The Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti.

School of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department.

Course: Civil Engineering Construction iii

Code: CEC 217

Class: ND2

Unit: 3.0

SADIQ ABDUL
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1.0 Introduction
The location of a new major road can require consideration of many complex and interrelated
factors, which normally utilize the skills of economists, geologists, planners and surveyors as
well as those of road engineers regarding traffic volumes and desires, the planning intentions
within the area to be transverse and preliminary estimates of the anticipated design of the
proposed road. Whatever the locate being considered, location surveys provide fundamental
information for the economic, environmental and social analyses which have major influences on
the final location of the new road as well as its geometric and structural design.

1.1 Engineering Surveys in Construction.

Engineering surveys has a strong favorable influence on the cost of the project as it enables a
number of alternatives to be examined and thereby making it possible to select the most
appropriate solution. This is only possible if exhaustive surveys are carried out.

Engineering Surveying is defined as the science of making measurements of the earth

specifically the surface of the earth. This is being carried out by finding the spatial location
(relative / absolute) of points on or near the surface of the earth.

There are various types of surveys that are required for finalization of the alignment, but certain
basic considerations factors have to be taken into account in respect of the project as a whole.
These factors are:
1. Straight route: the highways should be direct as possible between the cities to be linked as this
will result in economy in construction, maintenance and operational cost.
2. Good sight distance: the ability of the driver for safe driving over a particular stretch of road to
a very large extent depends on the length of the road visible to him clear of objects while
driving. The minimum distance should be such that from the instance of observing an obstacle
to the instance of just eroding near it, the driver should be in a position to stop the vehicles
without collision.
3. Easy grades and curves. The gradient not sharper than the limiting values specified foe
different types of terrain. Excess of either of both may result in economy of initial cost, but
will involve extremely high operation costs, time costs and accident costs.
4. Availability of road building materials: the availability of stones, gravels and sands bring
down the cost of construction as well as maintenance.
5. The location should have the least impact on the environment including fauna, flora and
drainage system.
6. Location should minimize the use of agricultural land, if a road exists, it may be advisable to
make use of the land already available to the maximum extent.
7. Location should be located as far as possible along the edges of the properties rather than
through them.

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8. Locations should stay clear of obstruction such as cemeteries, places of worship, historical
monuments etc.
9. Villages and towns should be as far as possible be bypassed as alignment through the increase
traffic hazards, congestion and pollution.
10. Frequent crossing and re-crossing of the railway lines should be avoided.
Intersection at grade with railway lines should also be avoided between the dynamite and the
rock is essential and the point of contact should be as much as possible.

1.2 Classification of Surveying.

Based on the purpose (for which surveying is being conducted), Surveying has been
classified into:

• Control surveying: To establish horizontal and vertical positions of control points.

• Land surveying: To determine the boundaries and areas of parcels of land, also known as
property survey, boundary survey or cadastral survey.

• Topographic survey: To prepare a plan/ map of a region which includes natural as well as
and man-made features including elevation.

• Engineering survey: To collect requisite data for planning, design and execution of
engineering projects. Three broad steps are,
- Reconnaissance survey: To explore site conditions and availability of infrastructures.
- Preliminary survey: To collect adequate data to prepare plan / map of area to be used for
planning and design.
- Location survey: To set out work on the ground for actual construction / execution of the
project.

• Route survey: To plan, design, and laying out of route such as highways, railways, canals,
pipelines, and other linear projects.

• Construction surveys: Surveys which are required for establishment of points, lines, grades,
and for staking out engineering works (after the plans have been prepared and the structural
design has been done).

• Astronomic surveys : To determine the latitude, longitude (of the observation station) and
azimuth (of a line through observation station) from astronomical observation.

• Mine surveys: To carry out surveying specific for opencast and underground mining purposes.

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1.3 Importance of Engineering Surveying in route location of Highways
Once the need for a new highway or for improvement of the existing facility is justified, the
approach to selecting an appropriate route involves a variety of surveys and investigation.
Engineering surveys are very important because if not carried out properly,
- The deficiencies in selected alignment, specification and design are likely to surface
during execution and changes at that stage will involve delay.
- Extra cost and contractual complications.
The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such as construction of highways,
bridges, tunnels, dams etc. are based upon surveying measurements.
Moreover, during execution, project of any magnitude is constructed along the lines and points
established by surveying.
Thus, surveying is a basic requirement for all Civil Engineering projects.
Other principal works in which surveying is primarily utilized are
• To fix the national and state boundaries.
• To chart coastlines, navigable streams and lake.
• To establish control points.
• To execute hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping.
• To prepare topographic map of land surface of the earth.
Objectives of using methods and instruments in High Way Contractions
Different methods and instruments are being used to facilitate the work of surveying.
The primary aims are:
• To measure the Horizontal Distance between points.
• To measure the Vertical elevation between points.
• To find out the Relative direction of lines by measuring horizontal angles with reference to any
arbitrary direction.
• To find out Absolute direction by measuring horizontal angles with reference to a fixed
direction.

2.0 Setting Out in Highway Engineering Construction

Setting out is the field work required for marking out on the ground, the positions of some
engineering work which is proposed to be carry out and position of which has been drawn upon
the survey plan, which was previously prepared.
A road would require its center line to be marked on the ground with great accuracy, by pegs driven
into the ground every 20m, each of these stations being marked with a peg, end the chain age is
carried on continuously along the straight and round curves.
Setting out is performed with the use of the theodolite and chain or steel tape and on each chain
length when a change in the direction of the straights the pegs and fixed and each chain length.
When a change in the direction of the straight occurs, a peg must be fixed to mark the intersection

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of the straight. At this point of intersection, a curve has been introduced to ease the running at the
intersection angle.
The operation of setting involves a party of level men starting from the beginning and proceeds
to take levels of each chain point and the tangent points of the curves.

2.1 Setting out of Culvers and Bridges

This is done by marking and pegging out the area of the Bridge or Culvert will occupy at intervals.
The cross-selection along the Centre line of the proposed bridge at 3m interval for a distance of
15m beyond the highway line both upstream and downstream are taken. The x sectional area
should be large enough to include all proposed construction such as abutments and other river
training works.
Profile of the stream bed is taken at 150m upstream and at downstream elevation is taking at every
7.5m intervals or at shorter distances. In the case of culvert, if batter pegs giving the position of
the toe of the slope of the embankment have already been set out, the position in the Centre of the
stream are taken, pegs marking the line of the inside face walls at the end culverts are noted.
These points are at the center of the invert of the culvert and the levels would be determined by
running a line of level down the center of the stream and finding the rate of fall.

2.2 Procedures for Setting Out tangent and Curves.

Curves are normally provided to change the direction in gradient way when two straight
alignments meet at an intersection in horizontal or vertical plane.
The change in alignment is necessitated for the following reasons: -
a. Topography of the country
b. To provide access to a particular locality
c. To avoid certain land or structure not acquirable such as religious and monumental places
d. Preservation of existing amenities
e. To break the monotony and mental strain on driver when a long stretch of road is to be
provided and also to stop the driver from speeding.

2.3 There are two kinds of Curves – horizontal and vertical curves.
i. The horizontal curve allow change in direction of the pavement or road. It is a curve in plan
provided to the direction of the centerline of the pavement of the road.
ii. The Vertical curve is provided when there is a change in grade i.e. where two contrary
gradient meet, the alignment is connected by a curve to smoothen out the vertical profile.
Curves and tangents are set by offset from standard chord. When the location of a road is made
straights were set out end taped, this location is composed by a number of straight lines, like a
transverse, intercepting each other in succession at points. It may then be required to put curves
between each of the straights.

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This can be illustrated by the diagram below.

2.4 Procedure of fill for Embankment

The filling operation for embankment involves the use of stakes and string profile by fixing them at certain distances
across the road stakes profile consist of the vertical bamboo poles fixed vertically at the two ends of the formation
width of the road. The slope or the gradient having been established, the string is then tied to the bamboos and slope
pegs. The height of the horizontal string shows the height of the embankment, while sloping string represent the side
slopes. The earth is then filled between the strings and rolled by roller machine to minimize air void.

