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OCR A-Level Chemistry Concepts Guide

The document defines key terms related to atomic structure, isotopes, compounds, formulae, equations, amount of substance, redox reactions, electron structure, bonding and molecular structure. It provides definitions for over 50 terms across these topics in chemistry.

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10 views7 pages

OCR A-Level Chemistry Concepts Guide

The document defines key terms related to atomic structure, isotopes, compounds, formulae, equations, amount of substance, redox reactions, electron structure, bonding and molecular structure. It provides definitions for over 50 terms across these topics in chemistry.

Uploaded by

CHRONIK
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

OCR (A) Chemistry A-Level

Module 2 - Foundations in Chemistry


Definitions and Concepts

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Definitions and Concepts for OCR (A) Chemistry A-level

Module 2 - Foundations in Chemistry

2.1.1 - Atomic Structure and Isotopes and 2.1.2 - Compounds, Formulae and
Equations

Atomic Number: ​the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Bohr Model: ​describes an atom as a small dense nucleus with electrons orbiting around the
nucleus. This model explains different periodic properties of atoms.

Electron: ​a negatively charged subatomic particle which orbits the nucleus at various energy
levels. The relative mass of an electron is 1/1836.

Ion: ​a charged atom or molecule.

Isotopes: ​atoms of the same element with the same number of protons and electrons but
different numbers of neutrons. Isotopes of an element have different masses.

Mass Number: ​the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Mass Spectrometry:​ an instrument which gives accurate information about relative isotopic
mass and the relative abundance of isotopes.

Neutron:​ a neutral subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. The relative mass of
a neutron is 1.

Proton: ​a positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. The relative
mass of a proton is 1.

Relative Abundance:​ the amount of one substance compared with another.

Relative Atomic Mass: ​the weighted mean mass of an atom compared with 1/12th mass of
an atom of carbon-12.

Relative Isotopic Mass:​ the mass of an atom of an isotope compared with 1/12th mass of
an atom of carbon-12.

Relative Formula Mass: ​the mass of the formula unit of a compound with a giant structure.
For example, NaCl has a relative formula mass of 58.44 g mol​-1​.

Relative Molecular Mass (M​r​):​ the mass of a simple molecule.

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Ammonium ion: ​an ion with the formula NH​4​+​.

Carbonate: ​an ion with the formula CO​3​2-​.

Hydroxide: ​an ion with the formula OH​-​.

Ionic Compound: ​a compound which is made up of oppositely charged ions that are held
together by electrostatic forces.

Nitrate:​ an ion with the formula NO​3​-​.

Silver ion: ​has the formula Ag​+​.

State symbols:​ symbols within a chemical equation which indicate the state of each
compound under the reaction conditions. (g) gaseous, (l) liquid, (s) solid and (aq) aqueous.

Sulfate: ​an ion with the formula SO​4​2-

Zinc ion: ​has the formula Zn​2+​.

2.1.3 - Amount of Substance

Amount of substance: ​the quantity that has moles as its units, used as a way of counting
atoms. The amount of substance can be calculated using mass (n = m/M), gas volumes (n =
pV/(RT)) or solution volume and concentration (n = CV).

Anhydrous: ​a crystalline compound containing no water.

Atom Economy: ​a measure of the amount of starting materials that end up as useful
products.​ A ​high atom economy means a process is more sustainable as there is less waste
produced.

Avogadro Constant (N​A​):​ the number of particles per mole of substance (6.02 x 10​23​ mol​-1​).

Composition by mass: ​the relative mass of each element in a compound.

Empirical Formula:​ the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element present in a
compound.

Hydrated: ​a crystalline compound that contains water.

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Ideal Gas: ​a gas which has molecules that occupy negligible space with no interactions
between them. The ideal gas equation is: pV = nRT.

Molar Gas Volume: ​the volume of 1 mole of gas (units: dm​3​ mol​-1​).

Molar Mass: ​mass per mole of a substance (units: g mol​-1​).

Mole (mol):​ the amount of any substance containing as many particles as there are carbon
atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12 isotope.

Molecular Formula: ​the number and type of atoms of each element in a molecule.

Percentage Yield: ​the percentage ratio of the actual yield of product from a reaction
compared with the theoretical yield.

Relative Molecular Mass: ​the average mass ​of one molecule of an element or compound
compared to 1/12th the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

Stoichiometry: ​the relative quantities of substances in a reaction.

Water of Crystallisation: ​water molecules that form part of the crystalline structure of a
compound.

