frequency, radio frequency, video amplification e.t.c.

12.4.3 Transistor Configurations

The transistor as we already know has three leads which can be arranged also in three different
ways when used as an amplifier. The three arrangements are called the configurations. For any
of the configurations chosen, one lead will serve as the common while the other two leads will

89
be connected such that, the input is connected to one lead and the common and the output is
taken from the other lead and the common. The three configuration modes are:

 Common Base (CB): when connected in the common base mode, the input signal is
supplied across the emitter and the base leads while the output is taken across the
collector and the base leads. The common base amplifier has voltage gain but no current
gain. The current amplification factor for the common base configuration is given as:
∆𝐼
𝛼 = 𝐶 …. Common Base current gain
∆𝐼𝐸

Figure 12-17 Common Base circuit

 Common Emitter (CE): in the common emitter mode, the input signal is feed across the
base and the emitter leads while the output signal is taken across the collector and the
emitter leads. This kind of amplifier exhibits both voltage and current gain. The output
signal is always inverted, that is 1800 out of phase with the input signal.
∆𝐼
𝛽 = 𝐶 …. Common Emitter current gain
∆𝐼𝐵

Figure 12-18 Common Emitter circuit

 Common Collector (CC): in the common collector mode, as called emitter follower, the
input signal is supplied across the base and the collector leads while the output is usually
take across the emitter and the collector leads. The emitter follower has current gain but
no voltage gain.

90
 Figure 12-19 Common
Collector circuit

Each of the three modes has their unique properties which include their input and output
impedances (Resistance when working with AC signals). A good amplifier would be desired to
have very high input impedance and very low output impedance. See the table below for the
impedance properties of the three configuration modes.
Table 12-5 Summary of transistor configuration properties
Transistor Common Base Common Collector Common Emitter
Configuration (Emitter Follower)
Voltage Gain High Low Medium
Current Gain Low High Medium
Power Gain Low Medium High
Input/Output 00 00 1800
Phase
Relationship
Input Resistance Low High Medium
Output High Low Medium
Resistance
Single Stage Transistor Amplifier

A simple single stage common emitter amplifier is shown below;

The following information holds for
the voltage gain (𝐴𝑉 ) of the single
stage common emitter (CE) transistor
amplifier;

𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑉 =
𝑟𝑒 + 𝑅𝐸

26𝑚𝐴
Where 𝑟𝑒 =
𝐼𝐸
Figure 12-20 Single stage transistor amplifiers with voltage gain

91
12.5 OTHER USEFUL TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS

 Current Source: a current source is a circuit for providing a constant current to a

connected load such that when the supply voltage or the load resistance change with a
specified ranges the amount of current flowing remains constant through the load.

Figure 12-21 Transistor current source with Zener diode base

bias

 Current Mirror: the current mirror is a very useful circuit for providing a programmable
current through one transistor which could then be replicated in any set of transistor
circuit connected in parallel with it.

Figure 12-22 Transistor current mirror

 Darlington Pair: this is an arrangement of two transistors where the emitter of one is
connected to the base of the other while their collectors joined together. It is usually used
to achieve high current gain. The resultant current gain from a Darlington pair is the
product of the current gain for both transistors.

Figure 12-23 Darlington pair

92
 Class B Push Pull: the push pull is a series arrangement of an NPN and a PNP transistor
such that their emitters are joined together. The two transistors are used as emitter
follower and usually used to achieve high power gain at the output stage of amplifiers.
The input signal is feed through the base of each transistor which is then split into two;
the positive half of the waveform is amplified by the NPN transistor while the negative
half of the waveform will be amplified by the PNP transistor. It is an example of a Class B
amplifier.

Figure 12-24 Push Pull amplifier output

stage

 Differential Amplifier: this kind of amplifier is a useful arrange of two transistors

connected in parallel with their collectors and emitters joined together. It is used for
amplifying difference in input signals sent to the base of each of the transistor. The output
from a differential amplifier can be taken from the collector of either of the transistors or
across the collector of both transistors. It is very useful for noise cancellation application
and inputs of amplifiers for high impedance.

Figure 12-25 Differential amplifier circuit

93
 SECTION TWO

EXPERIMENTS

94
 COMPONENTS PART LIST

Resistor
Jumper Light Emitting Diode

Red Yellow Blue Green White

Capacitor
9V Battery Battery Fuse
Connector

Potentiometer

95
 Rocker Switch
1.5 V Cell Press
button
Switch

Toggle Switch 12 V Relay (SPDT) PN Junction Zener

Diode Diode

Light Dependent Bipolar Junction Transistor

Resistor

Infrared LED
Thermistor Photo
diode

Buzzer

96
DC Motor Loud Speaker Audio
Jack
Socket

Audio Jack
Plug

Prototype Board (Breadboard)

Digital Multimeter

Alligator
Clips

97
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Page
1. How To Use The Breadboard……………………………………………………………………………..99
2. Setting Up A Multimeter……………………………………………………………………………………104
3. Measuring Voltage With A Multimeter………………………………………………………………108
4. Measuring Resistance With A Multimeter…………………………………………………………113
5. Measuring Continuity With A Multimeter………………………………………………………….115
6. Measuring Current With A Multimeter………………………………………………………………117
7. Lighting Up An Led…………………………………………………………………………………………….121
8. Resistors In Series………………………………………………………………………………………………125
9. Resistors In Parallel……………………………………………………………………………………………130
10. Working With The Potentiometers…………………………………………………………………….140
11. Potential Divider………………………………………………………………………………………………..143
12. LEDs In Series……………………………………………………………………………………………………..149
13. LEDs In Parallel…………………………………………………………………………………………………..154
14. Cells/Batteries In Series And Parallel………………………………………………………………….158
15. Working With Switches……………………………………………………………………………………….162
16. Working With Capacitors……………………………………………………………………………………172
17. Working With Relays………………………………………………………………………………………….179
18. Working With Diodes…………………………………………………………………………………….…..185
19. Working With Transistors……………………………………………………………………………………194
20. Transistor Logic Gates…………………………………………………………………………………………199
21. Transistor Switch With Relay………………………………………………………………………………206
22. Transistor Voltage Regulator………………………………………………………………………………211
23. Light Dimmer And Dc Motor Speed Control………………………………………..……………..216
24. Transistor Touch Switch………………………………………………………………………..……………221
25. Light Controlled Switch………………………………………………………………………….…………..225
26. Temperature Controlled Switch……………………………………………………………….…………230
27. Transistor Motion Detector……………………………………………………………………….……….238
28. Light Flasher……………………………………………………………………………………………….……..246
29. Simple Audio Amplifier………………………………………………………………………………….…..250
30. Transistor H-Bridge…………………………………………………………………………………………...256

98
EXPERIMENT 1: HOW TO USE THE BREADBOARD
AIM: To become familiar with the use of a breadboard and understand the breadboard
connection table used in this book.

MATERIALS:

 Breadboard (1)
 Jumper wires
 Battery connector (1)
 Alligator clips (2)

BACKGROUND:

Setting up a circuit on a breadboard could be done in variety of ways and things may get really
confusing at the beginning. We will identify the parts of the breadboard and some standard
conventional connection used in this book. The breadboard connection table will guide the user
on how and where to make connections on the breadboard using the alphabet, A to J and number
1 to 60 label on the breadboard. The power rails are represented with the alphabets W, X, Y and
Z starting from the top to the bottom. The legs of components will be label as A, B, C e.t.c
depending on the number of legs it has. The position of legs on the breadboard will be indicated
by an alpha-numeric set, the alphabet is for the horizontal trace and the number is for the vertical
trace e.g. A17, D20, H45 e.t.c. The legs will be placed where the traces meet on the breadboard.

PROCEDURE:

(A) Breadboard Familiarization

1. Identify the various parts as shown in the diagram below;

 8 horizontally connected terminals for power rails at top and bottom
 128 groups of 5 vertically connected terminals for components
 The middle Dual-In-Line (DIP) support for Integrated Circuit (IC) and other DIP
devices.
 The alphabet and number labels on the left, right, top and bottom of the vertically
connected terminal
 The interlocking grooves and extensions on the sides of the breadboard.
 Horizontally and vertically connected areas and where connections are broken.

99
 2. Take a battery connector and connect the red wire to W2 and the black wire to the Y2 of
the breadboard as shown bellow. The different possible connection modes can be learnt
at a later time as you become familiar with the use of a breadboard.

(B) Making a custom jumper wire

100
 1. You will need a solid core wire that can fit easily into the breadboard slot as the once
provided in your kit.
2. Using a cutter cut the wire to your desired length and consider adding an extra length
which will be stripped at both ends.
3. Now, gently hold the wire in place with a plier and then softly use the cutter to strip off
the insulation on the conductor at both ends. A length of between 5mm to 7mm will be
ideal for your breadboard use. OR
4. If you have a wire stripper, then insert the wire into the right groove on the stripper and
gently remove wire insulation of the appropriate length at both ends

The piece of wire was inserted

between the cutting edges
and gently pressed to pull off
the insulation.

(C) Understanding the Breadboard Connection Table

1. Make a connection of the four jumper wires using the connection table and observe the
position as shown in the breadboard diagram below;
 Component name and value: contains the information of the component description
 Component image and label: gives the pictorial identification of component
 Connection Description: summary of what the connection will achieve when correctly
done
 Breadboard connection: gives the information of the exact location of each
component’s leg on the breadboard using the alpha-numeric traces.
 Notes: contains extra information and note for making connection

101
 Component Component Connection Breadboard Notes
name and image and label Description connection
value

Battery Simple Red(+)=> W3 1. Power Rail are

connector connection Black(-)=> Y3 represented by
(9V Clip) of jumper alphabets W, X, Y
Jumper wire 1 wires and the J1(A) =>W8 and Z starting from
and the the top power rail to
J1(B) =>C9
battery the bottom.
Jumper wire 2 J2(A) =>D9
connector on 2. Ensure that the
the J2(B) =>D19 breadboard is
Jumper wire 3 breadboard. J3(A) =>E19 positioned so that
J3(B) =>H25 the numbers and the
Jumper wire 4 J4(A) => I 25 alphabets are not
J4(B) =>Y21 upside down.

NOTE1: The different jumper colours used in the connection table and breadboard setup
were chosen to allow for easy recognition of jumper. For your setup on the breadboard, any
of the jumper wire colour could be used; it does not affect the performance of the circuit.
NOTE2: The wire colours RED and BLACK are usually reserved for the power connection
only.

red

102
FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. If you have access to another breadboard around you, then, extend the area of the
breadboard by joining them together using the interlocking groove and extension
provided.
2. Read more about the different methods of making power connection of the breadboard.

103
EXPERIMENT 2: SETING UP A MULTIMETER
AIM:
To become familiar with the use of a digital multimeter and how to replace multimeter battery
and fuse.

MATERIALS:
 Digital Multimeter (1)
 Multimeter leads (2)
 9V Battery pack (1)
 Cartridge Fuse (1)
 Alligator clips pair (2)

BACKGROUND:

The multimeter is a very useful tool for testing components and making measurements of
voltage, current, resistance, continuity e.t.c. it is also very useful for troubleshooting electric
circuits. For this experiment, we will be using a three-port multimeter namely; COM, VΩmA and
10ADC. The COM is always fixed while the other two are used depending on the amount of
current to be measured. Proper selection of port is important when using a multimeter. When
the battery inside the multimeter is low, a battery symbol (symbol in here) will be displayed on
its screen, indicating a need for battery replacement. Also, when a current higher than 200mA is
measured while using the 200mA range, the multimeter fuse may be blown. When the fuse gets
blown, it should be replaced with a fuse having the same rating as the blown fuse.

PROCEDURE:

1. Identify the various parts of the multimeter shown in the diagram below.

104
 2. Using the table below identify symbols and objects on the multimeter, meanings and their
application.

s/n Symbol Meaning Application

1. DCV or DC Voltmeter For measuring DC voltage
2. AC Voltmeter For measuring AC voltage
ACV or
3. DCA or DC Ammeter For measuring DC current
4. 10ADC or 10 10A DC Ammeter For maximum 10 ampere current
5. hFE Transistor Tester For identification transistor pins
6. Continuity Tester For testing for continuity
7. Diode Tester For testing a diode status and pin
8. Ω Ohmmeter For measuring resistance values
9. Negative Reading Polarity reversal in measurements
10. HV High Voltage Identification of high voltage
measurements and safety in use.
11. COM Common Port Black lead plug-in port
12. VΩmA Volt-Ohm-miliampere Red lead plug-in port for measuring
voltage, resistance and maximum
current of 0.2A (200mA)
13. OFF Power Off Turning off the multimeter
14. m −3
milli (1× 10 ) Multiply your multimeter display by
the milli (0.001)
15. k 3
Kilo (1× 10 ) Multiply your multimeter display by
the kilo (1000)
16. μ micro (1× 10 )−6 Multiply your multimeter display by
the micro (0.000001)
17. Danger and Caution Danger of high voltage and caution
and warnings. Observe safety rules at all
times.
18. Low Battery Low battery display
19. Square Wave Injector Low power signal source/ generator
20. 10A 10 Ampere Port Port for 10 ampere current
21. Fuse Multimeter fuse Over current protection fuse for the
multimeter
22. Buzzer Beeper or Tone output Makes sound when multimeter is
used for continuity testing
23 Battery Multimeter battery Powers the multimeter
24 Printed Circuit Multimeter circuit Assembly board for components and
Board connection board circuit to make that make the
multimeter

105
3. Plug the black lead into the COM port and the red lead into the VΩmA port on the
multimeter.
Note: The multimeter leads will be expected to be connected as stated using
procedure (3) for the rest of this book, unless otherwise stated.
4. Clamp the one alligator clip on the red multimeter probe and another alligator clip on the
black multimeter probe. Always use the alligator clips whenever you need to make a
measurement while you require holding the probes firmly connected to a component or the
measured point.

5. To replace the battery;

(a) Switch OFF the multimeter, unplug the leads from the ports and unscrew the back of
the multimeter with a small star screw driver.
(b) Locate the 9V battery and disconnect it from the battery connector.
(c) Replace the battery by connecting a new 9V battery to the battery connector.
(d)Cover the multimeter as you replace the screw and then switch it ON.
6. To replace the fuse

106
 7. (a) Repeat step 5 (a), locate the fuse and gently lift it out of the fuse holder to remove it.
(b)Now replace it with the same kind of fuse having the same rating as the blown one (the
multimeter fuse is 500mA rating) and repeat step 5 (d). It’s that simple!

NOTE: the multimeter can still be used to measure Do not replace a fuse
voltage, resistance and continuity even when the fuse is with another fuse having
blow but will not give reading for current measurement. a different fuse rating.

NOTE: Always remember to switch off you multimeter after using it so that it does not drain
the battery when left ON for a long period of time. Once the battery is low you will see the
low battery symbol on the screen.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Get more information about various other testing equipments used for electronics
systems.
2. Learn about the block diagram of a digital multimeter and their functions.

107
EXPERIMENT 3: MEASURING VOLTAGE WITH A MULTIMETER
AIM:

To measure the voltage of a DC power source and the voltage across two points in a circuit.