The sub grade is compacted in the layers of the lift of 150mm by rolling with a road roller or compacting machine
weighing not less than 5400kg. Water should be applied at slightly above the O.M.C uniformly to the sub grade, a
day prior to rolling in amount as directed. AASHO recommend minimum density requirement for embankment
compaction as 95%. Granular soils should be compacted as 95- 100% modified. AASHO density. Fine grained soil
possessing low degree of plasticity should be compacted to approximately 100% of standard AASHO at moisture
content near laboratory optimum. DOT specified layer thickness and number of passes of compaction to be
used with each type of material and equipment, 4to12 passes maximum thickness 300mm. Good
compaction increases bearin g capacity and slope stability, reduces settlements and undesirable
volume changes

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2.5 Procedure for cutting (excavation)
The method is the same as for embankment but the position level makes the operation to be the reverse of the
embankment.

Depth of cutting = d. the side slopes having been decided upon say 1, ½. A very common slope
used, but depending upon the nature of the material to be excavated. The surface along the section
of the cutting is level. Stakes are fixed with the slope stakes and steps taken as for embankment.

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3.0 The Right of Way.
The Right of Way (ROW); is the total land area acquired for the construction of the roadway. Its
width should be enough to accommodate all the elements of the roadway cross section, any future
widening of the road and any public utility facilities that will be installed along the roadway. ROW
is the area of the road acquired for carriages way + other necessities + future extension, along its
alignment. Good practice is to acquire ROW wide enough to accommodate the ultimate
development and all components of the road.

Factors Affecting Right of Way (ROW)

 Width of formation
 Height of embankment
 Side slopes
 Drainage system
 Sight distances consideration on horizontal curves
 Future extension

4.0 Bush Clearing and Routing of Trees in Highway Constructions.

Clearing prepares the site for the construction activities which follow and makes the work easier
and safer.
Clearing consists of the removal of:
- Bush and scrub;
- Trees, stumps and fences;
- Grass and other vegetation;
- Boulders.
The removal of trees and boulders can be very time-consuming and realignment of the road
should be considered before starting major clearing work.
4.1 Clearing of Site
Remember that:
- Clearing is carried out so that the following activities can be executed safely and easily.
- Tree and boulder removal can be very time consuming and thus expensive in some cases.
- It may be useful to consider changing the alignment so that such obstacles are avoided.
- The owners of trees or crops have to be notified in accordance with. the regulations.
- Tree felling and boulder removal can be dangerous and should be done by experienced
workers.
- Ropes should always be checked and tested before they are used.
- It is better to pull down a tree with. its roots than to cut it down first and to dig out the
stump later.
- Blasting has to be done following government safety regulations and should only be done
by licensed personnel.

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4.2 Bush Clearing
Method
- Set out the area to be cleared.
- Place the workers in such a way that they know which area to clear and that they have
sufficient working space.
- Issue the necessary tools and start the work.
- Throw the bushes outside the cleared area or heap them in the middle of the clearing where
they can be burned afterwards.
4.3 Tree and Stump removal
Method
- Secure a long, strong rope to the top of the tree to be removed (several ropes securing the
tree in different directions in the case of big trees).
- Remove the soil around the roots first and deepest on the side to where you want the tree to
fall; if the roots are very deep they can be cut after they have been excavated to at least 1 m
depth.
- Making uses of chemicals in removal process.
- Pull down the tree with the rope.
- Cut the tree in smaller pieces which can be handled and remove them from the roadway;
pieces which are too big to be moved can be burned when all the grass has been removed
from around them.
Note: No people should be working on other activities in the danger area (a circle of twice the
length of the tree) when the tree is being removed.

4.4 Tools
For excavation: Hoes, mattocks and shovels.
For cutting: Axes, mattocks, bow-saws.
Other: Ropes, winch, hand tong, grapple

5.0 Spoil and Hauling of Materials

Whatever may be the type of pavement required for a highway, the preparation of the formation involves two
primary operations namely; Embankment and Excavation.
Ideally the selection of optimum horizontal and vertical alignment should result in the volume of material
excavated within the limit of the road scheme being equal to the amount of the full required in embankment, so
that there is no need to waste good materials or import expensive materials elsewhere. In engineering practice, it
might not be always possible as some excavated.
materials might be unsuitable for the use of embankment; therefore, they have to be discharged or wasted. When
this is done it is called spoil. Surplus earth is also thrown into the spoil bank.

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5.1 Hauling of Materials:
This entails bringing of excavated materials from borrow pits, or dumping of surplus earth into spoil banks from
adjourning areas to the highway to or from the site. The product of the amount of excavation and the distance
which it is moved is known as haul. It involves loading and unloading excavated materials.

6.0 Blasting of Rocks

The process of reducing a solid body, such as rock, to fragments by using an explosive.
Conventional blasting operations include;
(1) Drilling holes,
(2) Placing a charge and detonator in each hole,
(3) Detonating the charge, and
(4) Clearing away the broken material.

6.1 Processes for the blasting of Rocks

Blasting is the process of breaking mass of rock into pieces using explosives. The purpose of blasting is to
loosen the rock by not violently blowing up the whole mass causing the breakage of stone into
smaller pieces of no use. After loosening the rock by explosives, this large-size stones are then
crushed into smaller size stones are then crushed into the smaller sizes.
The processes of blasting consist of the following operations:
Drilling holes
Filling/explosive
Temping
Firing Holes are drilled by one of the following methods:
a. By Jumper
b. Percussion
The normal explosive used is dynamite of about 40%-- 60% or galantine which is waterproof
jelly like dynamite.
Detonators are also used for charging. Dynamite ordinarily is available in cartridges.

6.2 Process of blasting with dynamite

By drilling Holes about 60cm up to 2m in depth and 2.5cm diameter or 2m to 3.5m depth of 4cm or 3.5m to
5m depth 5cm to 6cm are drilled. The depth of the hole should be about the same as the length of
the line of least resistance.
The distance apart the holes should be from 1.5 to 2 times the depth. The charge should then be
placed not nearer than 30cm to a crack or fissure square cut one end of the fuse is pushed into a
detonator till it touches the white fulminate within it.
A dynamite cartridge used for priming is then opened at one end and the detonator gently pushed
into the dynamite leaving about one-third of the copper tube exposed outside the paper of
cartridge is then closed up and securely bond with wire or twine to prevent dislocation of the
detonator.

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The operation is then quickly retired to safe distance and detonator the dynamite. If it is desired
to shatter the rock, close connection between the dynamite and the rock is essential and the point of contact
should be as much as possible.
Other explosives that could be used are:

a. Gin powder or blasting powder

b. Gin cotton or blasting cotton
c. Cordite Processes

7.0 Earth Work in Highway Engineering Construction.

Earthwork involves the loosening, removal and handling of earth quantities in the construction
process. Earthworks are carried out to provide a level terrace or "bench", with an even,
longitudinal slope, on which the drainage and camber can be built.
The earthwork is usually the costliest operation in the road construction, often accounting for
more than half of the construction costs.
The principal activities in Earthworks are:
- Clearance.
- Measuring and calculation of volumes.
- Excavation which includes levelling, cut to cross fill, U-cut and borrow excavation.
- Loading, hauling and unloading.
- Filling, including spreading and compaction.
Earthwork is very suitable for incentive schemes like task work because the volume of work can
be easily measured.

7.1 Choice of Borrow pits, Uses and Control side drains.

Borrow pits:
This is a pit formed on temporary roads, due to the excavation of the earth materials. Borrow is normally
elevated than the natural soil (lateral hill). It is from this that materials that could be used for
road construction is obtained. It could be within the construction or adjacent site.

The choice of borrow pits depends on:

- The quantities of volume of earthwork that could be obtained and utilized as road materials.
- The Control could be done by visual inspection
- To determine if it is coarse, grained or fine grained.
- Digging of trial pit and taking the samples to the laboratory for tests to determine whether the
properties of the material meet the recommended standard.

Relevance of Side Drains Compaction

Excess water which is precipitated as rain, hail, snow or sleet is the enemy of earthwork foundation,
pavement and traffic. Consequently, proper surface drainage design is an essential and integrals
part of economic road design.

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Surface drainages deals with the disposal of water from the roadway. The water is normally
disposed off from the road by:
- Cambering the road surface
- Sloping the shoulders
- Providing side drains
The basic functions of the side drains
Are to collect the water from the carriage way through the shoulders and the surrounding area.

7.2 The different Types of Side Drains are.

Trapezoidal and Triangular in shape.
Depending on the intensity of the rainfall, the x-section is trapezoidal and where the rainfall is
less it is triangular in shape. Side drains are provided generally parallel to the highway; hence
they are also called longitudinal drains. Side drains could be lined or unlined.