2.14 - Acids

Acid: ​compounds that release H​+​ ions in aqueous solution. Common acids include: HCl,
H​2​SO​4​, HNO​3​ and CH​3​COOH.

Alkali:​ water soluble bases. Alkalis release OH​-​ ions into aqueous solution. Common alkalis
include: NaOH, KOH and NH​3​.

Base: ​a substance that can accept H​+​ ions from another substance.

Neutralisation: ​a reaction between H​+​ and OH​-​, forming water. This may be a reaction
between an acid and a base to form a salt (types of bases include carbonates, metal oxides
and alkalis).

Strong Acid: ​an acid that completely dissociates in solution.

Titration: ​a technique used to determine the amount of one solution of a known


concentration required to completely react with a known volume of another solution of
unknown concentration.

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Weak Acid:​ an acid that only partially dissociates in solution.

2.1.5 - Redox

Oxidation: ​loss of electrons/ increase in oxidation number.

Oxidation Number: ​a number that represents the number of electrons lost or gained by an
atom of an element. A positive oxidation number indicates the loss of electrons. Roman
numerals are typically used to indicate the oxidation number of elements that may have
different oxidation states (e.g. iron(II) and iron(III)).

Redox Reaction: ​a reaction in which one element is oxidised and another is reduced.

Reduction: ​gain of electrons / decrease in oxidation number.

2.2.1 - Electron Structure

Atomic Orbital: ​a region of space around the nucleus that can hold up to 2 electrons with
opposite spins. There is 1 orbital in the s subshell, 3 orbitals in the p subshell and 5 orbitals
in the d subshell. Orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy, with orbitals of the same
energy occupied singly before pairing.

Electronic Configuration: ​the arrangement of electrons into orbitals and energy levels
around the nucleus of an atom / ion.

Energy Level: ​the shell that an electron is in.

Shell:​ the orbit that an orbital is in around the nucleus of an atom. The shell closest to the
nucleus is the first shell. The outermost shell that is occupied by electrons is the valence
shell.

Sub-shell:​ a subdivision of the electronic shells into different orbitals. The types of subshell
are s, p, d and f.

2.2.2 - Bonding and Structure

Average bond enthalpy: ​the average energy required to break a bond, used as a
measurement of the strength of a covalent bond. The average bond enthalpy is measured
using a variety of molecules that contain a specific bond.

Bonding pair: ​a pair of outer-shell electrons involved in bonding.

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Covalent bond:​ a strong bond formed between 2 atoms due to the electrostatic attraction
between a shared pair of electrons and the atomic nuclei.

Dative Covalent (Coordinate) bond:​ a type of covalent bond in which both of the electrons
in the shared pair come from one atom.

Electronegativity:​ the ability of an atom to attract bonding electrons in a covalent bond. This
is often quantified using Pauling’s electronegativity values. Electronegativity increases
towards F in the periodic table.

Electron Pair Repulsion Theory: ​pairs of electrons around a nucleus repel each other so
the shape that a molecule adopts has these pairs of electrons positioned as far apart as
possible. Lone pairs offer more repulsion than bonding pairs as they are closer to the nucleus
of the central atom.

Hydrogen Bonding:​ a type of intermolecular bonding that occurs between molecules


containing N, O or F and a H atom of -NH, -OH or HF. A lone pair on the electronegative
atom (N, O or F) allows the formation of a hydrogen bond.

Intermolecular Forces:​ interactions between different molecules. Types of intermolecular


forces including permanent dipole-dipole interactions and induced dipole-dipole interactions
(both of these are also known as van der Waals’ forces) as well as hydrogen bonding.

Ionic Bond: ​electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions.

Ionic Compounds: ​compounds made up of oppositely charged ions. These compounds


generally have high melting and boiling points. Typically, ionic compounds are soluble and
can conduct electricity when liquid or aqueous (but not when solid).

Ionic Lattice:​ a giant structure in which oppositely charged ions are strongly attracted in all
directions.

Linear: ​the shape of a molecule in which the central atom has 2 bonding pairs.

London (Dispersion) Forces: ​induced dipole-dipole interactions caused when the random
movement of electrons creates a temporary dipole in one molecule which then induces a
dipole in a neighbouring molecule.

Lone Pair: ​a pair of outer-shell electrons not involved in bonding.

Macroscopic Properties:​ properties of a bulk material rather than the individual atoms/
molecules that make up the material.

Non-linear: ​the shape of a molecule in which the central atom has 2 bonding pairs and 2
lone pairs.

Octahedral:​ the shape of a molecule in which the central atom has 6 bonding pairs.