MATERIALS:

 Digital multimeter (1)

 9 V Battery (1)
 9V Battery connector (1)
 Resistor: 120kΩ (1), 330kΩ (1), 1MΩ (2)
 Breadboard (1)
 Alligator clip pair (2)
 Jumper wires

BACKGROUND

In order to measure the voltage of a DC power supply, we need to place the dial at the DCV
section and select the appropriate range for the measurement. The range to be selected will
depend on the amount of voltage to be measured, but amount of voltage is not known, it is safe
to select the highest range on the multimeter. Voltage is measured by placing the multimeter in
parallel across the components or points of interest within a circuit. The measurement displayed
on the multimeter screen will inform us if the correct range and polarity was used.

PROCEDURE:

(A) Measuring the Voltage of A 9V Battery

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port.
2. Rotate the dial to the DCV or section and place it on the 20V range. We will only work
with DC voltages in this book.
WARNING: Do not measure AC voltage without proper understanding and
guidance to avoid the risk of shock, burn or electrocution.

3. Identify the polarity of the battery printed on its sides as; positive (+) and negative (-).

108
4. Now, place the black probe of the multimeter on the negative (-) terminal of the battery
and the red probe on the positive (+) terminal of the battery. The multimeter should now
give a reading of the battery voltage on its screen. OR Using an alligator clip, attach one
end of the black clip to the black multimeter probe and red clip to red multimeter probe.
Now attach the other end to the terminals of the battery; black to negative (-) and red to
positive (+).
Make sure the probes of the multimeter are not touching when connected to
the battery. If this happen, it could lead to a short circuit of the battery.

5. Negative Reading; interchange the probes of the multimeter such that the red is on the
battery negative terminal (-) and the black probe on the positive terminal. This will display
a negative reading on the screen.

6. Range too high; set the range to 1000V and observe the reading on the screen. Your
reading may not be so accurate and it will have leading zero(s) in front it. It is best to have
some decimal points without leading zeros when taking measurement. To have a better
reading, then select a lower range, 20V in this case.

109
 7. Range too low; set the range to 2V and observe the reading on the screen. You should see
a 1 (some meters show OL) indicating an overload or out of range reading. For voltage
reading, the meter will not be damaged by this. To get a better reading, then select a
higher range, 20V in this case.

NOTE: Always ensure to take note of the metric conversion of the selected range when
measuring. For a range of 2000m, it means that any reading displayed on the multimeter
screen has to be multiplied by the metric “m” which is 10-3 or 0.001. Refer to the table
in experiment 2 for other metric units on the multimeter.
Voltmeter Range Measurable Values
(Volt) (Volt)
200m 0V to 0.199V
2000m 0V to 1.999V
20 0V to 19.99V
200 0V to 199.9V
1000 0V to 999V

(B) Measuring Voltage in a Circuit

1. Using the connection table below, set up the circuit shown above.

110
Component Component Connection Breadboard Further notes
Name and Value image and label Description Connection

Jumper wire 1 The multimeter J1(A) => W9 Alligator clip

is required to be J1(B) => A10 could be
Resistor1: 120kΩ connected in R1(A) => B10 attached to the
Brown, Red, Yellow parallel across R1(B) => F15 probes of the
Resistor2: 330kΩ the point to be R2(A) => G15 multimeter.
Orange, Orange, measured when R2(B) => I 23 Resistors have
Yellow measuring no polarity,
Jumper wire 2 voltage. J2(A) => J23 therefore any
J2(B) => Y19 of the leads
Battery connector Red(+) => W3 can be made A
Black (-)=> Y3 or B.
2. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port.
Move the dial of the selector to the voltage section (DCV or ) and place it on the 20V
range.

NOTE: The 9V battery and its connector will be referred to altogether as the 9V battery pack
for the rest of the book.
3. Interchange the leads of the multimeter and observe the negative sign of the readings.
4. Change the range of the multimeter to a higher and lower value for each of the done
above and observe the reading as explained in procedures A(6) and A(7) of this
experiment.

111
FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Replace the resistors in the circuit; R1 and R2 = 1M (Brown , Black, Green) and measure
the voltage across each resistor.

112
EXPERIMENT 4: MEASURING RESISTANCE WITH A MULTIMETER
AIM:

To understand how to measure the resistance with a multimeter

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Alligator clip pair (2)
 Resistor: 12Ω(1), 220Ω(1), 5.6kΩ, 100kΩ, 1 MΩ

BACKGROUND: Measuring
the resistance of a resistor with a multimeter gives a more accurate value of the resistance
because the color codes usually have to tolerance band which tell us the range between
which the resistance should be. A resistor with colour code value of 1000Ω and 5% tolerance
for example will usually have it resistance value between 950Ω and 1050Ω when measured
with a multimeter. It is important to isolate the particular resistor you want to measure unless
you want to measure the resistance of the entire circuit. The display on the multimeter will
usually indicate if the correct range has been selected or to change to a higher or lower one.

WARNING: Ensure no current is flowing in the circuit or component when you want
to measure resistance. Switch off all power supply, remove power plug from the
socket and remove any battery connected.

PROCEDURE:

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port.
2. Set up the multimeter to the resistance (Ω) section and point the selector to the 200Ω
range.
Ohmmeter Measurable
Range (Ohm) Values
(Ohm)
200 0Ω to 199Ω
2000 0Ω to 1999Ω
20k 0Ω to 19,999 Ω
200k 0Ω to 199,999Ω
2000k 0Ω to 1,999,999 Ω
3. Place your 12Ω resistor on an insulated plane surface and then touch the two ends of the
resistor with the multimeter probes OR attach alligator clips to the probes of the
multimeter and then attach the other ends to the resistor legs.

NOTE: The resistors have no polarity (+ or -) and so, the multimeter probes can be connected in
any order to the resistor legs.
113
 4. Now change the range of your multimeter to a higher range and then to a lower range.
 Range too high: when the selected range for measuring the resistance is too high,
you will get a reading of almost zero displaying on the multimeter screen. To get
a better reading, turn the selector to a lower range until a value is displayed.
 Range too low: when the range is too low, the multimeter will display either a 1
or OL (Over load) on the screen. The two possibilities for show a 1 or OL are;
i. When the resistance value is too high for the selected range. At this point,
what you need to do is to turn the selector to a higher range to get a better
reading.
ii. When there is an open circuit. Since an open circuit has an infinite
resistance, you will always get the reading of 1 or OL for any selected range
on your multimeter.
NOTE: Always ensure to take note of the metric conversion of the selected range
when measuring. For a range of 20k, it means that any reading displayed on the
multimeter screen has to be multiplied by the metric “k” which is 10 3 or 1000. Refer
to procedure 2 of experiment 2 for other metric units.
5. Compare your reading with the colour code values of the resistors (refer to component
list at the beginning of section two.
6. Repeat the procedure 3 to 5 for each of the resistors listed in the material section of this
experiment.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.

114
EXPERIMENT 5: MEASURING CONTINUITY WITH A MULTIMETER

AIM:

To understand how to use the multimeter to test for continuity (Open circuit and Closed circuit)

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Alligator clip pair (2)
 Breadboard (1)
 Jumper wire wires
 Cartridge Fuse (1)

BACKGROUND:

Continuity test is usually carried out to know if two points are electrically connected. It provides
for a quick way of checking if a connection has been correctly done and so determine if current
will flow or not. It is also very useful for troubleshooting wrong connections in a circuit or
network. If there is continuity between two points, the resistance between the points will usually
be very low since the resistance measured is that of the conductor connecting. Recall that the
resistances of conductors used for wires and cable are made of metals of very low resistances.
With the aid of the multimeter, once a continuity exits between two points you should hear a
tone or beep. If no tone or beep is heard, then that could mean a very high resistance or an open
circuit in the circuit path.

WARNING: Ensure no current is flowing in the circuit or component when you want to
test for continuity. Switch off all power supply, remove power plug from the socket
and remove any battery connected.

PROCEDURE:

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port.
2. Turn the selector knob to the continuity tester indicated by the sound wave icon ( ).
3. Now touch the two multimeter probes against each other and you should get a beep if
corrected done. Your multimeter will display a zero on its screen meaning no resistance
is measured.

115
 4. With the multimeter at the continuity tester, check for continuity for each of the following
;
i. Jumper wires
ii. Alligator clip
iii. Fuse
5. Now check the continuity on you breadboard to know the connected slots. Pick up jumper
wires and insert them into the breadboard as follows;
i. Horizontal slots: insert the jumper wires same rows of the four horizontal slot
namely W, X, Y and Z respectively and check for continuity. Also do this for the
adjacent horizontal rows.
ii. Vertical slots: now insert the jumper wires to the vertical slots, some to the same
column and other to adjacent column and check for continuity. Do these for the
entire board as you get familiar with making connections.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Check for the continuity of a cable by joining on end and testing the other end.
5. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

116
EXPERIMENT 6: MEASURING CURRENT WITH A MULTIMETER

AIM:

To understand how to use the multimeter to measure the current flowing in a DC circuit

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Alligator clip pair (2)
 Breadboard (1)
 Jumper wire
 9V battery pack (1)
 Resistors: 1kΩ (1), 560Ω (1), 1.5kΩ (1), 3.3kΩ (1)

BACKGROUND:

Current measurement requires a little more attention. The proper range must be selected. A
wrong range selection could lead to blowing the fuse. Also, a break will have to be made in the
circuit path. The multimeter must be connected in series so that current can flow through it when
measuring current. It is also very important to know that unlike voltage measurement where the
multimeter can be connected directly to the battery without a load (or a resistor), for current
measurement on the other hand; there MUST be a load connected in series with the multimeter
and the battery. A series resistor will help to limit the current flowing through the circuit which
also flows through the multimeter. For current values of less that 200mA (or 0.2A) the red
multimeter lead should be plugged to the VΩmA port while for a maximum of 10A current it
should be plugged to the 10ADC port.

PROCEDURE:

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port.
2. Move the dial of the selector to the current section (DCA or ) and place it on the
20mA range.
3. Connect the alligator clips to the probes of the multimeter
4. Set up the circuit below on you breadboard using the connection table shown below.

117
 Ammeter Range Measurable Values
(Ampere) (Ampere)
2000μ 0A to 0.002A
20m 0A to 0.019A
200m 0A to 0.190A
10 0A to 9.99A

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and and Label and Description Connection
Value Label
Jumper wire1 The J1(A) => X9 “Long”
(Long) multimeter is J1(B)=> means a
required to be Alligator Clip longer
Jumper wire2 connected in J2(A) => F15 length of
(Long) J2(B)=> jumper
series with the
Alligator Clip wire will
device through
Resistor1: 1kΩ R1(A) => H15 be ideal for
Brown, Black, Red which current R1(B) => H22 the
is flowing J3(A) => I 22
Jumper wire3 conection.
when J3(B) => Z18
measuring
Battery voltage. Red(+) => X3
Connector Black (-)=> Z3

118
5. Interchange the probe of the multimeter to get a negative reading.
 Negative reading: as with voltage measurement, it is possible to have negative
reading with current measurement. This indicates that current is actually
flowing in the opposite direction. A positive reading means that current is
flowing through the red probe connected to the VΩmA port, through the
multimeter and out through the black probe connected to the COM port.
6. Now change the selector of the multimeter to a higher range and then to a lower range.

 Range too high: if th erange of the multimeter is too high for the current
reading, its reading will display some leading zeros before the digits. To get a
better reading, change the dial to lower ranges.
 Range to low: when the range is too low for the current to be measured, it will
usually show a 1 or OL(Over Load). The two possible for this could be;
i. If the reading is 1 or OL and the current measured is lesss than 200mA,
then change the dial to a higher range to get a reading.

119
 ii. If the range is already at the 200mA range and the reading is a 1 or OL,
then it mean the measurement is to be done with the 10A DC for a
maximum current of 10A flowing. You may need to replace the fuse if it
is already blown by the overload measurement.
7. Replace the 1kΩ resistor and replace it with other resistor values listed in the material
section of this experiment and repeat procedure 5 to 6 for each of them.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Using the Ohm’s law,
𝑉 = 𝐼R where 𝑉 − the battery voltage.
𝐼 – current flowing in the circuit
𝑅 − Resistance of the resistor
which can be rearranged as;
𝑉
𝐼 = , calculate the current flowing through the circuit
𝑅
and compare it with the multimeter reading.
5. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

120
EXPERIMENT 7: LIGHTING UP AN LED
AIM:

To understand how to work with an LED and how to vary the brightness with a resistor

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 Jumper wires
 9V battery pack (1)
 Resistors: 5.6kΩ (1), 10kΩ (1), 15kΩ (1)
 LED: Red (1), Yellow (1), Green (1), White (1) , blue (1)

BACKGROUND:

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a kind of diode which gives visible radiation of different colors
when powered. It is a non-ohmic device, that is, it does not obey Ohm’s law just like a resistor. it
has two legs which are labeled anode (A) and cathode (K) respectively. For the LED to give light,
then the anode must be made more positive than the cathode by amount of voltage called the
forward voltage (𝑉𝐹 ). A series resistor will be connected to the LED to limit the maximum current
through it, called the forward current, (𝐼𝐹 ). The forward voltage and the maximum current are
usually give by the manufacturers in the datasheet. The value of the resistor can be calculated
using Ohm’s law. A typical LED will have the anode leg longer than the cathode leg but if in doubt
of the identification, a multimeter can be very handy in check for the legs.

PROCEDURE:

(A) Determine the Anode And Cathode Of An LED

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port
and turn the selector to the diode tester ( ).
2. Connect the red probe to one of the legs and the black to the other leg. If no light comes
up on the LED then interchange the probe. (The anode leg is usually longer than the
cathode).
3. Once the LED give light with the probe connected, then the leg connected to the red lead
is the anode (A) while the one connected to the black will be the cathode (K).
4. Use a small tape or piece of paper to mark the anode leg.

121
NOTE: If the LED does not give a light when the multimeter probe is connected in either ways,
then, this could mean that the LED is damaged and should be replaced.

Lens Colour Forward Voltage Forward Current

Typical Maximum Typical Maximum

RED 1.6Volts 2.0Volts 0.010Amp 0.020Amp
GREEN 2.2Volts 3.0Volts 0.010Amp 0.020Amp
YELLOW 2.2Volts 3.0Volts 0.010Amp 0.020Amp
“Blue” 3.8Volts 4.5Volts 0.020Amp 0.020Amp
(Note)
WHITE 3.2-3.6Volts 3.8Volts 0.010Amp 0.020Amp

NOTE 1: The above Voltage and Current ratings are based on several everyday generic LEDS in
the 3mm and 5mm ranges.
NOTE 2: Blue colour LEDS may typically have forward working voltages exceeding those used
in the above example. Forward working voltages for some Blue colour LEDS may also fall in
the 4.9 to 5.5Volt range.

(B) Connecting The LED In A Circuit

1. Set up the circuit below on your breadboard using the connection table below.

122
 Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => W11 The anode
J1(B) => B13 leg of the
Resistor1: 10k Ω R1(A) => D13 LED is
(Brown, Black, R1(B) => D22 usually
Orange)
longer
LED1 LED1(A) =>E22 than that
LED1(K) =>F22 of the
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => H22 cathode
J2(B) => Y19 from the
Battery Red(+) => W3 manufactu
Connector Black (-)=> Y3 rer.

2. Remove the 10kΩ resistor and replace it with the 5.6kΩ and 15kΩ resistors and observe
the brightness of the LED.
3. Replace the LED with other colors listed in the materials section of this experiment.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.