When the road is an embankment, it is common practice to allow the surface water to flow across the shoulders
and down the slopes to the side drains, but due care has to be taken so that erosion of the side slopes does not take
place. One of the methods of protecting the side slopes is to retain water at the outer edge of the shoulder in the
longitudinal v-shaped drains and then disposed off at suitable points to the natural ground by means of paved
drains.

8.0 Type of Earthworks in Highway Engineering Constructions

1. Sub Grade:
Subgrade is the foundation of the road, thus it’s the lowest and most important component of
road structure.
Construction:
 If natural surface is above the formation level, then the surface is cut down to proposed
sub grade surface
 If natural surface is below the formation level, then the sub grade will be above the
ground level
 It should be constructed at least 60 cm (2ft) high from highest flood level of the area

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Function of Sub grade:
 Bears all the load thus acts as a foundation of road
 Transfer load through grain to grain contact

Material: Material of sub grade should be strong enough to bear the loads, easily accessible and
available in the vicinity and cheap.

2. Sub Base:
The Subbase course is the portion of the pavement structure between the base course and the
subgrade.
The Subbase generally consists of lower quality materials than the base course but better than the
Subgrade soils. Appropriate materials are aggregate and high quality structural fill. A subbase
course is not always needed or used.
Consists of: Upper Base Course and Sub or Lower Base Course
Construction:
 Constructed above the sub grade
 Not needed if the sub grade is of very high strength
 In case of flexible pavement upper and lower base courses are separated having different
materials
 In case of rigid pavement only upper base course is provided
 Thickness varies from 7.5cm (3in) to 15cm (6in)
Functions of Sub base
- Prevent rise of water or capillary action
- It functions primarily as structural support
- Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement structure.
- Improve drainage.
- Minimize frost action damage.
- Provide a working platform for construction.

Material:
 Should be better than the material of Sub Grade
 The Upper Base Course is made up of sand, gravel, and stone
 The Lower Base Course is made up of cheaply available material i-e rock and stone
fragments

3. Road Base or Base Course

The base Course is immediately beneath the surface course.
It provides:
1. Additional load distribution,
2. Contributes to drainage and frost resistance,

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 3. Uniform support to the pavement and
4. A stable platform for construction equipment (ACPA, 2001). Bases also help prevent
subgrade soil movement due to slab pumping. Base courses are usually constructed out of.
- Due to quality of material used in the road base it is divided into
Upper Road Base and Lower Road Base.

Construction:
Constructed above the Sub Base
Functions of Road Base:
 To avoid the distortion of wearing course due to its sufficient density
 Supports the wearing course
Material:
 In case of Upper Road Base, the material is of high quality as the load intensity is high
 case of Lower Road Base, the material is of high quality as the load intensity decreases

4. Surfacing:
It is the upper most layer of road cross section. It can be provided in one or two layers
Construction:
Constructed usually in two layers
 Binder Course
 Wearing Course (It is the layer which is in direct contact with the tyres of the vehicle.
Functions of Surfacing of Road:

 Prevent penetration of water in to the pavement

 Binder Course binds the Wearing Course with the Road Base
 Wearing Course provide a smooth riding
 Saves the lower layers from abrasion and weathering effects of the moving vehicles

Material:
 Made up of bituminous material
 For Flexible Pavement asphalt concrete is used
 For Rigid Pavements Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) is used

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 Typical Highway Construction Profile:

8.1 Thickness required for Sub Base, their Compaction and relevance in Situ Tests.

Sub Base:
this is the layer laid directly after the formation (sub grade) and is normally laid when the bearing capacity of
the sub grade is not likely to withstand the load. Sub base is a layer of selected materials which
could be of type 1 which compose of crushed rocks or concretes or well burnt shale and mat contain
up to 12.5% by mass of natural sand that passes 5mm B.S sieve on sub grades with CBR of 5-15%
and >15% for pavement with low trafficked roads. In the case of heavily trafficked roads type 2
sub base materials which also include gravel and natural sand may be used instead of type 1,
provided the plasticity index does not exceed and its CBR is 30% or more. Both types of sub base
materials are often brought on site by trucks, spread by motor grade and compacted with vibrating
rollers. Type 1 is assumed to be free draining and no moisture content is specified for its
compaction, type 2 is compacted to 5% air voids at its optimum moisture content. The materials
are compacted in 110mm and 150mm layer.
The recommended layer compacted thickness for type 1 and 2 materials is 225mm; min=150mm.

Granular Sub Base Compaction

The relevant in situ tests for compaction are by determining the moisture content of the soil and also the field
density. These could be achieved by: for moisture content- needle penetration test. for the
density- core cutter method and sand replacement method.

Needle Penetration Test

This test is carried out by a proctor needle indicates depth of penetration with a least count of 12mm. A sample of
wet soil is taken from the field and compacted in a standard compaction mould and its penetration is noted by
forcing the needle. The penetration resistance is noted in the laboratory corresponding to various moisture content
and the end of each compaction and calibrated curves is plotted for determination of OMC. The resistance
measured by forcing the needle into compacted soil in the proctor’s mould at the rate of 12mm per second up to a
minimum depth of 7.2cm. Once the resistance to the penetration is known, the moisture content of the soil is

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determined from the calibrated.
Other in Situ Tests for Moisture Content Determination include,
X Time domain reflectometry, X Speedy moisture tester , X Soil moisture capacitance probe TDR involves the
determination of the propagation of the velocity of an electromagnetic pulse sent down a forklike probe installed in
the soil. The velocity is determined by measuring the time taken for the pulse to travel down the probe and be
reflected back from its end. By measuring the time taken by the pulse, the moisture content of the soil can be
established around the probe. Probe Trace Time Domain Reflectometry Probe.

8.2 Elevation in Highway Engineering Constructions

I. Camber Elevation
Camber Elevation is defined as the slope of line joining the crown and the edge of the road surface. It is also
referred to as cross fall or cross slope or transverse slope. Usually camber is constructed in the
road by raising the Centre of the carriage way with respect to the edges forming highest points at
center.
It is mainly provided for drainage and quick disposal of rain water from the road surface. It is
either elliptical or parabolic. Camber therefore, prevent the entry of water or moisture into the sub
grade and thus the stability of the road base and weary cover is increased. The removal of water from road surface
makes it non slippery and safe for driving of vehicles on high speed. The rate of camber depends upon the amount
of rainfall and the type of pavement surface. The smoother the surface of the pavement, the flatter should be camber.
The too steep camber causes the following undesirable effect:
i. Uncomfortable sides thrust and drag on the steering of the automobile, and excessive trust of the wheel
along the pavement edges causing unequal wears of tyres.
ii. During overtaking operation excessive camber causes discomfort to the occupants.
The recommended Camber values for different types of road surfaces are as follows:
a. High type bituminous surfacing or cement concrete =1 in 60 to 1 in 50
b. Bituminous surfacing 1 in 50 to 1 in 40
c. Water bound macadam, gravel 1 in 40 to 1 in 33 or earth 1 in 33 to 1 in 25 in the field,
NB. Cambering may be checked with the help of template or camber board.

Typical Elevations.

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II. Super Elevation
Super Elevation is the inner tilt given to the cross section of a road on a horizontal curve. It reduces the effect
of centrifugal force on a moving vehicle on the curve. On curves there is a tendency for the vehicle
to fall away from the outer portion of the curve due to the existence of the centrifugal force, to
overcome this effect of curvature an inner tilt is provided, by raising the outer edge in respect to
the inner edge it is expressed as the rate between the difference of height of the outer edge and the
inner edge of the carriage and the width of the carriage.
The following are advantages of providing super elevation:
i. Higher speed without danger of over tarring.
ii. Increased volume of traffic.
iii. Maintenance is reduced; otherwise there will be wearing on the outside wheels.
iv. The water can drain off easily
Therefore, there is no necessity of proving gutter on the outer edge of the road. Class Activity.
Why does compaction of stone base normally begin at the edges and not at the center.