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Permanent Dipole: ​a permanent uneven distribution of charge.

Polar Bond:​ a covalent bond that has a permanent dipole due to the different
electronegativities of the atoms that make up the bond.

Polar Molecule: ​a molecule that contains polar bonds with dipoles that don’t cancel out due
to their direction (must be unsymmetrical).

Pyramidal: ​the shape of a molecule in which the central atom has 3 bonding pairs and 1
lone pair.

Simple Molecular Lattice: ​a solid structure made up of covalently bonded molecules


attracted by intermolecular force (e.g. I​2​ and ice). These compounds generally have relatively
low melting and boiling points and are typically insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents. Molecular substances don’t conduct electricity.

Tetrahedral:​ the shape of a molecule in which the central atom has 4 bonding pairs.

Trigonal bipyramidal:​ the shape of a molecule in which the central atom has 5 bonding
pairs.

Trigonal Planar: ​the shape of a molecule in which the central atom has 3 bonding pairs.

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Common questions

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Atom economy measures the efficiency of a chemical process in converting starting materials into useful products. It is calculated as the ratio of the molecular weight of desired products to the total molecular weight of all products, expressed as a percentage. High atom economy indicates efficient use of resources and minimal waste production, making a process more sustainable and environmentally friendly. It is crucial for developing green chemistry practices .

Avogadro's constant, 6.02 x 10^23 mol^-1, defines the number of particles in a mole, providing a bridge between the atomic scale and macroscopic measurements. It is crucial for stoichiometry in chemical reactions, allowing chemists to convert between moles and the number of atoms or molecules. This constant simplifies calculations involving mass, volume, and concentration of substances in reactions .

Electron pair repulsion theory states that electron pairs around a nucleus will repel each other to maximize their separation. This theory is essential in determining the shape of molecules. Lone pairs cause more repulsion than bonding pairs as they are closer to the nucleus, which can alter the geometric shape of a molecule. For instance, a molecule with two bonding pairs and two lone pairs will adopt a non-linear shape, while a molecule with four bonding pairs and no lone pairs will be tetrahedral .

The Bohr model contributes to understanding periodic properties by depicting atoms as having electrons that orbit the nucleus at discrete energy levels. This helps explain why elements exhibit periodicity in properties such as ionization energy and electron affinity. However, the Bohr model has limitations; it cannot accurately describe atoms with more than one electron or account for the shape of molecules. It is superseded by quantum mechanical models that provide a more accurate representation of atomic structures .

Percentage yield measures the efficiency of a reaction in terms of the actual product obtained compared to the theoretical maximum, while atom economy evaluates the proportion of reactants that become useful products. Both are significant as they give a comprehensive overview of a reaction's efficiency. Percentage yield helps identify practical issues like incomplete reactions or product loss during recovery, while atom economy focuses on resource utilization and waste reduction .

A strong acid completely dissociates into its ions in an aqueous solution, while a weak acid only partially dissociates. For example, hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a strong acid that fully ionizes to release H⁺ ions, whereas acetic acid (CH₃COOH) is a weak acid, dissociating only slightly. This difference affects their reactivity, with strong acids being more reactive, having lower pH values, and conducting electricity better in solution compared to weak acids .

Mass spectrometry accurately measures the relative isotopic mass and the relative abundance of isotopes by ionizing chemical species and sorting the ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio. This information is essential for determining the atomic and molecular weights of substances. It provides insights into the isotopic composition of elements, which is crucial for research in fields such as geochemistry and pharmacology .

The molecular formula provides the actual number of each type of atom in a molecule, while the empirical formula gives the simplest whole-number ratio of these atoms. The molecular formula contains more specific information about a compound's composition, crucial for understanding its chemical identity and behavior. The empirical formula is simpler and useful for calculations like percentage composition. Together, they offer a full picture of a substance's makeup .

Electron configuration determines how electrons are distributed in an atom's orbitals, influencing an element’s chemical properties, such as reactivity and bonding ability. Elements are organized in the periodic table based on increasing atomic number and electron configuration, which dictates periodic trends like electronegativity, ionization energy, and atomic radius. Understanding an element’s electron configuration helps predict its chemical behavior and reactivity .

Hydrogen bonding, an intermolecular force occurring between molecules containing N, O, or F and a hydrogen atom attached to these electronegative atoms, significantly affects the macroscopic properties of substances. This bonding results in higher boiling and melting points due to the strong attraction between molecules. For example, water's high boiling point compared to other group 16 hydrides is due to strong hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonds also influence solubility and the state of matter at room temperature .

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