123
4. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port.
5. Move the dial of the selector to the voltage section (DCV or ) and place it on the 20V
range.
6. Measure the voltage across the LED, that is, connect the red probe of the multimeter to
the anode and the black probe to the cathode respectively. (Refer to experiment 3 for
more assistance).
7. Using the equation below, calculate the current flowing through the LED;

𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 − 𝐿𝐸𝐷 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝐼𝐿𝐸𝐷 =
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟

8. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port.
9. Move the dial of the selector to the current section (DCA or ) and place it on the
20mA range.
10. Then, measure the current flowing through the circuit and compare it with your
calculated value.
11. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

124
EXPERIMENT 8: RESISTORS IN SERIES

AIM:

To learn how to construct resistors in series on a breadboard and understand the feature of a
series circuit

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 Jumper wires
 Alligator clip pair (2)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Resistors: 1kΩ (1), 5.6kΩ (1), 10kΩ (1)

BACKGROUND:

When there is more than one resistor in a circuit, they can be arranged in either series or parallel
connection. A series connection is an end-to-end arrangement which allows the same current to
flow through the network while the applied voltage will be divided across the resistances in
series. The total resistance for three series connected resistors will be the sum of the individual
resistance connected, given by the equation;

𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 EQUAVALENT OF TWO RESISTANCES IN SERIES

PROCEDURE:

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port.
2. Move the selector to the Ohms section (Ω) and place it on the 20kΩ range.
3. Set up the circuit below using the connection table;

125
Component Component Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Image and Description Connection
Value Label
Resistor1: 1k Ω Make R1(A) => B2 There is no
(Brown, Black, Red) connections as R1(B) => C10 power
Resistor2: indicated in the R2(A) => D10 connection
5.6kΩ breadboard R2(B) => F18 done yet. It
(Green, Blue, Red) connection will be
Resistor3: column. R3(A) => G18 introduced
10k Ω R3(B) => H26 later in the
(Brown, Black, experiment.
Orange)

i. Measure the resistance of each of the resistors in series on the breadboard and record it
in the table below
s/n Resistor Measured Resistances Measured voltages
1 R1
2 R2
3 R3
4 Total
Measured

ii. Now measure the total resistance of the series connected resistors and record in the table
above.

126
4. Complete the circuit above using the connection table below for the addition of power
supply;

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Jumper1 Make J1(A) => X2 This table is
connections as J1(B) => A2 an addition
Jumper2 indicated in J2(A) => I 26 to the
the J2(B) => Z22 previous
Battery breadboard Red (+)=> X1 table setup.
Connector connection Black (-)=>
column. Z2

127
5. Move the dial of the selector to the voltage section (DCV or ) and place it on the 20V
range. Then measure the voltage across each of the resistors and record in the table
above.
NOTE: For a series arrangement, the sum of the individual voltage drop across the
resistances in series will be equal to the applied voltage (battery voltage) of the circuit.
This is given by the equation;
𝑽𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑

6. Set up the circuit shown below to measure the current flowing through the circuit and
compare with a calculated value; Move the dial of the selector to the current section (DCA
or ) and place it on the 20mA range.

NOTE: For a series arrangement, the same amount of current will flow through all
the connected resistances.

Component Component Connection Breadboard Note

Name and Image and Label Description Connection
Value
Jumper wire3 Jumper 2 J1(A) => I 26 Make
should be J1(B) => Red adjustment to
removed Alligator Clip the setup
Jumper4 before J2(A) => Black done in the
making this Alligator Clip
previous table.
adjustment. J2(B) => Z23
Battery Red(+) => X1
Connector Black (-)=> Z2

128
 7. Compare your current measured with the calculated value given by Ohm’s law as,

𝑉(𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)

𝐼=
𝑅(𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠)

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.
5. Confirm that Ohm’s laws hold for the circuit by multiplying the current by each of the
resistances.
i. 𝑉𝑅1 = 𝐼 × 𝑅1
ii. 𝑉𝑅2 = 𝐼 × 𝑅2
iii. 𝑉𝑅3 = 𝐼 × 𝑅3

129
EXPERIMENT 9: RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

AIM:

To learn how to construct resistors in parallel on a breadboard and understand the feature of a
parallel circuit

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 Jumper wires
 Alligator clip pair (2)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Resistors: 5.6kΩ (1), 10kΩ (1)

BACKGROUND:

The parallel connection has a ladder model in which there are two main supports which are then
connected with branches in between. The two main supports are the positive and negative supply
(or live and neutral) while the branches are the connected load (or resistances). The same voltage
will be across each of the loads and only the needed current for each load will flows through the
branches. The parallel connection is usually used for various types of domestic and industrial
electrical installations. The total resistance in an arrangement of resistors connected in parallel
for two resistors is usually smaller and given by the equation;

1 1 1
𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿
=𝑅 + 𝑅2
… EQUVALENT FOR TWO RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL
1

PROCEDURE:

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port.
2. Move the selector to the Ohms section (Ω) and place it on the 20kΩ range.
3. Set up the circuit below using the connection table given and then measure the resistance
of each of the resistors. Record your result in the table below.

130
Component Component Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Image and Description Connection
Value Label
Resistor1: R1(A) => C10 There is no
5.6kΩ R1(B) => H10 power
Green, Blue, Red connection
Resistor2: R2(A) => C20 done yet.
10k Ω R2(B) => H20
Brown, Black,
Orange

131
s/n Resistor Measured Resistances Measured current
1 R1
2 R2
3 Total
Measured

4. Use the connection table below, complete the circuit above to connect the two resistors
in parallel and measure the total resistance. Record your results in the table above.

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => B10 This table is an
J1(B) => B20 addition to the
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => I 10 previous table
J2(B) => I 20 setup.

132
 5. Connect the power supply to the network by using the additional connection table below;

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Jumper wire3 Make J3(A) => X9 Further
connections as J3(B) => A10 addition to the
Jumper wire4 indicated in the J4(A) => J10 other
breadboard J4(B) => Y9 connections
Battery connection Red (+)=> X3 already made
Connector column. Black (-)=> Y3 on the
breadboard.

133
 6. Move the dial of the selector to the voltage section (DCV or ) and place it on the 20V
range. Then measure the voltage across each of the resistors. (The voltage should be the
same as the applied voltage)
7. Move the dial of the selector to the current section (DCA or ) and place it on the
20mA range.
8. Set up the circuit below to be able to measure the current flowing through each of the
resistors and the total current in the circuit. Use the connection table below.
i. Current through the 5.6kΩ resistor. Record your result in the given table above.

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Resistor1: Slight changes R1(A) => C5 Make
5.6k Ω done to the R1(B) => H10 adjustment to
Green, Blue, Red position of the the
Jumper wire5 components. J5(A) => C10 arrangement
J5(B) => Alligator
Clip
on the
Jumper wire6 J6(A) => B5 breadboard
J6(B) => Alligator with this table.
Clip
Battery Red (+)=> X3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

134
ii. Current through the 10 kΩ resistor. Record your result in the given table above.

135
Component Component Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value Image and Label Description Connection
Resistor1: 5.6k Ω Slight changes R1(A) => C10 Make
Green, Blue, Red done to the R1(B) => H10 adjustment to
Resistor2:10k Ω position of the R2(A) => D24 the
Brown, Black, Orange components. R2(B) => H20 arrangement
Jumper wire5 J5(A) => C20 on the
(Long) J5(B)=> breadboard
Alligator Clip
with this table
Jumper wire6 J6(A) => C24
(Long) J6(B)=>
Alligator Clip
Battery Red(+) => X3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

136
 iii. Sum of current through the 5.6 kΩ and 10 kΩ resistor. Record your result in the
given table above.

Component Component Connection Breadboard Note

Name and Value Image and Label Description Connection
Resistor2: 10k Ω Jumper 3 should R2(A) => C20 Make
Brown, Black, Orange be removed R2(B) => H20 adjustment to
Jumper wire5 before making J5(A) => X9 the
(Long) this adjustment. J5(B) => arrangement on
Alligator Clip the breadboard
Jumper wire6 J6(A) => A10 with this table
(Long) J6(B) =>
Alligator Clip
Battery Red(+) => X3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

NOTE: The sum of current through the individual resistor should be equal to the total current
flowing through the circuit. This is given by the equation;
𝑰𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐

137
FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
1. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.
2. Calculate the total resistance with the equation and compare with your measured value;
𝑅1×𝑅2
𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 =
𝑅1+𝑅2
3. Calculate the total current with the equation and compare with your measured value;
𝑉𝑆𝑈𝑃𝑃𝐿𝑌
𝐼𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 =
𝑅𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿
4. Make a series-parallel connection of the circuit given below and measure the voltage and
current of the resistors in the circuit.

138
139
EXPERIMENT 10: WORKING WITH THE POTENTIOMETERS

AIM:

To understand how a potentiometer works and how to use it in vary current in a circuit

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 Jumper wires
 Alligator clip pair (2)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Resistors: 10kΩ (1)
 Potentiometer: 100kΩ (1)
 LED: Red (1), Yellow (1), Green (1), White (1) , blue (1)

BACKGROUND:

The potentiometer (also called “Pot”) is a variable resistor that can be used to smoothly vary
resistance without disconnecting the circuit. It has three legs and the resistance value is usually
written on its body. The middle leg is used to tap the resistance in between while the other two
legs maintain a fixed resistance (that is, the resistance printed on it) across them. The resistance
can be varied from zero to the maximum value printed on its body. When the middle leg is
connected to any of the other two legs so that it now has two legs, it is used as a rheostat. When
the three legs are used separately, it is used as a potential divider.

PROCEDURE:

(A)Testing the Potentiometer

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port.
Move the selector to the Ohms section (Ω) and place it on the 200kΩ range.
2. Attach one end of one alligator clip to the red probe and another alligator clip to the black
probe of your multimeter.
3. Connect the other end of the alligator clip attached to the black probe of the multimeter
to the middle leg of the potentiometer and the other alligator clip to the first legs.

140
 4. Gently rotate the shaft of the potentiometer clockwise and them anticlockwise and
observe the reading on your multimeter.
5. Remove the red probe alligator clip and attach it to the third leg of the potentiometer and
observe the reading on the multimeter.

(B) Using a Potentiometer as a Rheostat

1. Set up the circuit below to connect a potentiometer to vary the brightness of and LED,
using the connection table below;

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Jumper wire1 Make J1(A)=> W9
connections J1(B) => B10
Resistor1: 1k Ω as indicated in R1(A) => C10
Brown, Black, Red the R1(B) => C17
Resistor2:100k Ω breadboard R2(A) => D17
Potentiometer connection R2(B) => E17
column. R2(C) => G20
LED1 LED1(A)=>I 20
LED1(K)=>Z17

141
 Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black(-) => Z3

2. Rotate the shaft of the potentiometer clockwise and anticlockwise to vary its resistance
and observe how it makes the LED glow bright and dim.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.
5. Catch some fun by using different colour of LEDs in the circuit set up.

142
EXPERIMENT 11: POTENTIAL DIVIDER
AIM:

To understand how a potential divider works and the different ways of making a potential divider

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Resistors: 560Ω (1), 1kΩ (2), 3.3kΩ (1)
 Potentiometer: 100kΩ (1)
 LED: Red (1), Yellow (1), Green (1), White (1) , blue (1)

BACKGROUND:

A potential divider (or voltage divider) is a useful circuit which finds application in area where low
voltage is required from a high voltage supply. The main components are resistors which are
connected in series so that the voltage across each resistor with respect to a reference point in
the circuit is lower than the supply voltage given since the supply voltage in a series connection
is divided proportionately across the resistor in relation to their resistances. That is, the larger
resistances in a series connection has a higher voltage drop while smaller resistances will have a
smaller voltage drop across them. The reference point in a circuit can be place at different nodes
and will usually be indicated with the ground. The equation to determine the voltage across
individual resistances in a two resistor series circuit is given by;

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑅1 = (𝑅 ) 𝑉𝑆𝑈𝑃𝑃𝐿𝑌 and 𝑉𝑅2 = (𝑅 ) 𝑉𝑆𝑈𝑃𝑃𝐿𝑌
1 + 𝑅2 1 + 𝑅2

PROCEDURE:

(A) Potential Divider Using Fixed Resistors

5. Set up the potential divider circuit shown below using the breadboard connection table.

143
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Resistor1: 1k Ω Make R1(A) => W12
Brown, Black, Red connections as R1(B) => C14
Resistor2: 560Ω indicated in R2(A) => D14
Green, Blue, Brown the breadboard R2(B) => I 14
Jumper wire1 connection J1(A) => J14
column. J1(B) => Z12
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => E14
J2(B) => G20
LED1 LED1(A)=> J20
LED1(K)=>Z17
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Z3

144
NOTE: The reference point (or ground) is placed at the point C in the circuit above, so that the
output voltage (V2) is taken across resistor R2 from point B to the ground.
6. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port.
Move the dial of the selector to the voltage section (DCV or ) and place it on the 20V
range.
7. Measure the voltage across each of the resistor with respect to the reference point C. The
black probe will be kept stationary at the point C, when making the voltage measurement.

NOTE: Using the voltage divider, we have successfully reduced the supply voltage to a smaller
voltage value taken across resistor (R2) which can be used to power the LED without damaging
it.

(B) Using A Potential Divider To Create Positive And Negative Voltages From A Single Source
1. Replace the resistor R2 in the circuit of PART A of this experiment as shown below.

145
 2. With your multimeter set to measure voltage as before, place the black probe at point
B and the red probe at point A and observe the positive voltage output.
3. Now, with the black probe still at point B, place the red probe at point C and observe
the negative voltage output.

NOTE: The voltage reading should give you +4.5V and -4.5V respectively.

(C) Potential Divider Using a Potentiometer

1. Set up the potential divider circuit shown below using the breadboard connection
table.

146
 Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Resistor1: 3.3kΩ Make R1(A) => W17
Orange, Orange, Red connections as R1(B) => D20
Resistor2:100k Ω indicated in R2(A) => Z17
Potentiometer the breadboard R2(B) => H20
connection R2(C) => E20
LED1 column. LED1(A)=>G20
LED1(K)=> G24
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => H24
J1(B) => Z21
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Z3

2. Turn the shaft of the potentiometer clockwise and anticlockwise to vary the output
voltage from the potential divider. (The LED should glow bright and dim as the voltage
varies across it.)

NOTE: The voltage from the power supply will be divided across the fixed resistance (R1) and
the potentiometer. This circuit can allow you create a smaller variable voltage output without
having to disconnect the circuit.

147
FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Use different colour of LEDs in the circuits.
5. Calculate the voltage drop across resistor R1 and R2 for all the circuits above using the
equation below and compare it with your measure values.

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑅1 = (𝑅 ) 𝑉𝑆𝑈𝑃𝑃𝐿𝑌 and 𝑉𝑅2 = (𝑅 ) 𝑉𝑆𝑈𝑃𝑃𝐿𝑌
1 + 𝑅2 1 + 𝑅2

6. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

148
EXPERIMENT 12: LEDs IN SERIES

AIM:

To understand how to combine LEDs in series and the features of such arrangement

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Alligator clip pairs (2)
 Resistors: 220Ω (1)
 LED: Red (3), Yellow (3), Green (3), White (3) , blue (3)

BACKGROUND:

Setting up a series connection of LEDs is similar to that of resistors. For LEDs connected in series,
the polarity of each LED must be in the correct order; that is, current must flow through the
anode (A) to the cathode (k) of each LED. Some of the features include;

 Same current flows through all the LEDs

 Each LED will have a forward voltage drop across it and may be different for different
colours
 The supply voltage will be divided across any series resistor and the LEDs.
 If one LED is removed or wrongly placed, the entire circuit will not work
 Addition of more LEDs in series will lead to dim light from each LED.
 Series connection of LEDs does not drain battery.