9.0 Soil Stabilizations

Soil Stabilizations It is a procedure wherein the engineering properties of the soil are altered and
enhanced to increase its suitability for construction purposes. To put it in simple words, it is a
method of stabilizing soils.
Soil stabilization refers to the process of changing soil properties to improve strength and
durability. There are many techniques for soil stabilization, including compaction, dewatering
and by adding material to the soil. This summary will focus on mechanical and chemical
stabilization based adding IRC materials. Mechanical stabilization improves soil properties by

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mixing other soil materials with the target soil to change the gradation and therefore change the
engineering properties. Chemical stabilization used the addition of cementitious or pozzolanic
materials to improve the soil properties. Chemical stabilization has traditionally relied on
Portland cement and lime for chemical stabilization. There a number of IRC materials that can be
used individually, or mixed with other materials, to achieve soil stabilization.

9.1 What is Benefits of Misdate’s Soil Stabilization process can include:

To improve the strength of sub bases, bases and in the case of low cost roads, surface course.
To bring about economy in the cost of a road.
To make use of locally available soils and other materials which are otherwise inferior.
To eliminate or improve certain undesirable properties of soils, such as excessive swelling or shrinkage, high
plasticity, difficulty in compaction etc.
To control dust.
To reduce frost susceptibility.
To increase the load bearing capacity.
To reduce compressibility and thereby settlement
To improve permeability characteristics.

Soil stabilization is the process of treating natural soil in such a manner as to maintain, alter or improve the
performance of the soil as construction material. It could be done in site or after the soil has been removed and
placed in the pavement or embankment. The changes in the soil properties are brought about either
by incorporation of additives or by mechanical blending of different soil types. The availability
of good cheap supplies of aggregates is limited and as such greater attention is been paid to the
materials such as stabilized soils to meet road construction needs.
9.2 In practice the main method by which soils are stabilized for road purposes are: mechanical and
chemical.

I. Mechanical stabilization.
Mechanical stabilization is achieved by intelligently blending locally occurring materials so as to
obtain a desired grading. It is that a dense, well-graded mass offers high resistance to lateral
displacement under a load. If the well-graded material is compacted, densification of the mass
takes place. The mechanical strength of the mass is due to the internal friction and the cohesion.
Internal friction is supplied by the coarser particles whereas cohesion is due to the clay fractions.
The application of the principle of the mechanical stabilization is evident in the following
specifications:
(i) Soil-aggregate mixtures
(ii) Sand-clay mixtures

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 (iii) Sand-gravel mixtures
(iv) Stabilization of soil with soft aggregates.
II. Chemical stabilization.
Chemical stabilization is a general term implying the use of chemicals such as lime, cement,
sodium silicate, calcium chloride, bituminous materials and resinous materials for bringing about
stabilization. It is normally achieved by mixing the chemicals to the soil.
Chemical types of soil stabilization are achieved through application of various substances which
act as compaction aids, water repellents and/or binders. The most effective stabilizer is, of
course, one that has all three possible characteristics. These substances are usually diluted with
water and sprayed over soil which can be followed by mixing and compaction

Other soil stabilization includes:

physical and biological stabilizations
Biological soil stabilization is achieved through afforestation or planting, and its main purpose is
erosion control. This method is suitable for terrains exposed to water and wind influences which
are not meant for building. However, initially planting has to be supported by other types of soil
stabilization from the moment seeds or seedlings are planted till the moment the plants become
strong. Otherwise, along with surface layer, seeds or young plants would be carried away by
water flow or wind.

Physical types of soil stabilization include two different stabilization systems, one is drainage
and another one is compaction. Drainage is beneficial as it removes excessive water from soil.
Water makes soil more plastic and thus prone to deformation occurrence. Excessive water in soil
can also cause erosion. Drainage system consists of set of pipes, canals and/or pumps, which
makes it quite expensive to build. Compaction makes soil denser and thus less compressible and
more water resistant, but for most of soils this method alone is not sufficient. It is usually
additional measure to chemical stabilization.
.

10.0 Stone Base (macadam) as alternative Base Material.

The term macadam designates a road base in which clean broken or crushed stone uses
mechanically locked by rolling and bonded by stone screenings which are worked into the voids
and set with water.
Road bases in major roads are now normally bound with bitumen or cement. In lightly trafficked
rural roads, however, it is common unbound macadam road bases to be used in pavements.
Aggregates used in these macadam road bases are most usually non-flakey crushing rock or gravel
or crushed slag. All primarily rely for their strength and resistance to deformation upon the
interlocking of individual crushed particles and upon the friction between the rough surfaces in
contact. The combination of tightly keyed coarse aggregate bond with stone chips and dust creates
a base course equally as good as other untreated bases. Compaction is normally beginning at the
edges are carried out parallel to the centerline so as to lock the outer stones, and then extend
progressively towards the Centre. The materials are normally spread evenly at the site, and either
smooth wheeled or rubber tyred rollers are used for compaction. The compacted layers should not

19
be move than 150mm deep. If vibratory rollers are use, then single layers of up to 255mm
compacted thickness can be satisfactorily laid. Macadam could be water bond type, crusher
run or dry bound.

11.0 Priming
I. Priming Coat, Priming is the first single Coat or primary Coat of the liquid bitumen of low
viscosity given upon the untreated surface of the gravel or water bound macadam bases as a
requirement before the placing of a bituminous pavement or treatment to the surface of the Road.
The purposes of the priming are;
- To plug capillary voids in order to halt the upward movement of water.
- To Coat and bind dust and loose mineral particles, thus hardening and toughening the
surface.
- Adhesion between the base and the surface cause is also improved.
The lighter medium curing cut back bitumen (MCO, MCL) are generally used for priming or as
Prime Coats. They are fluid enough to penetrate into the base.

II. Tack Coat

This is the process of applying a single initial Coat of bituminous materials surfaces previously
treated before giving a new bituminous wearing surface.
It is normally provided on a primed granular base cause; therefore, this shows that priming is a
requirement for Tack Coat. The binder used for tack coats should penetrate and soften the
surface of an old bituminous mix, so that it binds the old and the new layer tightly together. It
should be cohesive. Mcl or RC cut back in lightly grades emulsions are commonly used for as
Tack Coats.

11I. Sand Curing

After the layer of bituminous material has been laid to complete the finished surface of the road,
traffic is normally detoured until surface is no longer sticky and will not be picked up by the
traffic, but if this cannot be done, a blotter course of sand is normally applied to the finished
surface to cure it and normally it is allowed to set for 24hrs, then the road is then thrown open to
traffic.

11.0 Surface Dressing and Surface Treatment and their Materials used.
Surface treatment is a variety of procedure intended to dustproof or upgrade untreated surface or
to rejuvenate or improve existing pavements. The treatment given to this effect is called
“Surface Dressing”.
Surface dressing is the process of spaying a thin layer of binder on to existing surfaces, followed
by spreading a layer of chippings which is then rolled. Rolling helps to initiate and enhance the
bond between the binders and the stone chippings and achieve their embedment in the underlying
existing road surface. Surface dressing are used successfully on all types of roads, from very

20
lightly traveled lanes to motor ways carrying many thousands of vehicle per day. Surface
dressing is mainly used as a maintenance tool as the thin film in no way reinforces the structure
of the road.
Surface dressing, in simple terms, means treating of roads in ways to prevent their condition
from getting worse. These surface treatments are cheaper than the cost of rebuilding, which is
why it is preferred by the government authorities and individuals without going over budget. In
addition to restoring road conditions, surface dressing also improves a car’s resistance to
skidding, helps waterproof the roads, and protect it from damage by water and frost. The road
surface dressing contractors help refurbish and construct roads.
Materials to be used type; size, shape of chippings, type of binder, type of dressing size(s) of
aggregate(s)

11.1 Benefits of Surface Dressing

There are many advantages of surface dressing apart from the ones mentioned above. You will
get greater advantages if you hire a private contractor that has experiences with working with
private clients.
 Your parking space or driveway will not only be more durable but scuff resistant as well
 It is a cost-effective method when you compare it with other alternative solutions
 You can maximize your car park capacity as a private contractor will give you the freedom to
precise layout the available spaces
 Car park surfaces will provide protection against water damage which is one of the leading
causes of asphalt deterioration
 Stable and smooth roads with greater aesthetic appeal
 To provide a dust free pavement surface over the base course.

11.2 Types of surface Dressing

The basic types of Surface Dressings are:
 Single Surface Dressing - one layer of binder and one layer of chippings
 Racked-in Surface Dressing - one layer of binder and two layers of chippings
 Double Surface Dressing - two layers of chippings (the larger size in the bottom layer)
and two applications of binder, the second one being placed between the layers of
chippings
 Inverted double Surface Dressing - as above for double dressing with the layers of larger
and smaller chippings reversed.
 Sandwich Surface Dressing - a layer of chippings laid on the road surface prior to the
application of a single surface dressing.