The series connected resistance can be calculated using the equation;

𝑉𝑆𝑈𝑃𝑃𝐿𝑌 − 𝑛𝑉𝐹𝑂𝑅𝑊𝐴𝑅𝐷
𝑅=
𝐼𝐹𝑂𝑅𝑊𝐴𝑅𝐷

𝑛- number of LEDs in series

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the series connected LEDs circuit below using the connection table;

149
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Resistor1: Make R1(A) => W9
220Ω connections as R1(B) => D10
Red, Red, Brown indicated in the
LED1 breadboard LED1(A) => E10
connection LED1(K) => F15
LED2 column. LED2(A) =>G15
LED2(K) =>G21
LED3 LED3(A) =>H21
LED3(K) => I 26
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => J26
J1(B) => Z22
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Z3

150
2. Remove one LED and you will observe that the rest of the LEDs will go off.
3. Now interchange the polarity of one of the LEDs as well. That is, place the anode at the
position of the cathode and the cathode to the position of the anode
4. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port.
Move the dial of the selector to the voltage section (DCV or ) and place it on the 20V
range. Then measure the voltage across the series resistor and each of the LEDs.

NOTE: Adding up all the measured voltages should be equal to the supply voltage of the
battery
5. Move the dial of the selector to the current section (DCA or ) and place it on the
20mA range.
6. Now set up the circuit below to allow you measure the current flowing through the circuit.

151
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Jumper wire2 Jumper 1 J2(A) => J26 Make
(Long) should be J2(B)=> adjustment to
removed Alligator Clip the setup done
Jumper wire3 before making J3(A) => Z22 in the
(Long) this J3(B)=> previous
adjustment. Alligator Clip
table.
Battery Red (+)=> W3
Connector Black (-)=> Z3

152
FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Use different colour of LEDs in the circuits.

2. Calculate for the series resistor using the equation below;

𝑉𝑆𝑈𝑃𝑃𝐿𝑌 − 𝑛𝑉𝐹𝑂𝑅𝑊𝐴𝑅𝐷
𝑅=
𝐼𝐹𝑂𝑅𝑊𝐴𝑅𝐷

Where 𝑛- number of LEDs in series

𝑉 – Measured forward voltage across one LED (for same colours in series)

𝐼- Measured current flowing through the circuit.

3. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

4. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
5. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
6. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

153
EXPERIMENT 13: LEDs IN PARALLEL

AIM:

To understand how to combine LEDs in parallel and the features of such arrangement

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Alligator clip pairs (2)
 Resistors: 1kΩ (3)
 LED: Red (3), Yellow (3), Green (3), White (3) , blue (3)

BACKGROUND:

In a parallel connection, the LEDs are independent of each other and can have different amount
of current flowing through them. There will usually be a series resistor connected to each branch
of the LEDs in parallel. Some of the features of parallel connected LEDs include;

 The voltage across each LED is the same

 The total circuit current is the sum of current through each LED branch
 If one LED is removed or wrongly placed, the rest of the circuit will still function well
 Addition a few more LEDs in parallel will not affect the brightness of the entire circuit
 Parallel connections of LEDs drain battery faster.

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the parallel connected LEDs circuit below using the connection table;

154
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Resistor1: Make R1(A) => X9
1k Ω connections as R1(B) => D10
Brown, Black, Red indicated in the
Resistor2: breadboard R2(A) => X13
1k Ω connection R2(B) => D15
Brown, Black, Red column.
Resistor3: R3(A) => X17
1k Ω R3(B) => D20
Brown, Black, Red
LED1 LED1(A) => E10
LED1(K) =>H10
LED2 LED2(A) =>E15
LED2(K) =>H15
LED3 LED3(A) =>E20
LED3(K) =>H20
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => I 10
J1(B) => Y9
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => I 15
J2(B) => Y13
Jumper wire3 J3(A) => I 20
J3(B) => Y17
Battery Red(+) => X3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

155
 2. Remove one LED and reverse the polarity of the other and the rest of the LED circuit
will still glow.
3. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA
port. Move the dial of the selector to the voltage section (DCV or ) and place it on
the 20V range.
4. Measure the voltage across each of the LED and their series resistor. The voltage of
the two should give you the supply voltage.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Using the knowledge gained in experiment 9, measure the current in each branch and the
total current flowing through the circuit.
5. Construct the series-parallel circuit shown below;

156
6. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

157
EXPERIMENT 14: CELLS/BATTERIES IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

AIM:

To understand how to combine cells and batteries in series and parallel and their features

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Alligator clip pairs (2)
 AA Cells (4)
 Terminal Connecting wire (4)

BACKGROUND:

Cells and batteries can also be combined in series, parallel or series/parallel as already done for
resistors and LEDs. Any of the combinations can be used as determined by the application in
which it is to be used. A single cell has a rated voltage and amperage ( or current capacity) which
may not be sufficient for some applications. When cells are combined in series, the overall
voltage of the combination is increase while the amperage remains the same as that of one cell.
When cells are combined in parallel, the overall voltage is the same as that of one cell but the
amperage is increased. So, for higher current, you use series combination while for higher current
capacity, we use parallel combination. For both voltage and current increase, we use a series-
parallel combination. A damaged cell in series will affect the whole connection and could make
the output become reduced. A damaged cell in parallel will not usually affect the entire voltage
but could reduce the capacity of the connection.

PROCEDURE:

(A) Cells in Series

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA
port. Move the dial of the selector to the voltage section (DCV or ) and place it on
the 20V range.
2. Using the terminal connection wire, connect two cells in series so that the positive
terminal of one is connected to the negative terminal of the other as shown below;

158
CELL TYPE VOLTAGE OF CELL AMPERAGE OF CELL
AA CELL 1 1.5V 2000mAh
AA CELL 2 1.5V 2000mAh
TOTAL IN SERIES 3.0V 2000mAh

3. Measure the total voltage across the two cells in series and compare your reading
with the table above.
(B) Cells in Parallel
1. Using the terminal connection wire, connect two cells in parallel so that the positive
terminal of one is connected to the positive terminal of the other and the negative
terminals of one is connected to the negative terminal of the other, as shown below;

159
CELL TYPE VOLTAGE OF CELL AMPERAGE OF CELL
AA CELL 1 1.5V 2000mAh
AA CELL 2 1.5V 2000mAh
TOTAL IN PARALLEL 1.5V 4000mAh

2. Measure the voltage across each of the two cells in parallel and compare your reading
with the table above.
(C) Cells in Series-Parallel
1. Using the terminal connecting wires, connect two cells in series and another two cells
in series. Then connect the two separate series combinations in parallel connection
as shown below;

160
 CELL TYPE VOLTAGE OF CELL AMPERAGE OF CELL
AA CELL 1 1.5V 2000mAh FIRST SERIES
AA CELL 2 1.5V 2000mAh COMBINATION
TOTAL IN 3.0V 2000mAh
SERIES
AA CELL 3 1.5V 2000mAh SECOND SERIES
AA CELL 4 1.5V 2000mAh COMBINATION
TOTAL IN 3.0V 2000mAh
SERIES
TOTAL IN 3.0V 4000mAh PARALLEL
SERIES- CONNECTION OF
PARALLEL THE TWO SERIES
COMBINATION

2. Measure the voltage across the combination in series-parallel and compare your
reading with the table above.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Construct a series connection of 1.5V cells to make up 9V battery.

2. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

161
EXPERIMENT 15: WORKING WITH SWITCHES

AIM:

To understand the working of a switch and its application

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Alligator clip pairs (2)
 Resistors: 1kΩ (2)
 LED: Red (2), Yellow (2), Green (2), White (2) , blue (2)
 Press button Switch (2
 Toggle switch (2)
 Rocker SPDT (1)

BACKGROUND:

Switches are required in electrical circuit for enforcing control and for maintaining safety of
devices and the human alike. When a switch is placed in a circuit, it can be used to connect and
disconnect a circuit path, that is, a making a close or open circuit. Switches come in various sizes
and form and can be combined in different way to achieve desired control. Some of the features
of a switch is the Pole (P) and the Throw (T) and it could also be considered as a normally open
(NO) or normally closed (NC) switch.

PROCEDURE:

(A) Testing A Switch

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA
port. Move the dial of the selector to the continuity tester, .
2. Attach on end of your alligator clips to the probe of your multimeter and then attach
the other ends of the alligator clips to legs of the press button switch.
3. Now press the button on the switch to make contact within the switch and you should
hear a beep from the multimeter whenever the switch is closed (ON) and the beep
stops when the contact within the switch is open (OFF).

162
 4. Pick a toggle switch and connect one alligator clip to the middle leg and another to
first leg of the switch.
5. Push the switch control to one end and the other and you should hear a beep when a
contact is made for that leg. Remove the alligator clip attached to the red probe to
the third leg and observe likewise.

(B) Switching Circuits

1. Set up the switch connected circuit below using the connection table;

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Jumper wire1 Make J1(A) => X7
connections as J1(B) => A8
Switch1 indicated in the S1(A) => C8
(Press Button) breadboard S1(B) => D10
Jumper wire2 connection J2(A) => E10
column. J2(B) => E15
Resistor1: 1k Ω R1(A) => C15
Brown, Black, Red R1(B) => C23

163
LED 1 LED 1(A) => E23
LED 1(K) =>H23
Jumper wire3 J3(A) => I 23
J3(B) => Y20
Battery Red(+) => X3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

2. Press the button the switch and observe the circuit closed. The LED should give a light
whenever the switch is pressed.
3. Replace the press button switch with the SPDT rocker switch provided using the
connection table as shown below;

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Switch2 The switch 1 S2(A) => E8 Make
(Rocker) should be S2(B) => D10 adjustment to
removed the setup done
before making in the previous
Battery Red(+) => X3
this table.
Connector Black (-)=> Y3
adjustment.

164
 (C) Two way Switching Using A Toggle Switch
1. Set up the switching circuit below using the connection table;

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Switch1 Make S1(A) => B10
(Toggle) connections as S1(B) =>X16
indicated in the S1(C) => B25
Resistor1: breadboard R1(A) => C10
1k Ω connection R1(B) => H10
Brown, Black, Red column.
Resistor2: R2(A) => C25
1k Ω R2(B) => H25
Brown, Black, Red

165
LED1 LED1(A) => J10
LED1(K) => Y9

LED2 LED2(A) =>J25

LED2(K) => Y21
Battery Red(+) => X3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

2. Push the shaft of the switch to one side and the other and observe how the toggle
switch alternates the lighting of the LEDs as shown in the table below;

SWITCH LED 1 LED2

A ON OFF
B OFF ON

(D) Three-Way Switching Using two Toggle Switches

1. Set up the switching circuit below using the connection table;

166
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Jumper wire1 Make J1(A) => X4
connections as J1(B) => B3
Jumper wire2 indicated in the J2(A) => C9
breadboard J2(B) => C20
Jumper wire3 connection J3(A) => H9
column. J3(B) => H20
Resistor1: R1(A) => D27
1k Ω R1(B) => I 27
Brown, Black, Red
LED1 LED1(A) => J27
LED1(K) => Y23
Switch1 S1(A) => B9
(Toggle) S1(B) =>D3
S1(C) => I 9
Switch2 S2(A) => B20
(Toggle) S2(B) =>C27
S2(C) => I 20
Battery Red(+) => X3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

167
 2. Push the shaft on switch 1 to one end and the shaft of switch 2 to another end and
observe its operation as shown in the table below;

NOTE: With the three-way switching, a point of light can be independently controlled from
two different locations.

SWITCH 1 SWITCH 2 LED

A1 A2 ON
B1 A2 OFF
A1 B2 OFF
B1 B2 ON

(E) OR Gate And AND GATE With Switches

1. Set up the OR gate circuit below using the connection table;

168
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Jumper wire1 Make J1(A) => X5
connections as J1(B) => B5
Jumper wire2 indicated in the J2(A) => B7
breadboard J2(B) => B17
Jumper wire3 connection J3(A) => X16
column. J3(B) => B19
Jumper wire4 J4(A) => E17
J4(B) => H17
Resistor1: 1k Ω R1(A) => I 17
Brown, Black, Red R1(B) => I 26
LED1 LED1(A) => J26
LED1(K) => Y22
Switch1 S1(A) => C5
(Press Button) S1(B) => D7
Switch2 S2(A) => C17
(Press Button) S2(B) => D19
Battery Red(+) => X3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

2. Press the buttons on the switch 1 and then switch 2. Then press both switches
together and observe the operation of the OR gate as shown in the table below;

169
 SWITCH 1 SWITCH 2 LED
OFF OFF OFF
ON OFF ON
OFF ON ON
ON ON ON

3. Set up the AND gate circuit below using the connection table;

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Jumper wire1 Make J1(A) => X5
connections as J1(B) => B5
Jumper wire2 indicated in the J2(A) => E7
breadboard J2(B) => E17
Jumper wire3 connection J3(A) => E19
column. J3(B) => H19
Switch1 S1(A) => C5
(Press Button) S1(B) => D7
Switch2 S2(A) => C17
(Press Button) S2(B) => D19
Resistor1:1k Ω R1(A) => I 19
Brown, Black, Red R1(B) => I 27
LED1 LED1(A) => J27
LED1(K) => Y23
Battery Red(+) => X3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

170
 4. Press the buttons on the switch 1 and then switch 2. Then press both switches
together and observe the operation of the AND gate as shown in the table below;

SWITCH 1 SWITCH 2 LED

OFF OFF OFF
ON OFF OFF
OFF ON OFF
ON ON ON

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Expand the gate to three (3) switches and draw the table of its operation.
5. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

171
EXPERIMENT 16: WORKING WITH CAPACITORS

AIM:

To understand the working of a capacitor and its application

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Resistors: 10kΩ (1), 15kΩ (1), 22kΩ (1)
 Capacitor: 1000μF (1)
 LED: Red (1), Yellow (1), Green (1), White (1) , blue (1)
 Press button Switch (1)
 Rocker SPDT (1)

BACKGROUND:

The capacitor has the capacity to store charges. It can be charge and discharged quickly as
opposed to a battery. The charging and discharging process of a capacitor is usually associated
with a time constant (τ = RC unit in second) which is the product of the resistance connected in
series to the capacitor and the capacitance of the capacitor. Without a series resistor, the
capacitor will charge up quickly without any delay, since R=0 and then τ = 0 seconds. The time
constant is the time taken for the capacitor to charge or discharge to 63% of the applied voltage
charging the capacitor. The time taken for the capacitor to be fully charged or discharged is
approximately equal to five (5) times the time constant (= 5 τ).

PROCEDURE:

(A) Charging A Capacitor

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA port.
Move the dial of the selector to the voltage section (DCV or ) and place it on the
20V range.
2. Set up the circuit show below for the charging of a capacitor, using the connection
table;

172
Component Name Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
and Value and Label Description Connection
Switch1 Observe the S1(A) => Ensure to
(Rocker) polarity of X11 keep to the
the S1(B) => B13 timing for
electrolytic this
Resistor1:15k Ω R1(A) => C13
Brown, Green, Orange capacitor; the experiment
R1(B) => C21
negative lead in order to
Capacitor1:1000𝝁𝑭 C1(+) =>
25V
is marked on get an
D21
its side. accurate
C1(-) =>
result.
G21
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => I 21
J1(B) => Z18
Battery Connector Red(+) => X3
Black (-)=>
Z3

173
 3. With the aid of a stopwatch, keep the switch ON for exactly 1𝑅𝐶 (or 15sec).
4. Once the switch is OFF after the time elapses, measure the voltage across the capacitor
and record it in the table for the 15kΩ below;

NOTE: Ensure the capacitor is fully discharged before using it in the circuit. To discharge the
capacitor, connect a jumper wire across the two legs to bridge them.
WARNING: You may notice sparks from the capacitor when trying to discharge it with the
jumper wire.

Resistance (R) Capacitance (C) Time constant

(τ = 𝑹 × 𝑪)
10kΩ 1000μF 10 𝑠𝑒𝑐
15kΩ 1000μF 15 𝑠𝑒𝑐
22kΩ 1000μF 22 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Value of Multiples Charging Capacitor Capacitor Voltage (𝑽𝑪 )

Resistance of Time Time Voltage(𝑽𝑪 ) -NEW
Constant -OLD
1𝑅𝐶 10 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝑅𝐶 20 𝑠𝑒𝑐
10kΩ 3𝑅𝐶 30 𝑠𝑒𝑐
4𝑅𝐶 40 𝑠𝑒𝑐
5𝑅𝐶 50 𝑠𝑒𝑐

174
Value of Multiples Charging Capacitor Capacitor Voltage (𝑽𝑪 )
Resistance of Time Time Voltage(𝑽𝑪 ) -NEW
Constant -OLD
1𝑅𝐶 15 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝑅𝐶 30 𝑠𝑒𝑐
15kΩ 3𝑅𝐶 45 𝑠𝑒𝑐
4𝑅𝐶 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
5𝑅𝐶 75 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Value of Multiples of Charging Capacitor Capacitor Voltage (𝑽𝑪 )

Resistance Time Time Voltage(𝑽𝑪 ) -NEW
Constant -OLD
1𝑅𝐶 22 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝑅𝐶 44 𝑠𝑒𝑐
22kΩ 3𝑅𝐶 66 𝑠𝑒𝑐
4𝑅𝐶 88 𝑠𝑒𝑐
5𝑅𝐶 110 𝑠𝑒𝑐

NOTE: The old capacitor voltage for the 1RC is zero while the measured value is recorded for
the new. For the 2RC, the old capacitor value is the value recorded in the new for 1RC and so
on.
5. Discharge the capacitor and then repeat the procedure number 3 and 4 for 2RC, 3RC,
4RC and 5RC respectively.
6. Now replace the 15kΩ with the 10k and the 22k and repeat the procedure number 3
and 4 for 1RC, 2RC, 3RC, 4RC and 5RC respectively and record your results in the tables
above.

NOTE: The smaller the series resistance value, the faller the capacitor charges. Higher series
resistance means a longer time to charge up

(B) Capacitor Discharging and Delay Application

1. Set up the circuit shown for the discharging and delay feature of a capacitor, using the
connection table below;

175
Component Name Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
and Value and Label Description Connection
Switch1 Make S1(A) => X7
(Rocker) connections S1(B) => D8
as indicated
in the
Resistor1: 10k Ω R1(A) => B8
Brown, Black, Orange breadboard
R1(B) => B17
connection
Resistor2: 22k Ω R2(A) => C17
Red, Red, Orange
column.
R2(B) => G23
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => D17
J1(B) => H17
Capacitor1:1000𝝁𝑭 C1(+) => I 17
25V C1(-) => Y15

LED1 LED1(A) => I

23
LED1(K)=>
Y20
Battery Connector Red(+) => X3
Black (-)=> Y3

176
 2. Turn ON the switch so that the capacitor starts charging up and observe how the LED
gradually starts to light up as the capacitor charging causes a delay.
3. Once the LED is bright enough, turn the switch OFF and then observe how the capacitor
discharges through the LED; the capacitor keeps the LED ON and does not switch off
immediately.
4. Replace the 10kΩ resistor with the 15kΩ and repeat the procedures 2 and 3 above.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Calculate for the capacitor voltage for each charging to time, use the equation below and
compare your result with your measured values.

𝑉𝐶𝐴𝑃 (𝑁𝐸𝑊) = 𝑉𝐶𝐴𝑃 (𝑂𝐿𝐷) + {0.63 × (𝑉𝐴𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐼𝐸𝐷 − 𝑉𝐶𝐴𝑃 (𝑂𝐿𝐷) )}

NOTE: The old capacitor voltage for the 1RC is zero while the measured value is recorded for
the new. For the 2RC, the old capacitor value is the value recorded in the new for 1RC while
the old capacitor voltage for the 3RC, is the value recorded for the 2RC new and so on.

5. Plot a graph of the capacitor voltages (new) for 1RC, 2RC, 3RC, 4RC and 5RC respectively
against charging time and observe that it will give a result similar to the graph below;

177
6. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

178
EXPERIMENT 17: WORKING WITH RELAYS

AIM:

To understand the working of a relay and its application

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Alligator clips pair (2)
 Resistors: 470Ω (1)
 Relay: SPDT (1)
 LED: Red (2), Yellow (2), Green (2), White (2) , blue (2)
 Press button Switch (1)

BACKGROUND:

Electromechanical relays are switches are operated both electrically and mechanically. It comes
in various types depending on the application in which it is required. With a relay, a small voltage
or current can be used to effectively operate a large voltage of current. The main part of a relay
is an electromagnet armature, movable point contact and the restoring spring. Other features of
the relay are the number of poles (P) and throws (T) it has. Also, we consider the terminals to
know if it is a normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC). The relay used in this experiment is
Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) relay.

PROCEDURE:

(A) Testing a Relay

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA
port. Move the dial of the selector to the continuity tester, .
2. To be able to identify the pins and their working, set up the circuit shown below
using the connection table provided.

179
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Relay1: SPDT The relay pins E1(A) => D15 The coils are
are no shown. E1(B) => G15 labeled A
The labeled E1(C) => D5 and B while
shown for the E1(NC) => D20 the common
relay is gotten E1(NO) => G20 is the C.
by placing the
Switch1 relay on the S1(A) => W8
(Rocker) S1(B) => B15
breadboard so
that the small
Jumper wire1 groove on in is J1(A) => B5
at your left J1(B) => Alligator
hand side when Clip
Jumper wire2 looking from J2(A) => I 15
above. J2(B) => Y13
Jumper wire3 J3(A) => B20
J3(B) => Red
Alligator Clip
Jumper wire4 J4(A) => I 20
J4(B) => Alligator
Clip
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

180
 3. Turn the switch OFF and observe that the multimeter gives a beep when
connected to the NC terminal. This means that the NC and the common (C) are
already connected without the relay being powered.
4. To check for the NO terminal, make the connection to the vertical slot connected
to the NO terminal as shown below.
5. With the switch still turned OFF, there will be no beep from your multimeter which
indicates that there is no connection yet between the common (C) and the NC
terminal.
6. Now press the switch ON and you should hear a beep indicating a connection
between them.

NOTE: You will usually hear a click from the relay whenever the power connected and
disconnected to the coils activating the contacts.

181
(B) Using Relay For Alternate Switching
1. Set up the circuit shown below to allow you switch between two points using a
relay. Use the connection table below for setting up.

182
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Relay1: SPDT Make E1(A) => D15
connections as E1(B) => G15
indicated in the E1(C) => D5
breadboard E1(NC) => D20
connection E1(NO) => G20
LED1 column. LED1(A)=>B20
LED1(K)=> B24
LED2 LED2(A)=> I 20
LED2(K)=> I 24
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => C5
J1(B) => W5
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => A13
J2(B) => W11
Jumper wire3 J3(A) => I 15
J3(B) => Y13
Jumper wire4 J4(A) => C24
J4(B) => H24
Switch1 S1(A) => B13
(Press Button) S1(B) => A15
Resistor1:470 Ω R1(A) => G24
Yellow,Purple, Brown R1(B) => Y22
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

183
 2. Press the button to the switch and observe that the relay could disconnect one
LED to connect the other whenever it is powered.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Use a different capacitance value and observe how it affects the switching rate.
5. Connect a 1k Ω, 10k Ω and 100k Ω resistor in series with the capacitor and observe how
it affects the switching.
6. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

184
EXPERIMENT 18: WORKING WITH DIODES

AIM:

To understand the working of a diode and its application

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Resistors: 1kΩ (1)
 Diode (2)
 LED: Red (1), Yellow (1), Green (1), White (1) , blue (1)
 Press button Switch (2)

BACKGROUND:

The rest of the experiments in this section will be focused on semiconductor materials. The diode
acts as a one-way switch, allowing current to flow from the anode (A) to the cathode (K) only.
When forward biased, it requires a minimum voltage called, diode forward voltage VF (or barrier
voltage) across the anode and the cathode to turn it ON. When the diode is reversed biased, that
is, the cathode is made more positive than the anode, then it behaves like an open switch and
will not allow current to flow through that circuit path. One of the applications of the diode is in
the conversion of alternating current to direct current, a process called rectification (not covered
in this book).

PROCEDURE:

(A) Testing A diode

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA
port and turn the selector to the diode tester ( ).
2. Identify the anode and the cathode of the diode as shown in the diagram below.
The cathode is usually marked with a solid band by its edge.

185
 3. Connect the red multimeter probe to the anode and the black probe to the anode
and observe the resistance reading. This is a forward bias measurement reading
for the diode. Compare your reading with that of the table below.
4. Reverse the probes, so that the red probe is on the cathode while the black probe
is on the anode and observe the resistance reading. This is the reverse bias
measurement reading for the diode. Compare your reading with that of the table
below.

NOTE: The resistance diode test is a quick way to check if the diode is still good, open circuit
or short circuit.

Diode State Forward Bias Reverse Bias

(Ω) (Ω)
Good LOW HIGH
Open Circuit HIGH HIGH
Short Circuit LOW LOW

(B) Diode Forward and Reverse Bias

1. Set up the circuit below for the forward bias of a diode using the connection table.

186
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Resistor1: 1k Ω Make R1(A) => C11 To quickly
Brown, Black, Red connections as R1(B) => W10 identify the
Diode 1 indicated in the D1(A) => D11 cathode, the
(Rectifier) breadboard D1(K) => G18 mark on the
LED1 connection LED1(A) => I 18 diode is
column. LED1(K) => Y16 nearer to the
Battery Red(+) => W3 cathode lead.
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

2. Move the dial of the selector to the voltage section (DCV or ) and place it on
the 20V range.
3. Place the red probe on the anode leg and the black probe on the diode cathode
leg and take a reading of the forward voltage drop across the diode. Compare your
reading with the table below.
4. Now, disconnect the diode for the previous set up and place the anode where the
cathode was placed and the cathode to the location of the anode.

187
NOTE: The LED should not glow once the diode has been reversed bias.

5. To measure the voltage across the diode, disconnect the LED and replace it with a
jumper wire. Place the red probe on the anode and the black probe on the diode
cathode when reversed bias and observe the reading. (Your reading should equal
to the applied voltage, which means the diode is like an opened switch)

Diode State Forward Bias (V) Reverse Bias (V)

Good Silicon diode: 0.5V to 0.8V 𝑉𝐴𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐼𝐸𝐷
Germanium diode: 0.2V to 0.4V
Open Circuit 𝑉𝐴𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐼𝐸𝐷 𝑉𝐴𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐼𝐸𝐷
Short Circuit 0V to 0.4V 0V to 0.4V

188
 (C) Diode OR and AND logic circuit
1. Set up the circuit below to construct diode OR gate using the connection table
below.

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Jumper wire1 Make J1(A) => B8
connections as J1(B) => W7
Jumper wire2 indicated in the J2(A) => B28
breadboard J2(B) => W24
Switch1 connection S1(A) => C8
(Press Button) column. S1(B) => D10
Switch2 S2(A) => D26
(Press Button) S2(B) => C28

Diode 1 D1(A) => E10

(Rectifier) D1(K) => F18
Diode 2 D2(A) => E26
(Rectifier) D2(K) => G18
Resistor1: 1k Ω R1(A) => H10
Brown, Black, Red R1(B) => H18
LED1 LED1(A) => J10
LED1(K) => Y9

189
Battery Red (+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

2. Press the button on the switch 1 and then the button on the switch 2 and press
both switches together and observe what happens as the LED light up. Compare
your observation with the table given below.

DIODE 1 DIODE 2 LED A B X

OFF OFF OFF 0 0 0
ON OFF ON 1 0 1
OFF ON ON 0 1 1
ON ON ON 1 1 1

NOTE: The LED lights up when either of the switches are closed or when both switches are
closed. When the diode is OFF, it is considered as a logical 0 state while when the diode is ON,
it is considered as a logical 1 state.
3. Set up the circuit below to construct diode AND gate using the connection table
below.

190
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Jumper wire1 Make J1(A) => W7
connections as J1(B) => B8
Jumper wire2 indicated in the J2(A) => W16
breadboard J2(B) => B19
Jumper wire3 connection J3(A) => D9
column. J3(B) => F9
Jumper wire4 J4(A) => D20
J4(B) => F20
Jumper wire5 J5(A) => F16
J5(B) => C32
Jumper wire6 J6(A) => F28
J6(B) => E32
Jumper wire7 J7(A) => W25
J7(B) => W26
Jumper wire8 J8(A) => Y25
J8(B) => Y26
Diode 1 D1(A) =>G16
(Rectifier) D1(K) =>G9

191
Diode 2 D2(A) =>G28
(Rectifier) D2(K) =>G20
Switch1 S1(A) =>D8
(Press Button) S1(B) =>B9
Switch2 S2(A) => D19
(Press Button) S2(B) => B20
Resistor1: 1k Ω R1(A) => H9
Brown, Black, Red R1(B) => Y8
Resistor2: 1k Ω R2(A) => H20
Brown, Black, Red R2(B) => Y17
Resistor3: R3(A) => D32
10k Ω R3(B) => W27
Brown, Black,
Orange
Resistor4: R4(A) => B32
220 Ω R4(B) => H35
Brown, Black, Red
LED1 LED1(A) =>
J35
LED1(K)
=>H35
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

192
 4. Press the button on switch 1 and then switch 2 and then press both switches and
observe what happens as the LED lights up. Compare your observation with the
table below.