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11.3 The Surface Dressing Process in Highway
1. The Surface Dressing process is very weather dependent and cannot be applied to wet or cold
roads or during high air humidity levels or very high road temperatures.
2. The road is swept and cleared of any built up detritus and all ironwork masked over.
3. The Sprayer machine is driven slowly along the road spreading the bitumen evenly across the
width of the box.
4. This is followed closely by the chipping spreader and lorries. There is an excess of chips
spread on the road to prevent traffic or pedestrians from picking up wet tar.
5. Depending on the type of surface dressing there may be two coats of tar and chippings applied
or two layers of chippings.
6. The material is given an initial embedment with a pneumatic tyred roller. The action of
further trafficking helps the material to embed and achieve its optimum strength.
7. Following completion of the work there will be a degree of stone loss. This will be removed
by a suction sweeper in stages. Traffic signs will be left in place advising of the risk of loose
chippings and showing an advisory speed limit.
8. The first sweep will normally take place 24 to 48 hours after the initial process. Sweeping
earlier than this may damage the surface in its early life.
9. The masking is then removed from the ironwork in the road.
10. Trafficking will continue to help with the embedment of chippings. However, this must be at
low speeds.
11. It is advisable to remove outdoor shoes prior to entering your house and to check pets for
any sticking tar. This is important in the early life of the process but should quickly settle
down. 12. When there is no further loss of aggregate, all temporary signing will be

12.0 Culvert and Bridge in Highway Constructions

A Culverts are structures used to cross the passage of running water such as canal, river or stream.
It encompasses practically all closed conduit used for highway drainage. It is normally constructed
and installed below the embankment of a carriage. The clear span of culvert is usually less than
8metres. There are some common types of culvert such as pipe, box, and arch culvert. The culvert
type is based on hydraulic, water surface elevation, and roadway height and other conditions
A Bridge is also a structure which provides continuous passage over an obstacle such as
waterways, deep valleys and other transportation routes without closing the passage or way
underneath. Bridge could span from 6 to 120metresand above.

The purpose of both bridges and culvert is providing a transportation route over obstructions,
which is why they may seem the same, but the span length chiefly differentiates between the two
structures. Other factors also set culverts and bridges apart from each other, like terrain and
design.

22
12.1 Some other differences between bridges and culverts are given below:

Bridge Culvert

1 A bridge is a passage of transportation (for A culvert is generally a tunnel-like structure

people or vehicles) over a large body of that allows water to pass under a roadway
water or physical obstruction. or railway.

2 The basic components of a bridge are The components of a culvert are

superstructure (supports load), substructure comparatively simpler and include concrete
(transfers load to foundation soil) and deck boxes or cells (single or multiple), pipes, a
(transfers surface load to other top deck or slab and supporting parts.
components).

3 Bridges are constructed at a height more Culverts are built at less than 20 feet high
than 20 feet. over the obstruction.

4 A bridge spans from 6 meters (minor The length of culverts is typically not more
bridges) to more than 120 meters. than 6 meters.

5 Piers and abutments are the supporting Culverts are usually embedded in the soil
structures of a bridge. which bears the major portion of the culvert
load.

6 A bridge contains no floor. A culvert is an enveloping structure that

consists of two sides, a roof, and a floor.

7 The construction of a strong and deep No deep foundation is required for a

foundation is very important in building a culvert.
bridge. The foundation along the entire
breadth supports the bridge.

8 A bridge is usually a linear and straight Culverts are totally enclosed structures that
passage. can be semi-circular, rectangular, elliptical
or pear-shaped.

9 The structure and design of a bridge are The construction of a culvert can be done
elaborate and complex, hence its with a low budget.
construction requires a substantial budget.

23
 Bridge Culvert

10 Bridges are usually constructed at the site Culverts can be pre-constructed or built at
or pre-constructed in smaller parts. the site (in situ culverts).

11 Construction of bridges generally requires Culverts are simpler in structure and design,
a lot of time and manpower. so it can be constructed with less time and
labor.

12 Bridges provide an easier route of Culverts prevent water logging, flood, and
transportation that saves time and reduces erosion, and allows water to flow its natural
distance. course under a roadway or railway.

13 A bridge is built over a body of water that A culvert is constructed when water needs
is large and has variable flow. to be conveyed through tunnels or channels
under a roadway.

14 Bridges can withstand heavy and speeding Some culverts, like box culverts, have sharp
vehicles. corners that are unsuitable for high-velocity
vehicles.

15 The only way of transportation is over the A culvert can be constructed to

deck of the bridge. accommodate roadways both over and
under the deck (e.g. a culvert built over
another road or railway).

12.2 Use of Culvert

When a new road is being designed, it is usually found that its lines crosses many small natural watercourses.
Culverts are therefore needed:
- To safely convey the stream water under the pavement.
- A culvert is simply an enclosed channel that is open at both ends and is used to convey
water through an embankment.
- Pipes and arch culvert are formed from both rigid and flexible materials,
- whereas boy culvert (these have rectangular cross sections) is always made rigid.
- Flexible type’s culverts are either thin walled steel pipes or galvanized corrugated metal
pipes, which are designed to deflect under load.
- Rigid culverts are composed of reinforced concrete, cast iron or vitrified clay and their
load carrying ability is primarily a function of the stiffness of the culvert walls.

24
13.0 Road drifts
Road drifts are barriers which serve as stoppage of erosion and can be used in sandy dry river
beds to build up water storage in the sand deposited upstream of the drift, similar to the working
of a sand dam. The design of the road drift should culvert-less, the Centre of the drift should be
lowered and there should adequate spill over capacity

13.1 Use of Drift

- Drifts are used where water is to cross the road and on the surface. i.e. they allow water to cross the road on
the surface.
- Drift are cheap and easy to construct and are well suited to some roads with relatively little traffic.
- The drifts are made by welding meshed of bars together in a square grid.
- The bars are 0.6cm in diameter and spaced 20cm apart. Road drift
- Road drift can also be used to stabilize ephemeral riverbeds
- In a dry river a series of road drift and sand dams may be planned
- Used in mountain areas to prevent the erosion of streams and road-water crossings

14.0 Pavement in Highway Construction

Pavements are a form of exterior surface covering, typically raised and used by pedestrians,
running parallel to, and on either side of a road. They provide an area that is separated from, and
so protected from vehicular traffic. However, the term can also be used to refer to other
paved areas, such as pedestrianized streets, patios, courtyards, driveways, and so on.
Pavements can be constructed using asphalt, concrete, flagstone, cobblestone,
artificial stone, bricks, tiles and timber. A road surface, or pavement, is the durable surface
material laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic, such as a road or
walkway.
Pavement, in Civil Engineering, durable surfacing of a road, airstrip, or similar area. The
primary function of a pavement is to transmit loads to the sub-base and underlying soil. Modern
flexible pavements contain sand and gravel or crushed stone compacted with a binder of
bituminous material, such as asphalt, tar, or asphaltic oil. Such a pavement has enough plasticity
to absorb shock. Rigid pavements are made of concrete, composed of coarse and
fine aggregate and Portland cement, and usually reinforced with steel rod.

14.1 Types of Pavements

There are two types of pavements based on design considerations i.e. flexible pavement and rigid
pavement.
1. Rigid Pavement
II. Flexible Pavement

1. Rigid Pavements
A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete slabs. Grouted

25
concrete roads are in the category of semi-rigid pavements. The design of rigid pavement is
based on providing a structural cement concrete slab of sufficient strength to resists the loads
from traffic. The rigid pavement has rigidity and high modulus of elasticity to distribute the load
over a relatively wide area of soil. Minor variations in subgrade strength have little influence on
the structural capacity of a rigid pavement. In the design of a rigid pavement, the flexural
strength of concrete is the major factor and not the strength of subgrade. Due to this property of
pavement, when the subgrade deflects beneath the rigid pavement, the concrete slab is able to
bridge over the localized failures and areas of inadequate support from subgrade because of slab
action.
Rigid pavements have a high compressive strength, which tends to distribute the load over a
relatively wide area of soil.