DIODE 1 DIODE 2 LED A B X

ON ON OFF 0 0 0
ON OFF OFF 1 0 0
OFF ON OFF 0 1 0
OFF OFF ON 1 1 1

NOTE: The LED lights up only when both switches are closed. When either or both of the
switches are open the LED will be OFF. When the diode is ON, it is considered as a logical 0
state while when the diode is OFF, it is considered as a logical 1 state.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

193
EXPERIMENT 19: WORKING WITH TRANSISTORS

AIM:

To learn the basic usage of a bipolar transistor and its features

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Alligator clip pairs (2)
 Resistors: 560Ω (1), 330kΩ (1)
 Transistor: BC547 (1)

BACKGROUND:

The bipolar transistor is a semiconductor device with three legs namely; Base (B), Emitter (E) and
Collector (C). Transistor can control current and voltage and consequently the power in a circuit.
By using the base current, it can control the devices to cut-off, active or saturation modes. The
small voltage current can also control a large current or voltage change at the emitter and
collector of the device. The ratio of the collector DC current to base DC current is called the DC
current gain (𝛽𝐷𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶 ⁄𝐼𝐵 ) which is usually given by the manufacturer. In order to turn the
transistor ON, the base voltage is to be made about 0.7V greater than the emitter voltage for
NPN while for a PNP, the base voltage is made about 0.7V lesser than the emitter voltage. When
in cut-off mode, the collector-emitter voltage will equal to the applied voltage across it while in
the saturation mode, the collector-emitter voltage will equal to about 0.2V. The transistor can be
used for two main applications namely, switching and amplification.

PROCEDURE:

(A) Testing A transistor

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA
port and turn the selector to the diode tester ( ).
2. Place the BC547 transistor on the breadboard so that the labeled part is facing you
as shown below.
3. Place the red multimeter probe on the first pin and the black touching the second
and the third pin. Then move the red probe to the second pin and touch the first

194
 and third pins with the red probe as shown in the diagram below. Observe the
reading on the multimeter when touching the pins with the black probe.

NOTE: Whenever you get a reading for the other two pin when touch by the black probe,
then the pin with the red probe is the base while the other two will be either the collector
or the emitter.
NPN: Red probe (+) is fixed on a pin PNP: Black probe (-) is fixed on a
while the black probe (-) gives pin while the red probe (+) gives
reading for the other pins. reading for the other pins.

195
 4. Compare the transistor pin test with the table given below.

NPN B (-) E (-) C (-) PNP B

(+)
E (+) C (+)
B (+) ------ 𝑹𝑩𝑬 𝑹𝑩𝑪 B (-) ------ 𝑹𝑩𝑬 𝑹𝑩𝑪
E (+) 1 ------ 1
E (-) 1 ------ 1
C (+) 1 1 ------
C (-) 1 1 ------

 Short circuit transistor; 0Ω or very low resistance for forward and reverse diode test on
the pins
 Open circuit transistor; 1 or very high resistance on multimeter reading for both forward
and reverse diode test on pins.

NOTE: The base-emitter resistance (𝑹𝑩𝑬 ) is greater than the base-collector resistance
(𝑹𝑩𝑪 ) by a few ohms. The pin with the greater resistance with respect to the base is the
emitter pin while that with the lesser resistance is the collector pin (𝑹𝑩𝑬 > 𝑹𝑩𝑪 ).

(B) Transistor Biasing

1. Set up the circuit showing a transistor with base transistor bias, using the
connection table.

196
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Transistor 1: To identify Q1(C) => H10 Also,
BC547 the pins of the Q1(B) => H11 confirm the
transistor as Q1(E) => H12 pins with the
Resistor1:330k Ω labeled, hold R1(A) => G11 help of your
Orange,Orange, the transistor R1(B) => D16 multimeter.
Yellow
such that the
Resistor2: 560Ω flat side is R2(A) => C5
Green, Blue, Brown R2(B) => G10
facing you. In
Jumper wire1 this position, J1(A) => B5
the pins from J1(B) => W5
Jumper wire2 left to right J2(A) => C15
are as J2(B) => W14
Jumper wire3 follows; J3(A) => J12
collector (C), J3(B) => Y11
Battery base (B) and Red(+) => W3
Connector emitter (E). Black (-)=> Y3

197
 2. Move the dial of the selector to the voltage section (DCV or ) and place it on
the 20V range.
3. Measure the following voltages across the transistor pin;
i. Base-Emitter voltage (𝑉𝐵𝐸 )
ii. Collector-Emitter voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐸 )
iii. Voltage across collector resistor (𝑉𝑅𝐶 )
iv. Voltage across base resistor (𝑉𝑅𝐵 )

NOTE: The voltage relationship for the transistor bias done above will equal to:
 𝑉𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐴𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐼𝐸𝐷
 𝑉𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 𝑉𝐴𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐼𝐸𝐷

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

198
EXPERIMENT 20: TRANSISTOR LOGIC GATES

AIM:

To construct transistor logic gates to perform the OR, AND and the INVERTER functions

MATERIALS:

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Switch: Press button (2), SPDT Rocker (1)
 LED: Red (1), Yellow (1), Green (1), White (1) , blue (1)
 Resistors: 220Ω (1), 1kΩ (1), 10kΩ (1), 1MΩ (2)
 Transistor: BC547 (2), D882 (1)

BACKGROUND:

Transistor are be used for constructing logic gates when used as a switch. The input signal sent
through the base so that it can turn ON the base-emitter junction of the transistor and drive it
into saturation. In this experiment, for the OR gate, the transistors are connected in parallel with
their collectors joined together and their emitters joined together. The transistors are connected
in series for achieving the AND gate, in such a way that the emitter of one is connected to the
collector of the other. A single transistor will be used for the INVERTER such that, when the
transistor is ON then the output will be OFF when the transistor is OFF, the output will be ON.

PROCEDURE:

(A) Transistor OR Gate

1. Set up the circuit for the OR gate shown below using the connection table.

199
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Transistor 1: Make Q1(C) => H6
BC547 connections as Q1(B) => H7
indicated in the Q1(E) => H8
Transistor 2: breadboard Q2(C) => H18
BC547 connection Q2(B) => H19
column. Q2(E) => H20
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => J6
J1(B) => J18
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => I 8
J2(B) => I 20
Jumper wire3 J3(A) => B6
J3(B) => W5
Jumper wire4 J4(A) => A17
J(B) => W15
Resistor1: 1MΩ R1(A) => G7
Brown, Black, Green R1(B) => A8

200
Resistor2: 1MΩ R2(A) => A19
Brown, Black, Green R2(B) => G19

Switch1 S1(A) => C6

(Press Button) S1(B) => B8

Switch2 S2(A) => B17

(Press Button) S2(B) => C19
Resistor3: 220Ω R3(A) => G20
Red, Red, Brown R3(B) => G27
Resistor4: 1kΩ R4(A) => J20
Brown, Black, Red R4(B) => Y21
LED1 LED1(A) => I
27
LED1(K) => 23
Jumper wire5 J5(A) => F6
J5(B) => W4
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

2. Press the button the switch 1 alone and release it. Now press the button on
switch 2 alone and release it. Finally press both switches.
3. Compare your result with the table shown below.

201
TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR LED
1 2
OFF OFF OFF
ON OFF ON
OFF ON ON
ON ON ON
A B X
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

NOTE: The OR gate function operates such that if one or both transistors are turned ON, then
the output will be turn ON as well.
(B) Transistor AND gate
1. Set up the circuit for the AND gate shown below using the connection table.

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Jumper wire2 Remove J2(A) => I 8 This table is an
jumper wire 1 J2(B) => I 18 adjustment to
Battery and place Red(+) => W3 the previous
Connector jumper wire 2 Black (-)=> Y3 table in section
in this new A.
position.

202
 2. Press the button the switch 1 alone and release it. Now press the button on
switch 2 alone and release it. Finally press both switches.

1. Compare your result with the table shown below.

TRANSISTOR TRANSISTOR LED

A B X
1 2
0 0 0
OFF OFF OFF
1 0 0
ON OFF OFF
0 1 0
OFF ON OFF
1 1 1
ON ON ON

NOTE: The AND gate function operates such that only when both transistors are turned ON,
then the output will be turn ON as well.

(C) Transistor INVERTER Gate

1. Set up the circuit for the INVERTER gate shown below using the connection
table.

203
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Transistor 1: To identify the Q1(E) => G15
D882 pins of the Q1(C) =>G16
transistor as Q1(B) =>G17
Switch1 labeled, hold S1(A) => A20
(Rocker) the transistor S1(B) => W18
such that the
side with
Resistor1: 1kΩ transistor name R1(A) => C8
Brown, Black, Red R1(B) => W7
is facing you.
Resistor2: 10kΩ In this position, R2(A) => F17
Brown, Black, the pins from R2(B) => B20
Orange
left to right are
LED1 LED1(A) => I 8
as follows;
LED1(K) =>Y7
emitter (E),
Jumper wire1 collector (C), J1(A) => H8
base (B) and J1(B) => H16
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => I 15
J2(B) => Y13
Jumper wire 3 J3(A) => D8
J3(B) => G8
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

204
 2. Press the button the switch and release it. Compare your result with the
table shown below.

SWITCH 1 LED A X
OFF ON 0 1
ON OFF 1 0

NOTE: The INVERTER gate function operates such that when the transistor is turned ON, then
the output will be turn OFF but if the transistor is then OFF, the output will be ON.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Expand the OR and the AND gates to three transistor inputs and draw out the table of its
operation.
2. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.
3. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
4. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
5. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

205
EXPERIMENT 21: TRANSISTOR SWITCH WITH RELAY
AIM:

To construct a transistor switch for controlling an LED and a relay.

MATERIALS:

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Switch: SPDT Rocker (1)
 Relay (1)
 Diode (1)
 LED: Red (1), Yellow (1), Green (1), White (1) , blue (1)
 Resistors: 1kΩ (1), 10kΩ (1)
 Transistor: D882 (1)
 DC motor (1)

BACKGROUND:

Transistors can be used as switches by operating it between the cut-off and saturation modes. At
the cut-off mode, the base-emitter junction is not forward bias and so the collector-emitter
junction voltage should be equal to the supply voltage. At the saturation mode, the base-emitter
is forward bias, such that the current is high enough to allow the maximum current flowing
through the collector. The collector-emitter voltage will be about 0.2V in the saturation mode.
The load (LED and Relay) will be connected in series with the collector. A diode connected in
reverse across the relay coil is called the flywheel diode. It prevents the relay from sending high
current through the transistor during switching process.

PROCEDURE:

(A) Transistor LED Switch

1. Set up the circuit for switching an LED using the transistor using the connection
table.

206
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Transistor 1: Make Q1(E) => G15
D882 connections as Q1(C) =>G16
indicated in the Q1(B) =>G17
Switch1 breadboard S1(A) => A20
(Rocker) connection S1(B) => W18
column.

Resistor1: 1kΩ R1(A) => C8

Brown, Black, Red R1(B) => W7
Resistor2: 10kΩ R2(A) => F17
Brown, Black, R2(B) => B20
Orange
LED1 LED1(A) => D8
LED1(K) => G8
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => H8
J1(B) => H16
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => I 15
J2(B) => Y13
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

207
 2. Press the switch button to switch ON so that the transistor will become ON and
will start conducting. The LED should give a light once the transistor is turned
ON.
(B) Transistor Relay Switching
1. Set up the circuit for switching a relay controlled by the transistor using the
connection table.

208
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Transistor 1: Make Q1(E) => G15
D882 connections as Q1(C) =>G16
indicated in the Q1(B) =>G17
Switch1 breadboard S1(A) => A16
(Rocker) connection S1(B) => W13
column.

Resistor1: R1(A) => B16

10kΩ R1(B) => F17
Brown, Black,
Orange
Diode 1 D1(A) => F16
(Rectifier) D1(K) => B14
Relay1: SPDT E1(A) => D25
E1(B) => G25
E1(C) => C20
E1(NC) => D30
E1(NO) => G30
DC motor 1 M1(+) => I 30
M1(-) =>Y25

Jumper wire1 J1(A) => A14

J1(B) => W12
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => I 15
J2(B) => Y13
Jumper wire3 J3(A) => B20
J3(B) => W17
Jumper wire4 J4(A) => I 16
J4(B) => I 25
Jumper wire5 J5(A) => B25
J5(B) => W21
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

209
 2. Press the button on the switch and observe that the relay is energized and then
the DC motor starts rotating. Once the power is stopped, the relay is de-
energized which makes the DC motor come to a stop.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Connect the DC motor positive wire to the NC (B30) terminal on the breadboard and
observe that the operation will be opposite. That is, when the transistor is ON, the DC
motor is OFF and when the transistor is OFF, the DC motor will be ON.
2. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.
3. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
4. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
5. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

210
EXPERIMENT 22: TRANSISTOR VOLTAGE REGULATOR

AIM:

To learn how to construct a voltage source, using a transistor circuit.

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Zener Diode: 5.1V (1)
 Resistors: 1kΩ (3), 5.6kΩ (1), 15kΩ (1),
47kΩ (1), 100kΩ (1)
 Transistor: D882 (1)

BACKGROUND:

A voltage source is a circuit capable of providing constant voltage across a connected load. A
good voltage source will keep the output voltage stable even when supply voltage fluctuates. The
output from a voltage source is usually regarded as a regulated voltage. Transistors are used for
constructing efficient voltage regulator when compared with those made from resistor network
only. The transistor in this experiment is used in the common-emitter configuration also called
emitter follower. Also, a Zener diode was introduced at the base to bias the transistor and
enforce voltage stability. The Zener diode is usually operated in the reverse bias for providing
constant voltage across it when the applied voltage is greater than a required amount. A resistor
may also be used in place of the Zener diode.

PROCEDURE:

(A) Voltage Source with Zener diode bias

1. Set up the circuit for the transistor voltage source using the connection table
below.
2. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA
port. Move the dial of the selector to the voltage section (DCV or ) and place
it on the 20V range.
3. Measure the voltage of your battery and check if it is within ±9V, that is, between
10V maximum and 8V minimum.

211
 4. Measure the voltage across the Zener diode with the red probe on the cathode
while the black probe will be on the anode.

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Transistor 1: Make Q1(B) => G15
D882 connections as Q1(C) =>G16
indicated in the Q1(E) =>G17
Resistor1: 1kΩ breadboard R1(A) => B15
Brown, Black, Red connection R1(B) => F15
column.
Resistor2:5.6k Ω R2(A) => H17
Green, Blue, Red R2(B) => W7
Diode1: D1(A) => Y13
Zener (5.1V) D1(K) => H15
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => A15
J1(B) => W13
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => F16
J2(B) => W15
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

212
 5. Measure the voltage across the load resistor 𝑅2 and observe the reading.
6. Now, replace the 5.6kΩ with the other resistors 15kΩ, 47kΩ, and 100kΩ. Measure
the voltage across the resistors and observe your reading.

(B) Voltage Source With A Voltage Divider Bias

1. Set up the circuit for the voltage source having the base bias from a voltage
divider, using the connection table below.

213
 Component Component Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Image and Label Description Connection
Value
Resistor3: 1kΩ The Zener R3(A) => H7 This table is an
Brown, Black, Red diode should be R3(B) => H15 adjustment to
Resistor4: 1kΩ removed before R4(A) => I 7 the previous
Brown, Black, Red making this R4(B) => Y6 table in section
Battery adjustment. Red(+) => W3 A.
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

2. Repeat the procedure 5 and 6 from section A above and observe your reading.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Set up the portable phone charger circuit and the breadboard diagram show below. The
main component in the circuit is the fixed +5V voltage regulator IC (7805). At the input,
9V is supplied so that the IC can produce a voltage of +5V at its output. The output voltage
is then connected to the USB connector.

NOTE: In order the get the best result from the charger circuit, use a 9V ALKALINE BATTERY to
power the circuit

2. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

3. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
4. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.