There are several advantages of properly constructed rigid pavements –

- Low maintenance costs
- Long life with extreme durability
- High value as a base for future resurfacing with asphalt
- Load distribution over a wide area, decreasing base and sub grade requirements
- Ability to be placed directly on poor soils

The disadvantages of rigid pavements include –

- Joints required for contraction and expansion
- Generally rough riding quality
- High repair costs
- High initial costs
- No damage from oils and greases.
- Strong edges.

II. Flexible Pavements

Flexible pavement can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of asphaltic or bituminous
material and aggregates placed on a bed of compacted granular material of appropriate quality in
layers over the subgrade. Water bound macadam roads and stabilized soil roads with or without
asphaltic toppings are examples of flexible pavements.
The design of flexible pavement is based on the principle that for a load of any magnitude, the
intensity of a load diminishes as the load is transmitted downwards from the surface by virtue of
spreading over an increasingly larger area, by carrying it deep enough into the ground through
successive layers of granular material.

Roads are distributed to the subgrade. Thus for flexible pavement, there can be grading in the
quality of materials used, the materials with high degree of strength is used at or near the surface.
Thus the strength of subgrade primarily influences the thickness of the

26
The advantages of flexible pavements include – - --
- Adaptability to stage construction
- Availability of low-cost types that can be easily built
- Ability to be easily opened and patched
- Easy to repair frost heave and settlement
- Resistance to the formation of ice glaze

The disadvantages include –

- Higher maintenance costs
- Shorter life span under heavy use
- Damage by oils and certain chemicals
- Weak edges that may require curbs or edge devices

14.2 Difference between Flexible Pavements and Rigid Pavements

. Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

It consists of a series of layers with the It consists of one layer Portland cement
1. highest quality materials at or near the concrete slab or relatively high flexural
surface of pavement. strength.
It reflects the deformations of subgrade It is able to bridge over localized failures
2.
and subsequent layers on the surface. and area of inadequate support.
Its stability depends upon the aggregate Its structural strength is provided by the
3.
interlock, particle friction and cohesion. pavement slab itself by its beam action.
Pavement design is greatly influenced by Flexural strength of concrete is a major
4.
the subgrade strength. factor for design.
It distributes load over a wide area of
It functions by a way of load distribution
5. subgrade because of its rigidity and high
through the component layers
modulus of elasticity.
Temperature variations due to change in
Temperature changes induce heavy stresses
6. atmospheric conditions do not produce
in rigid pavements.
stresses in flexible pavements.
Flexible pavements have self-healing Any excessive deformations occurring due
7. properties due to heavier wheel loads are to heavier wheel loads are not recoverable,
recoverable due to some extent. i.e. settlements are permanent.

14.3 The use of Concrete in Rigid Pavements.

The cross-section of a rigid roadway compress a pavement superimposed upon the sub grade, and most usually
this pavement is composed of cement concrete slab on top of sub grade, this slab is composed of pavement quality
concrete with considerable rigidity and high modulus of elasticity which enables it to act as a beam and bridge over

27
any localized or minor irregularities in the surface of the layers beneath cement concrete pavement is ideal as traffic
surface with relatively small thickness enable it to provides;
- It distributes wheel load upon sub grade,
- It provides a good riding surface,
- Maintenance costs are comparatively low,
- It is easy to clean and it is dust free,
- The vehicle operation cost on cement concrete road is minimum,
- The wear, tear and mechanically breakdown of vehicle is comparatively less,
- It has a high salvage value as a base for a new wearing course.

15.0 Relevant Equipment used in Highway Constructions

In highway construction machinery is useful where a large quantity of work is to be done in a
concentrated area in limited time, this means that with the help of machines many complicated
and gigantic work can be done economically in shorter duration. Therefore, the knowledge of
machinery usually required for the road construction is essential. In road construction project
different machinery is required for different type of jobs.
The sequence of job in Highway construction operations can be as follows:
1. Clearing the site
2. Formation of sub grade- embankment or cutting
3. Spreading of materials
4. Rolling or compaction
5. Surfacing
- Machinery used for clearing the site.
For site clearance generally the following machinery can be used:
(a) Dozer
(b) Rooter or ripper
(c) Tractor
(d) Scraper
- Formation of sub – grade, for this purpose earth digging machine is also used as dragline.
For preparing the sub – grade generally the following machinery is used:
(a) Tractor
(b) Grader
(c) Shovel
(d) Rollers
(e) Dozer
(f) Dragline
(g) Trucks
- Manufacturing and spreading of Materials.
Generally, the following equipment is required:
(a) Crushers
(b) Trucks

28
 (c) Aggregate distribution
- Surfacing:
a. For bituminous surfacing the following equipment is required:
(i) Bitumen boiler
(ii) Bitumen sprayer
(iii) Aggregate spreader
(iv) Bitumen mix spreading machine
(v) Rollers
b. Concrete surfacing needs equipment as follows:
(i) Central batching and mixing plant
(ii) Concrete pavers
(iii) Concrete vibrators
(iv) Concrete mixer
(v) Concrete sprayer
Some important Equipment used in Highway Constructions
Bulldozer iv Scraper: -
It is a digging and carrying device which picks up its load by scraping the ground and transporting it to site. After
discharging it spread same over the desired area. It consists essentially of a large scoop with cutting edge. Thus, this
machine is the most economical and useful machine for earthwork operation. Scrapers could be motorized or
towed type. Towed type are used for short haul of 150 – 500m, motorized scrapers are used, max speed of 30km/h
Scraper.

Grader –
Is a machine primarily used for leveling or finishing earthwork. Graders are used for a number of purposes
which include: spreading heaped earth into layers shaping a sub – grade (cross section), for
mixing gravel and slop trimming. Graders are either towed or motorized (self-propelled).

29
Excavators –
These are machines that are used for excavating work. There are many machines which are available for
excavating work under different trade names such as power shovel, dragline, waling dragline,
clamshell. Basically, all these machines belong to power shovel family. Their basic structure is
more or less the same, but only front attachment is changed to convert one type of machine to
another type. Shovel is used primarily to excavate and load into hauling units such as trucks or
tractor pulled wagons.

Ripper-
This is a machine mounted on wheels and towed by tractor. It has one or two teeth which are
driven into the ground to loosen the soil and pull out roots. It is used to fell down the trees and
rip materials usually rocks that has been blasted or drilled.
at optimum moisture content 8 – 10 passes of rollers are sufficient.

30
Sheep foot roller –
this roller consists of a cylindrical hollow drum; on the surface
of the drum, projections of the shape of sheep’s foot are attached. These temping
feet on the drums are staggered into rows. To obtain the desired weight of the
roller, hollow of the drum is filled with wet sand or stone. It is useful for
compacting silty clay, sandy clay, generally cohesive soils – 8 – 16 passes of
rollers are sufficient.

Pneumatic tyred rollers –

A box attached to two axles. The rear axle has one wheel more than the front axle i.e. 4 heels in
front and 5 at rear. The wheels on the axles are so fixed that when the roller moves on the soil or

31
when the roller is in operation, surface area of the soil is between the outer edges of the wheel
mounted in rear axle is under wheel. The roller is suitable for compacting non plastic and silty
soils. They are also used for intermediate rolling of dense asphaltic concrete. They are either
self-propelled or towed by a tractor. 8 – 10 passes of the roller on the soil are sufficient.

vibratory rollers, combination rollers, hard operated vibratory roller, etc.

Other types of rollers used in highway engineering application are:

Crushing plant – This is where the production of aggregate is accomplished. This involves
collection of large-sized stones and crushing them to smaller sizes. This is done by rock crushers
who break large stones into smaller pieces. This is then accomplished in stages.
Bitumen sprayer – Consist of a tank mounted on a lorry, having oil fire burners and a pump. A
spray bar unit with nozzles is fitted at the rear tank just above the road surface. Bitumen can be
applied at a pressure onto the road surface. The quantity of bitumen can be accurately controlled

32
by a metering device. The speed, at which the vehicle operates, controls the rate of spread. Bitumen
can also be spread on the surface by laborers with the help of pouring pots.
Asphalt mixing plant – This is where aggregates are blended, heated and dried and then mixed
thoroughly with bitumen. It could either be by Batch mixing plant or Drum mixing plant.
In Batch mixing plant, various sizes of hot aggregates in storage bins are withdraw in pre-
determined quantities to make one batch before mixing with predetermined quantity of bitumen.
Drum mixing plant – this is without hot aggregate bins and the plug mixer. It only consists of a
cold aggregate feed system; a rotating drum mixer which dries the aggregate as well as blend the
aggregate and bitumen into the designed mix.
The heating unit or flame being at the upper end of the drum with cold aggregate entering the drum
at the flame end. A bitumen supply system, a dust collector system and a surge silo are necessity
to the operation of drum mixing plan.
Asphalt paver – It is a machine for laying hot mix hot-laid bituminous specifications. The
equipment is self-propelled and is capable of laying the bituminous material to any desired
thickness and partially compact it by means of a vibrating screed. The paver has a hopper into
which the rear dump trucks can discharge the mix. The paver may be crawler mounted (tracked)
or equipped with rubber tyres which permit a greater degree of freedom for movement. The
bituminous mix discharged from a tipper lorry into the receiving hopper in the front portion of the
paver is carried along the conveyor through the flow gates to the augers which distribute the
material in front of the screed, to the full width of the screed. A strike off beam, which also temps
the mat, controls the layer thickness.

16.0 Construction Site with Reinforced Concrete practice

For the construction of cement concrete roads, the following machinery is needed:
1. Batching and mixing plants
2. Spreading machines
3. compacting and finishing machines

16.1 Batching and mixing plants:

Materials such as coarse and fine aggregate and cement are always proportioned by weight in
weighing batching equipment. For proper mixing of the different constituents of cement
concrete, mixers which are available in a variety of sizes are used. Mixing is continued for a
period of not less than 1½mins after all the materials are introduced.
Tilting drum type mixers are available in small sizes, whereas non tilting drum type is available
in large sizes. Transporting, placing and compaction of concrete

16.2 Asphalt Concrete for Pavement

Asphalt Concrete is a composite material commonly used in construction of roads, highways,
airports, parking lots, and many other types of pavement. It is commonly called simply asphalt or
blacktop. The terms “asphalt concrete”, “bituminous asphalt concrete” and the abbreviation

33
“AC” are typically used only in engineering and construction documents and technical literature
where the definition of “concrete” is any composite material composed of mineral aggregate
glued together with a binder, whether that binder is Portland cement, asphalt or even epoxy. To
the layperson Asphalt Concrete pavements is most often called “asphalt “.

16.3 Asphalt Mix Types

An asphalt concrete mixture must be designed, produced and placed in order to obtain the
following desirable mix properties:
1) Stability,
2) Durability,
3) Impermeability,
4) Workability,
5) Flexibility,
6) Fatigue Resistance, and
7) Skid Resistance.
Asphalt/Asphalt Concrete mixes are designed for specific functions, characteristics, attributes,
performance, location and function in the pavement structure. For example, asphalt surface
mixes have an entirely different function in the pavement structure than base asphalt mixes and
are therefore designed differently.
Surface Asphalt mixes – The “roof” over the pavement’s structural layers and are designed to be
long lasting, sacrificial (designed to wear out first, protecting the underlying layers). At some
point (typically 12-15 years or more after placement) they are removed by cold-planning
(commonly called milling) and replaced with a new surface. Different performance
characteristics in terms of surface durability, tire wear, braking efficiency and roadway noise,
can also be achieved depending on application, desired function and performance.
Base Mixes – The structural strength element of the asphalt pavement system and are designed
for maximum strength, distributing the wheel loads over the subbase and subgrade. Because they
are protected by the asphalt “roof” (surface) the appropriate asphalt base mixes performance can
be achieved economically

16.4 Different kinds of Asphalt Concrete

To be able to provide the best performance to different sectors, a large variety of asphalt mixes
can be offered. Due to the different requirements e.g. a road needs to fulfill (high traffic, tough
weather conditions etc.) the respective mix used needs to have a sufficient stiffness and
resistance to deformation in order to cope with the applied pressure from vehicle wheels on the
one hand, yet on the other hand, the need to have an adequate flexural strength to resist cracking
caused by the varying pressures exerted on them. Moreover, good workability during application
is essential in order to ensure that they can be fully compacted to achieve optimum durability.

34
1. Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)
- Hot mixes are produced at a temperature between 150 and 190 °C.
- Depending on the usage, a different asphalt mixture can be used.
- Porous Asphalt
- Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA)
- Concrete
- Asphalt Concrete for very thin layers
- Double layered Porous Asphalt
2. Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA)
A typical WMA is produced at a temperature around 20 – 40 °C lower than an equivalent
Hot Mix Asphalt. Less energy is involved and, during the paving operations, the temperature
in the mix is lower, resulting in improved working conditions for the crew and an earlier
opening of the road.
3. Cold Mix
Cold mixes are produced without heating the aggregate. This is only possible, due to the use of a
specific bitumen emulsion which breaks either during compaction or during mixing. After
breaking, the emulsion coats the aggregate and over time, increases its strengths. Cold mixes are
particularly recommendable for lightly trafficked roads.
.
17.0 The Surface Course and The Binder Course
i. Surface Course
The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and is made of PCC. It provides
characteristics such as friction, smoothness, noise control and drainage. In addition, it serves as a
waterproofing layer to the underlying base, subbase and subgrade.
The surface course can vary in thickness but is usually between 150 mm (6 inches) (for light
loading) and 300 mm (12 inches) (for heavy loads and high traffic) 300 mm (12 inch) surface
course.
The surface course constitutes the top layer of the pavement and should be able to
withstand high traffic- and environmentally-induced stresses without exhibiting
unsatisfactory cracking and rutting.
Its main mission is to provide an even profi le for the comfort of the user.
while providing enough texture to ensure minimum and safe skid resistance.
Depending on local conditions, functional characteristics such as skid resistance,
noise reduction and durability are often required for wearing courses.
In some cases, rapid drainage of surface water is desired while in other cases, the
wearing course should be impermeable in order to keep water out of the pavement
structure. A wide range of surface layer products can be used de pending on specific
requirements.

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 Surface layers’ types are:
 Asphalt Concrete (AC)
 Béton Bituminous Mince (Thin Layer Asphalt Concrete – AC-TL)
 Asphalt Concrete Very Thin Layers (AC -VTL)
 Asphalt Concrete Ultra-Thin Layer (AC-UTL)
 Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA)
 Hot Rolled Asphalt (HRA)
 Porous Asphalt (PA)
 Double layered Porous Asphalt (2L PA)
 Mastic Asphalt (MA)
 Soft Asphalt (SA)
Surface course which is intended to;
- That is flexible pavement protects the underlying base course from traffic and water.
- While also providing adequate tire friction
- Generating minimal noise in urban areas
- Also giving suitable light rifle.

ii. The Binder Course

Binder courses are designed to withstand the highest shear stresses that occur about
50 – 70 mm below the asphalt surface.
The binder course is therefore placed between the surface course and base course to
reduce rutting by combining qualities of stability and durability. Stability can be
achieved by sufficient stone-on-stone contact and stiff and/or modified binders.
The binder course is perhaps the most important structural layer of the pavement,
which is intended to;
- To effectively distribute traffic and environmental loading .
- Withstand the underlying unbound layers are not exposed to excessive shear
stresses and strains.
- This also often implies comparatively high stiffness of the base course.
- Next to this the base course should also sh ow adequate fatigue resistance

18.0 The Joints in Concrete Pavements

Pavements are exposed to severe temperature and moisture conditions as well as wheel load influence which
produce severe stresses on cement concrete pavement. Among these are bending or deflection
under wheel loads, warping of the slab due to a difference on the top and bottom of pavement,
this will lead to the slab being raised off the sub grade, which the self-weight of the slab might
not be able to take. Warping of the slab due to the difference in moisture content at the top and
bottom of the slab and direct tension produced as contraction during falling of temperature or
while drying out is restricted by sliding friction between the slab and sub grade, compression
failures and buckling or blow up also occur because of expansion of slab.