214
5. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

215
EXPERIMENT 23: LIGHT DIMMER AND DC MOTOR SPEED
CONTROL
AIM:

To construct a transistor circuit for controlling the brightness of an LED and the speed of a DC
motor.

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Diode (1)
 LED: Red (1), Yellow (1), Green (1), White (1) , blue (1)
 Resistors: 10kΩ (1), 330kΩ (1)
 Potentiometer: 100kΩ (1)
 Transistor: D882 (1)
 DC motor (1)

BACKGROUND:

A transistor circuit can be design to behave like a variable resistor so that the current flowing
through the load can be smoothly controlled. The transistor variable current circuit has more
efficiency than the circuit consisting of only a variable resistor. This efficiency is achieved by
using a very small change in the base voltage to cause a large voltage and current variation in
the collector. A potentiometer is used at the base of the transistor to bias it and enable the
voltage at the base to be changed easily. As the base voltage changes, the transistor is being
changed from the cut-off mode, to the active mode and then saturation mode.

PROCEDURE:

(A) Light Dimmer

1. Set up the transistor circuit for controlling the brightness of an LED using the
connection table.
2. Gently rotate the shaft of the potentiometer and observe how the LED light
varies from a very bright glow to a dim one.

216
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Transistor 1: Make Q1(E) => G16
D882 connections as Q1(C) =>G17
indicated in the Q1(B) =>G18
Jumper wire1 breadboard J1(A) => C12
connection J1(B) => F17
Jumper wire2 column. J2(A) => H16
J2(B) => Y14
LED1 LED1(A)=>W11
LED1(K) =>B12
Resistor1: 330k Ω R1(A) => C20
Orange, Orange, R1(B) => W17
Yellow
Resistor2:100k Ω R2(A) => D20
Potentiometer R2(B) => H18
R2(C) => Y20
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

217
 3. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA
port. Move the dial of the selector to the voltage section (DCV or ) and place
it on the 20V range.
4. Measure the base-emitter voltage (𝑉𝐵𝐸 ) when the light is very dim and when it is
very bright.
(B) DC motor Speed Control
1. Set up the transistor circuit for controlling the speed of a DC motor using the
connection table below.
2. Gently rotate the shaft of the potentiometer and observe how the DC motor
speed changes. At one point it rotates slowly and at another it becomes very
fast.
3. Repeat steps step 3 and 4 in section A above.

218
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Resistor1:10kΩ The LED1 and R1(A) => D20 This table is
Brown, Black, resistor 1 R1(B) => W17 an adjustment
Orange
should be to the
Diode 1 removed from D1(A) => D12 previous table
(Rectifier) D1(K) =>
previous in section A.
before making W10
DC motor 1 this M1(+) =>
adjustment. W11
M1(-) => B12
Battery Red(+) =>
Connector W3
Black (-)=>
Y3

219
FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

220
EXPERIMENT 24: TRANSISTOR TOUCH SWITCH

AIM:

To demonstrate how transistors’ switch require very small current to turn it ON.

MATERIALS:

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 LED: Red (1), Yellow (1), Green (1), White (1) , blue (1)
 Resistors: 470Ω (1), 10kΩ (1), 120kΩ (1)
 Transistor: BC547 (2)
 Buzzer (1)

BACKGROUND:

The touch switch is made possible by taking advantage of the very small amount of current
required to operate the transistor. The human skin has a resistance value in the range of hundred
thousand of ohms which means it can conduct especially when a little damp. In order to get the
current allowed through the skin power the connected device, it was amplified using an
arrangement of transistors called Darlington pair. When the touch sensitive switch (made by two
jumper wires connected at only one end) is touched by a finger, it turns ON the transistor which
then powers the connected loads (LED and buzzer).

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the circuit shown for touch switch using the connection table below.
2. With your bare finger, gently bridge the two vertically placed jumper wires on the
breadboard. Observe that the LED and buzzer should give out light and sound
respectively.

221
Component Component Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value Image and Label Description Connection
Transistor 1: Make Q1(C) => G10
BC547 connections as Q1(B) => G11
indicated in the Q1(E) => G12
Transistor 2: breadboard Q2(C) => G21
BC547 connection Q2(B) => G22
column. Q2(E) => G23
Resistor1: 10kΩ R1(A) => F11
Brown, Black, Orange R1(B) => C15
Resistor2:120k Ω R2(A) => B10
Brown, Red, Yellow R2(B) => F10
Resistor3: 470 Ω R3(A) => F21
Yellow, Purple, Brown R3(B) =>C26
LED1 LED1(A)=>W22
LED1(K) =>B26
BUZZER 1 B1 (+) => W25
B1(-) => D26

222
 Jumper wire1 J1(A) => A10
J1(B) => W9
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => H12
J2(B) => H22
Jumper wire3 J3(A) => J23
J3(B) => Y20
Jumper wire4 J4(A) => W7
J(B) => NOT
CONNECTED
Jumper wire5 J5(A) => A15
J5(B) => NOT
CONNECTED
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.

223
4. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

224
EXPERIMENT 25: LIGHT CONTROLLED SWITCH

AIM:

To construct a transistor switch that is controlled by a light sensitive device.

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Alligator clip
 Jumper wires
 LED: Red (1), Yellow (1), Green (1), White (1) , blue (1)
 Resistors: 560Ω (1), 1kΩ, 56kΩ (1)
 Transistor: BC547 (1)
 LDR (1)

BACKGROUND:

This light controlled switch responds to light intensity to operate the transistor base bias. The
main device which is responsible for detecting surrounding light is the Light Dependent Resistor
(LDR). The LDR is a kind of resistor whose resistance decreases as the intensity of light falling of
it increases. In a dark area, its resistance is very high while in a bright area it resistance becomes
very low. The LDR was used at the base of the transistor to control the base-emitter voltage as
the light intensity changes. The LDR could be connected in two ways at the base, such that when
light falls on it, it either turns ON the transistor or turns it OFF.

PROCEDURE:

(A) Testing the LDR

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA
port. Move the selector to the Ohms section (Ω) and place it on the 200kΩ range.
2. Attach one end of the alligator clips to the probes of your multimeter and the
other end to the LDR. Observe the reading on your multimeter.
3. Gently place your hand over the LDR without touching it and observe how the
resistance increases as the light intensity goes down.
4. Turn the selector on your multimeter to a higher or lower range to be able to see
measurement as the light intensity changes.

225
 (B) Darkness Activated Switch
1. Set up the transistor circuit with the LDR base bias using the connection table
below.

Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note

Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Transistor 1: Make Q1(C) => H20
BC547 connections as Q1(B) => H21
indicated in the Q1(E) => H22
Jumper wire1 breadboard J1(A) => W9
connection J1(B) => B10
Jumper wire2 column. J2(A) => G10
J2(B) => I 21
Jumper wire3 J3(A) => I 22
J3(B) => Y19
Resistor1: 56kΩ R1(A) => C10
Green, Blue, Orange R1(B) => F10

Resistor2: 1k Ω R2(A) => W17

Brown, Black, Red R2(B) => C20

226
LDR 1 LDR1(A) =>H10
LDR1(B) => Y9

LED1 LED1(A) =>E20

LED1(K) =>G20
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

2. Place the setup on the breadboard in a bright area and the LED should go off.
3. Now hover your hand across the LDR and observe that the LED gets brighter as
the LDR is covered.
(C) Light Activated Switch
1. Set up the transistor circuit with the LDR base bias using the connection table
below.

227
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Resistor1: 560Ω The resistor 1 R1(A) => H10 This table is
Green, Blue, Brown and the LDR1 R1(B) => Y9 an
LDR 1 should be LDR1(A) adjustment to
removed from =>C10 the previous
previous setup LDR1(B) => table in
before making F10 section A.
BUZZER 1 this adjustment. B1 (+) =>W20
B1(-) => F20

Battery Red(+) => W3

Connector Black (-)=> Y3

228
 2. Place the set up in a less bright area so that the LED does not glow.
3. Now, move the setup close to the window or a light source where the light
intensity is higher and then the LED should start to glow bright.

FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Connect a buzzer across the LED and observe how it responds to the light variations.
2. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.
3. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
4. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
5. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

229
EXPERIMENT 26: TEMPERATURE CONTROLLED SWITCH

AIM:

To construct a transistor switch that is controlled by a heat sensitive device.

MATERIALS:

 Digital Multimeter (1)

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Thermistor: 10kΩ NTC
 LED: Red (1), Yellow (1), Green (1), White (1) , blue (1)
 Resistors: 470Ω (1), 1kΩ (3), 100kΩ (1)
 Potentiometer: 100kΩ (1)
 Transistor: BC547 (2)
 Buzzer (1)
 Heat source: match stick, soldering iron, pressing iron, hot air blower e.t.c

BACKGROUND:

Transistor switch can be designed to be temperature controlled by using a temperature sensitive

device to turn it ON or OFF. The heat sensitive device used in this experiment is a Negative
Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor. The NTC resistance is the property that changes as it
senses heat increase or decrease. For the NTC, as the temperature increases, its resistance value
starts decreasing. It can be used to bias the transistor base in such a way that it either turns ON
the transistor as the temperature increases or turns it OFF. A variable resistor is also used
alongside the Thermistor so that it can help to determine a preset temperature to turn the
transistor ON or OFF.

WARNING: Ensure to observe the following safety measures:

 This experiment requires adult support and supervision.
 Handle any heat source with care and observe personal safety at all
times.
 Keep all wires and component away from the Thermistor before
heating.
 Allow the Thermistor cools off before touching it to avoid blisters or
burn.

230
PROCEDURE:

(A) Testing the Thermistor

1. Plug the black lead of the multimeter into the COM port and the red lead to VΩmA
port. Move the selector to the Ohms section (Ω) and place it on the 20kΩ range.
2. Attach one end of the alligator clips to the probes of your multimeter and the
other end to the Thermistor. Observe the reading on your multimeter.

NOTE: The resistance reading on the multimeter when the Thermistor is not heated should be
close to the value given by the manufacture.
3. Now place the Thermistor in a place where it can be heated and then gently heat
it up with one of the listed heat sources at the material section of this experiment.
Observe safety at all times.
4. Observe the resistance reading decreasing on the multimeter as the temperature
increases. You may need to turn the selector to a lower range to get the reading
as it decreases.
(B) Temperature Increase Turned ON Switch
1. Set up the transistor switch that is turned ON when the temperature increases.
Use the connection table for setting up the circuit.

231
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Transistor 1: Make Q1(C) => H40
BC547 connections as Q1(B) => H41
indicated in Q1(E) => H42
Transistor 2: the Q2(C) => H50
BC547 breadboard Q2(B) => H51
connection Q2(E) => H52
Resistor1: 1k Ω column. R1(A) => I 33
Brown, Black, Red R1(B) => I 41
Resistor2:100k Ω R2(A) => B40
Brown, Black, Yellow R2(B) => G40
Resistor3: 1k Ω R3(A) => B50
Brown, Black, Red R3(B) => W41
Resistor4: 1k Ω R4(A) => J42
Brown, Black, Red R4(B) => Y36
Resistor5:100k Ω R5(A) => H24
Potentiometer R5(B) => F24
R5(C) => F29
Resistor6: 470 Ω R6(A) => H29
Yellow, Purple, Brown R6(B) => Y24
Thermistor1: 10k TH1(A) =>B5
NTC TH1(B) => W7
LED1 LED1(A)=>C50
LED1(K) => F50
BUZZER 1 B1(+) => W40
B1(-) => G50

Jumper wire1 J1(A) => C5

J1(B) => I 24
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => J24
J2(B) => J33
Jumper wire3 J3(A) => A40
J3(B) => W33
Jumper wire4 J4(A) => I 42
J4(B) => I 51
Jumper wire5 J5(A) => I 52
J5(B) => Y43
Jumper wire6 J6(A) => W25
J6(B) => W26
Jumper wire7 J7(A) => Y25
J7(B) => Y26

232
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

233
 2. Using your potentiometer, gently adjust the LED and buzzer to a point where it is
just about to start giving light or sound respectively. (The LED and the buzzer
should start glowing and giving off sound when the Thermistor is heated).
3. Now with your heat source place on the Thermistor, heat it up for about 30 sec
(depending on the kind of heating source used) so that the temperature would
increase. Observe how the LED and buzzer gradually start giving light and sound
as the temperature increases.
4. Remove the heat source from the Thermistor once the LED and the buzzer have
been turned ON

NOTE: Observe that as the Thermistor temperature drops the LED and buzzer starts becoming
dim and sounding lower.
To fast track the cool process for the Thermistor, touch it with a heat sink or damp piece of
cloth.

5. Repeat the process on procedure 3 all over again and observe the NOTE.

(C) Temperature Increase Turned OFF Switch

1. Set up the transistor switch that is turned OFF when the temperature increases. Use
the connection table for setting up the circuit.

234
 Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Thermistor1: 10k The TH1(A) =>B5 This table
NTC Thermistor 1, TH1(B) =>A9 is an
resistor 5, adjustment
Resistor5:100k Ω resistor 6 and R5(A) => H24 to the
Potentiometer R5(B) => F24
jumper wire 1 previous
R5(C) => E35
should be table in
Resistor6: 470 Ω removed R6(A) =>C35 section B.
Yellow, Purple, Brown R6(B) => W29
before
Jumper wire1 making this J1(A) => B9
adjustment. J1(B) => I 24
Jumper wire6 J6(A) => D5
J6(B) => Y5
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

2. Using your potentiometer, gently adjust the LED and buzzer to a point where it is just
about to be turned OFF but still giving light or sound respectively. (The LED and the
buzzer should stop glowing and giving off sound when the Thermistor is heated).
3. Now with your heat source place on the Thermistor, heat it up for about 30 sec
(depending on the kind of heating source used) so that the temperature would
increase. Observe how the LED and buzzer gradually stop giving light and sound as the
temperature increases.
4. Remove the heat source from the Thermistor once the LED and the buzzer have been
turned OFF.

NOTE: Observe that as the Thermistor temperature drops the LED and buzzer starts becoming
bright and sounding louder.
To fast track the cool process for the Thermistor, touch it with a heat sink or damp piece of
cloth.

5. Repeat the process on procedure 3 all over again and observe the NOTE.

235
236
FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

237
EXPERIMENT 27: TRANSISTOR MOTION DETECTOR

AIM:

To construct a transistor circuit that detects motion in a location using an infrared source and
receiver.

MATERIALS:

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Infrared LED (1)
 Photodiode (1)
 LED: Red (1), Yellow (1), Green (1), White (1) , blue (1)
 Resistors: 220kΩ (1), 470Ω (1), 1kΩ (1), 3.3kΩ (1), 100kΩ (1)
 Potentiometer: 100kΩ (1)
 Transistor: BC547 (2)
 Buzzer (1)

BACKGROUND:

Infrared light is not visible to the unaided human eye but can be visually detected by infrared
capable instruments. For the domestic detection, one could use the cameras found on mobile
phones to see such radiation. It is used for wireless applications for sensing and line of sight
remote control when used together with the infrared receiver. This experiment operates in a way
that if any object passes between the source and the receiver, it break the radiation connection
between them and thus detects an object is passing through a point. The resistance of the
infrared receiver changes with the intensity of the infrared radiation falling on it, thereby could
be use to bias the transistor to turn it ON or OFF as a switch.