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To prevent progressive cracking up of the pavement and control the expansion and contraction of the slab,
longitudinal and transverse joints are provided.
These joints are:
I. Expansion joints:
these are usually placed transversely at regular intervals to provide adequate space for slab to expend due to
temperature changes. The approximate width for this type of joints is provided from 2 to 2.5cm. These joints are
placed across the full width of the slab and are 19mm to 25mm wide. The joint space is filled with a compressible
filler material that permits the slab to expand. Filler materials can be cork, rubber or bitumen materials. A means of
transferring the load across the joint space is provided as there are no aggregate that will develop as interlocking
mechanism. This means it is usually dowel bars which are embedded and kept fixed in concrete at one end and the
other is kept free to expand. At the free end a metal cap is provided to offer a space of about 2.5cmfor movement
during expansion, so that when a slab contracts, the free end of the dowel leaves a gap into which it can return
when the slab expands to its original length.
II. Contraction joints:
these are the most commonly used transverse joint in jointed concrete pavement. They are placed transversely at
regular intervals (but spaced closer than the expansion depending on the type aggregate use end type of sub grade)
across the width of the pavement to release some of the tensile stresses that are induced due to contraction of the
slab when its temperature falls. The load transfer is affected through the physical interlocking of the aggregate
projecting out the joints. It may be necessary to install a load transfer mechanism, where there is doubt about the
ability of the interlocking gains to transfer the load. When a load transfer mechanism is used, receiving cap is
provided; each bar is covered with a plastic sheath for two-third of its length.
III. Construction joints:
these are those other than expansion and contraction joints that are formed when construction work is
unexpectedly interrupted e.g. by mechanical breakdown or bad weather, at points where joints are not normally
required by the design. When the full length of a pavement is not laid in one concreting operation, a formal
constitutional construction joints has to be established between the two abutting slabs. These slabs are tied with tie
bars in order to develop proper bond between the new and old concrete

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19.0 Safety devices required during Highway constructions.

The Use of diversions in Highway construction works

Diversions are used as regulatory means whenever construction work is going on ahead to communicate of the
approaching hazards to drivers in order to warn or alert the driver to detour or drive through such project with
reduction in speed.
This is usually done by placing a diversion sign board where there is a required response to warn of existing or
potential hazard condition.
The purpose is;
The mandatory requirements for provision of diversion signs is that at all times during the construction,
- To protect the public from likely accident that might happen without the warning, thereby guarantee safety as
construction work progresses.
These signs must be erect and left in position as long as traffic is utilizing any temporary running surface.
Should be placed for enough in advance of the hazard point to alert the drivers or public to take appropriate action
at prevailing speed under the prevailing condition.
Black or Red or Orange or White background and red letters indicators such as work ahead, turn left with arrow
indicating the detour.
Apart from diversion signs, beacons and flashlights are also used especially in the night to call or alert the public to
dangerous or hazardous places or at dangerous locations.
They are only to supplement the regulatory signs.

19.1 Need for safety provision after the Highway Construction

After Highway Construction, provisions are made for safety of the vehicles and its occupants and other road users.
- They are made possible by construction of traffic barriers - which are used to protect vehicle sand their occupants
from impact with natural or manmade features located at the side of the roadway.
- They are providing in such a way, that the damaged caused by hitting the barrier generally should be less severe
than if the vehicle hit the feature located behind the barrier, thus, they represent a compromise between these
two concerns.
- In addition to protecting vehicles, traffic barriers are also provided to shield pedestrians, maintenance/construction

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 crews, or cyclists from errant traffic. Barriers are available in a large variety of sizes and shapes.

Choice of type to be use depends on a variety of factors including,

- The environment in which the highway is located,
- The speed and volume of traffic.

Traffic barriers may be classified:

Bridge railways, Kerbs, Traffic separators or median and pedestrians.
- Kerbs are provided longitudinally on either sides of the carriageway which normally encourage the vehicle to
remain present on the pavement.
- Bridge railings are installed on a highway bridge to prevent vehicular or pedestrian traffic from falling off the
structure.
- Traffic separators or median are providing the following functions:
 To separate traffic traveling in opposite direction,
 To avoid head-on collision between vehicles moving in opposite direction,
 It helps to channelize traffic into streams at intersection.
 To protect pedestrians.
 Reducing the chances of accidents.
- Pedestrians, the needs for footbridges or pedestrians’ walkways footbridges are provided predominately in
urban environments where vehicular and pedestrian traffic is very high.
They are used to make passage easy and safe vehicles, thereby reducing the chances of accidents.

19.2 Pedestrian Walkways

Pedestrian walkways are also used predominantly in urban environments, but they are also used in rural areas
that are adjacent to schools or other regions, such as shopping centers, where pedestrian traffic is
high. A shoulder can sometimes fulfill the role of a walkway if it is constructed and maintained
in a way that encourage pedestrian use. Walkways when installed should however always be
separated from a shoulder preferably by a kerb. Typical width of walkway is 1.05m to 2.10m.
They are normally provided on both sides of pavement as separate lane intended for the
exclusive use of pedestrians.
- Walkways help to minimize pedestrians related accidents,
- Provide free flow of vehicular movement.

20.0 Road furniture for completion of Highway

The Term "Road Furniture"
Encompasses all roadside objects used for safety and control of traffic in addition to those for
assisting the driver. Road furniture items provide drivers with the necessary warnings, rules,
distance and directional information in order to travel roads and thoroughfares safely.
Certain types of road furniture include nonessential road elements, such as telephone booths,
mailboxes, tourist information signs and trash receptacle.

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i. Road signs:
These are usually provided to inform, warn or regulate the traffic.
They are essential whenever special regulations apply or where direction or notice of approaching hazard must be
communicated to the public.
Road signs are provided for the following purposes:
- To reduce the chances of accidents
- To achieve the orderly movement of traffic
- To regulate the traffic behaviours such as parking, overtaking, etc.
- To direct the traffic on differentiate route
- To warn the road users of hazardous condition
- To intercept the heavy traffic in order to allow other vehicles and pedestrians
ii. Guideposts
Another familiar type of road furniture, known as guideposts.
Indicate upcoming hazards, curves and changes in direction of the roadway.
Guideposts consist of short poles installed in sequence along the road shoulder. They sometimes
feature colored reflectors marking sudden turns or steep hills that are not visible to the driver
until the last moment. These posts are also used to estimate safe passing or turning distances.
iii. Safety Barriers
Safety barriers physically stop or prevent out-of-control vehicles from leaving the roadway.
The simplest are guardrails made of metal or wire rope. Heavy vehicle barricades withstand
higher intensity impacts and greater weight loads. Crash cushions protect passengers from
collisions into highway obstacles such as concrete construction barriers and bridge piers.
iv. Light and Utility Poles
Light poles feature a raised light source designed to illuminate roads and walkways at night.
Photosensitive cells automatically trigger the lights to turn on and off at dusk and dawn or during
inclement weather. Single rows of utility poles support electrical power lines and
telecommunications cables safely above streets, roads and highways.
v. Boundary Fences
Boundary fencing consists of barriers or dividers constructed along highways delineating property
lines between the road right-of-way and adjacent private land. This type of road furniture can be
constructed from a number of materials such as wood, steel or concrete posts connected with chain
link, plain or barbed wires.
vi. Raised Road Markers
Raised road markers typically reflect vehicle headlights, designating a path for drivers during
low light conditions. Non-reflective road markers enhance and sometimes replace painted
highway lines. Certain road markers alert drivers of errant lane changes with loud noise and
vibration when in contact with vehicle tires. Temporary raised road markers delineate traffic
lanes during construction or resurfacing projects.
vii. Traffic Lights
Traffic lights are an extremely useful technology product that regulates the flow of traffic at

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intersections, makes life easier and saves time where traffic is intense. Traffic lights determines
how pedestrians and vehicles should act in traffic. We can take precautions by relying on Traffic
lights in order to prevent any dangerous situation.
Advantages of Traffic Light
i. Provide an orderly movement of traffic and
ii. Increase the traffic handling capacity of most of intersections.
ii. They reduce the frequency of traffic accidents.
iii. They provide interruptions to heavy traffic in order to allow traffic to cross the road.
iv. They provide a chance to crossing traffic to cross the road of continuous traffic flow at reasonable time
interval.
v. Traffic quality is improved.

viii. Kilometer or Speed Limit Posts.

Kilometer or speed Limit posts define as the maximum legal speed of travel on a road and are part
of the overall strategy to enhance road safety.
The objective is to foster a safer speed distribution to benefit all users on the road.
They should be set according to design speed and alignment characteristics in conjunction with
the following considerations:
• Road function
• Roadside land-use
• Existing speed distribution
• Historic crash data
• Type and density of intersections
• Presence of slow traffic, pedestrians and tourists
• Roadside risks and conditions of safety barriers
Purpose of speed or kilometer limits post;
- To reduce the chances of accidents 4.2 Kilometer posts are provided to indicate distance along the road.
- It provides the distance from one point to another.
- 4.3 Traffic signs. These are used to control and direct the movement to vehicles more especially on the
intersections.
- Automatic traffic signals are installed.

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