PROCEDURE:

(A) Motion Detector 1

1. Set up the circuit below for detecting motion using the connection table below.

NOTE: Perform this experiment in a room with less illumination in order to get the best
result.

238
 2. Now gently rotate the shaft of the potentiometer so that the LED starts glowing.
3. Slowly move your hand or an object between the infrared LED and the photodiode
and observe that the LED will stop glowing as your hand or the object passes
through.

NOTE: If the LED is still glowing a little while an object is between the infrared LED and the
photodiode, then turn the potentiometer so that the LED goes OFF while the object is still
between them.

239
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Resistor1: 220Ω The radiation R1(A) => D7 Ensure
Red, Red, Brown from the R1(B) => W6 that the
Infrared LED 1 infrared LED IR1(A)=>E7 photosensi
can be detected IR1(K)=>F7 tive part of
Jumper wire1 using a mobile J1(A) => H7 the
phone camera J1(B) => Y6 receiver is
Transistor 1: when tested Q1(C) => H38 directly
BC547 with the Q1(B) => H39 facing the
multimeter Q1(E) =>H40 infrared
Jumper wire2 diode tester. J2(A) => B30 source.
J2(B) => W23
Bend the
Jumper wire3 J3(A) => E29
infrared source
J3(B) => F32
so that it is
Jumper wire4 J4(A) => I 40
directly facing
J4(B) => Y33
the receiver on
Jumper wire5 your J5(A) => W25
breadboard. J5(B) => W26
Jumper wire6 J6(A) => Y25
J6(B) => Y26
Resistor2: 3.3kΩ R2(A) => G32
Orange, Orange, Red R2(B) => I 39
Resistor3: 1k Ω R3(A) =>C38
Brown, Black, Red R3(B) =>W32
Resistor4:100k Ω R4(A) => H32
Potentiometer R4(B) => I 32
R4(C) => Y23
LED1 LED1(A)=>D38
LED1(K) =>F38
Photodiode PD1(A) => B29
PD1(K) => C30
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

240
241
 (B) Motion Detector 2
1. Set up the circuit below for detecting motion using the connection table below.

NOTE: Perform this experiment in a room with less illumination in order to get the best
result.
2. Now gently rotate the shaft of the potentiometer so that the buzzer is not giving
any sound.
3. Slowly move your hand or an object between the infrared LED and the photodiode
and observe that the buzzer will start sounding as your hand or the object passes
through.

NOTE: If the buzzer does not give a sound while an object is between the infrared LED and the
photodiode, then turn the potentiometer so that the buzzer starts giving out sound while the
object is still between them.

242
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Resistor2: 1k Ω The LED, R2(A) =>G32 This table is
Brown, Black, Red resistor 2, R2(B) =>I 39 an
Resistor3:100k Ω resistor 3 and R3(A) => B38 adjustment
Brown, Black, Yellow the jumper R3(B) => F38 to the
Transistor 2: wire 4 should Q2(C) => H48 previous
BC547 be removed Q2(B) =>H49 table in
before making Q2(E) =>H50 section A.
Jumper wire4 this J4(A) => I 40
adjustment. J4(B) => I 49
Jumper wire5 J5(A) => I 50
J5(B) => Y41
Jumper wire6 J6(A) => A48
J6(B) => W40
Jumper wire7 J7(A) => A38
J7(B) => W31
Jumper wire8 J8(A) => W25
J8(B) => W26
Jumper wire9 J9(A) => Y25
J9(B) => Y26
Resistor5: 470 Ω R5(A) => B48
Yellow, Purple, Brown R5(B) => F48
BUZZER 1 B1 (+) =>G48
B1(-) => Y44

Battery Red(+) => W3

Connector Black (-)=> Y3

243
244
FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

245
EXPERIMENT 28: LIGHT FLASHER

AIM:

To construct a transistor circuit that flashes two LEDs without any external input

MATERIALS:

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Transistor: BC547 (2)
 LED: Red (2), Yellow (2), Green (2), White (2) , blue (2)
 Resistors: 470Ω (2), 47kΩ (2)
 Capacitor: 1μF (2), 4.7μF (2), 10μF (2)

BACKGROUND:

This light flasher is a circuit called Astable multivibrator or a free running multivibrator. It is one
the three types of multivibrators, others include: Monostabe and Bistable multivibrators. The
astable multivibrator continuously switch the transistors between the cut-off and the saturation
mode so that the output is almost zero at one time and at a later time it turns the output high. It
uses two transistors whose output alternates between the cut-off and saturation in opposite
fashion. When transistor 1 is ON, transistor 2 is OFF likewise when transistor 1 is OFF, the
transistor 2 is ON. The transistor switching is controlled by two capacitors connected to their
bases so that the charging and discharging of the capacitors bias the transistor to different
modes. The period or rate at which the transistors change state is determined by the time
constant (τ) of the base resistance and capacitance for each transistor.

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the light flasher circuit using the connection table.

NOTE: Once the power supply is connected to the completed circuit, the led should start
flashing immediately.

2. Replace the 4.7μF with the 1μF and the 10μF capacitors and observe how the flashing
time changes.

246
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Transistor 1: Make Q1(C) => G7 The transistor
BC547 connections as Q1(B) => G8 2 pins has
indicated in Q1(E) => G9 been reversed
Transistor 2: the breadboard Q2(E) => G31 when placing
BC547 connection Q2(B) =>G32 it on the
column. Q2(C) =>G33 breadboard,
Resistor1: 470 Ω R1(A) => C7 that is, the
Yellow,Purple, Brown R1(B) => W6 curved part is
Resistor2: 47k Ω R2(A) => D15 now facing
Yellow,Purple,Orange R2(B) => W13 you and the
Resistor3: 47k Ω R3(A) => D25 pins from left
Yellow, Purple, Orange R3(B) => W21 to right are
Resistor4: 470 Ω R4(A) => C33 now, emitter
Yellow, Purple, Brown R4(B) => W27 (E), base (B)
and collector
LED1 LED1(A)
(c).
=>D7
LED1(K) =>
F7

247
LED2 LED2(A)
=>D33
LED2(K)
=>F33
Capacitor1:4.7𝝁𝑭 C1(+) => G15
25V C1(-) => G17
Capacitor2: 4.7𝝁𝑭 C2(+) =>G26
25V C2(-) =>G24
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => F8
J1(B) => E15
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => I 7
J2(B) => I15
Jumper wire3 J3(A) => H9
J3(B) => Y8
Jumper wire4 J4(A) => E25
J4(B) => F32
Jumper wire5 J5(A) => I 26
J5(B) => I 33
Jumper wire6 J6(A) => H31
J6(B) => Y27
Jumper wire7 J7(A) => H8
J7(B) => I 24
Jumper wire8 J8(A) => I 17
J8(B) => H32
Jumper wire9 J9(A) => W25
J9(B) => W26
Jumper wire10 J10(A) => Y25
J10(B) => Y26
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

248
FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

249
EXPERIMENT 29: SIMPLE AUDIO AMPLIFIER

AIM:

To construct a transistor circuit that can amplify audio signals

MATERIALS:

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Zener diode: 5.1V (1)
 Diode (2)
 Transistor: BC547 (1), D882 (1), B772 (1)
 Resistors: 470Ω (2), 47kΩ (2)
 Capacitor: 1μF (1), 10μF (1), 100μF (1), 1000μF (1)
 Audio jack socket (1)
 Audio jack cable (1)
 Speaker: 8Ω, 0.5W (1)

BACKGROUND:

The amplifier is used to increase the amplitude of a signal input sent to it. An audio amplifier is
used to amplify signals with the speech frequency of human, that is, 20𝐻𝑍 𝑡𝑜 20𝐾𝐻𝑍 . The human
voice alone can only reach some few meters at most, but with an amplifier system, it can be
projected to several hundreds of meters. This experiment consists of three transistors; one drive
(transistor 3) and two output (transistor 1 and 2) stage. The drive stage is for maximum voltage
amplification while the output stage is to ensure maximum power amplification. The output is a
combination of an NPN and PNP transistors joined at their emitters and used as a common-
collector configuration usually referred to as Push-Pull. When transistor 1 conducts the positive
signal the transistor 2 conducts the negative signals. The two diodes at the output transistor base
are used to bias them to conduct a little before the signal is applied. The capacitors 1 and 3 are
used for coupling purposes to allow only AC to pass through while the capacitor 2 is used for
bypassing the emitter resistor of transistor 3.

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the transistor amplifier circuit shown using the connection table below.

250
251
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and Value and Label Description Connection
Transistor 1: Q1(B) => B40 The
D882 Q1(C) =>B41 transistors
Q1(E) =>B42 pins has
Transistor 2: Q2(B) => I 40 been
B772 Q2(C) =>I 41 reversed
Q2(E) =>I 42 when
placing it on
Transistor 3: Q3(E) => H25 the
BC547 Q3(B) => breadboard,
H26 that is, the
Q3(C) => metallic part
H27 is now
Resistor1: 1k Ω R1(A) => D22 facing you
Brown, Black, Red R1(B) => W19 and the pins
Resistor2:120k Ω R2(A) => E22 from left to
Brown, Red, Yellow R2(B) => G26 right are
Resistor3: 470 Ω R3(A) => A40 now; base
Yellow, Purple, Brown R3(B) => W33 (B),
Resistor4: 12 Ω R4(A) => I 25 collector (c)
Brown, Red, black R4(B) => Y19 and emitter
Diode 1 D1(A) => D40 (E).
(Rectifier) D1(K) => F34
Diode 2 D2(A) => G34
(Rectifier) D2(K) => G40
Diode3: D3(A) => C15
Zener (5.1V) D3(K) => C22
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => A41
J1(B) => W34
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => C42
J2(B) => H42
Jumper wire3 J3(A) => E42
J3(B) => E48
Jumper wire4 J4(A) => J41
J4(B) => Y35
Jumper wire5 J5(A) => J27
J5(B) => J40
Jumper wire6 J6(A) => H23
J6(B) => Y16
Jumper wire7 J7(A) => E15
J7(B) => Y13
Jumper wire8 J8(A) => I 10
J8(B) => I 26
Jumper wire9 J9(A) => W25

252
 J9(B) => W26

Jumper wire10 J10(A) => Y25

J10(B) => Y26
Capacitor1: 1𝝁𝑭 C1(+) => F10
25V C1(-) => F8
Capacitor2: C2(+) => J25
10𝝁𝑭 C2(-) => J23
25V
Capacitor3: C3(+) => C48
1000𝝁𝑭 C3(-) => C52
25V
Audio Jack JC1(+) => H8
Connector1 JC1(-) => Y9

Loudspeaker1: LS1(+) =>E52

8 Ω, 0.5W LS1(-) =>Y49

Battery Red(+) => W3

Connector Black (-)=> Y3

2. Connect the audio cable to jack socket on your breadboard and then connect it to a
mobile phone jack socket or any other device that can be used as input.
3. Replace the 1000μF with the 100μF and observe the changes in the frequency of the
output.

NOTE: Keep the input signal low enough so that it does not give cracking sound as the battery
gets drained.
Check your battery voltage to ensure it is not less than 9V in order to get the best results
from the circuit.

253
254
FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

255
EXPERIMENT 30: TRANSISTOR H-BRIDGE

AIM:

To construct a transistor circuit that can control the direction of rotation of a DC motor.

MATERIALS:

 Breadboard (1)
 9V battery pack (1)
 Jumper wires
 Transistor: BC547 (4)
 Resistors: 1kΩ (4)
 DC motor (1)
 Press button switch (2)

BACKGROUND:

A transistor H-bridge is a circuit arrangement of four transistors that can fully control the rotation
direction and speed of a DC motor. It derives its name from the arrangement of transistors which
looks like the letter “H”. It achieves the direction control by providing a path through which
current can flow in one direction through the DC motor and then in the opposite direction. It also
enables speed control by interrupting the current through the DC motor at a specific frequency
so that the resultant current flow leads to a reduced speed. Two transistors are turned ON at a
time to achieve the forward or reverse motion. When only switch 1 is closed, then transistors 1
and 4 start to conduct. When only switch 2 is closed, then transistors 2 and 3 start to conduct.
The four resistors are used to set a limit the maximum current that will flow into the transistor
bases.

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the transistor H-bridge circuit shown using the connection table below.
2. Press the button on switch 1 only and then switch 2 only and observe the rotation of the
DC motor.
3. Now press down switch 1 and then press switch 2 at intervals of 0.5 sec or less to gradually
slow down the speed.

256
Component Component Image Connection Breadboard Note
Name and and Label Description Connection
Value
Transistor 1: Make Q1(C) =>H10
BC547 connections as Q1(B) =>H11
indicated in the Q1(E) =>H12
Transistor 2: breadboard Q2(C) => H20
BC547 connection Q2(B) =>H21
column. Q2(E) =>H22
Transistor 3: Q3(C) => H30
BC547 Q3(B) =>H31
Q3(E) =>H32
Transistor 4: Q4(C) => H40
BC547 Q4(B) => H41
Q4(E) => H42
Resistor1: 1k Ω R1(A) => B11
Brown, Black, Red R1(B) => G11

257
Resistor2: 1k Ω R2(A) => B21
Brown, Black, Red R2(B) => G21

Resistor3: 1k Ω R3(A) => B31

Brown, Black, Red R3(B) => G31
Resistor4: 1k Ω R4(A) => B41
Brown, Black, Red R4(B) => G41
Switch1 S1(A) => D3
(Press Button) S1(B) =>E5
Switch2 S2(A) => D45
(Press Button) S2(B) => E47
Jumper wire1 J1(A) => C3
J1(B) => W5
Jumper wire2 J2(A) => C5
J2(B) => C11
Jumper wire3 J3(A) => F10
J3(B) => W12
Jumper wire4 J4(A) => A11
J4(B) => A41
Jumper wire5 J5(A) => F20
J5(B) => W20
Jumper wire6 J6(A) => J12
J6(B) => J30
Jumper wire7 J7(A) => A21
J7(B) => A31
Jumper wire8 J8(A) => J22
J8(B) => J40
Jumper wire9 J9(A) => J32
J9(B) => Y27
Jumper wire10 J10(A) => J42
J10(B) => Y35
Jumper wire11 J11(A) =>C31
J11(B) =>C45
Jumper wire12 J12(A) => C47
J12(B) => W39
Jumper wire13 J13(A) => W25
J13(B) => W26
Jumper wire14 J14(A) => Y25
J14(B) => Y26
Motor 1 M1(+) =>I 22
M1(-) =>I 30

258
Battery Red(+) => W3
Connector Black (-)=> Y3

259
FUTHER ACTIVITIES:

1. Learn how to draw the circuit diagram(s) in this experiment.

2. Practice the circuit set up on your own without using the connection table guide.
3. Read more about the circuit(s) and devices and the different ways of achieving the result
using other devices.
4. Think of ways you could apply this knowledge to solve your immediate problem and for
innovations.

260
NOTES:

261
APPENDIX

262
263
264
265
My advice to every educated young Nigerian
is that he should take each day as a sacred
unit which must not be misused or dissipated.
He should ensure that out of the 24 hours
available to him, he spends 8 hours on hard
work, 8 hours concentration should be spent
on serious studies, the remaining 8 hours are
enough for feeding, relaxation and sleeping.
--CHIEF OBAFEMI AWOLOWO

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…LEARN, APPLY AND DEVELOP