ATOM AND STRUCTURE

DICOVERY OF SUB ATOMIC PARTICLES

Electron- negatively charged particles emitted by the cathode towards the
anode in a cathode ray
Discovery- J. J. Thomson, in 1897
Cathode Ray tube- When sufficiently high voltage is applied across the
electrodes, current starts flowing through a stream of particles moving in the
tube from the negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode (anode).
These were called cathode rays or cathode ray particles.
Properties of Cathode Rays-
• travel in a straight line.
• Start from cathode (-) to Anode (+).consist negative charge particles
(negatrones)
• Rays not visible but we can see visibility through fluorescent and
phosphorescent
• Consist negative charge particles deflected toward positive plate in electric
field and magnetic field
• They are made up of small particles and Possess kinetic energy
• Produces X- rays when it fall on heavy metals.
• Does not depends upon the material of electrodes and nature of gas. the
particles are fundamental and given name this particles to electron.
CHARGE TO MASS RATIO OF ELECTRONS
Charge to mass ratio of electron= 1.75× 1011 C/kg (specific charge)
Charge on electron = 1.6022× 10−19 C
Mass of Electron= 9.1093837 × 10-31 kg
Note- deviation of cathode rays directly proportional to electric and
magnetic field and charge indirectly proportion to mass.
Proton- The smallest and lightest positive ion was obtained from hydrogen and was
called proton.
Discovery- Goldstein but called them Canal rays
The discovery of proton is credited to Rutherford
These rays were named as positive rays or anode rays or as canal rays.
Properties of Anode Rays-
• Positive charged particles
• They are made up of gaseous ions
• Capable of producing physical and chemical changes
• Charge/mass ratio of proton is much smaller than that of electron.(mass of p is
greater than e)
• Depends upon the nature of gas so not a fundamental particles.
• Charge and mass ratio- 9.58× 107 C/kg
Charge on proton = (+) 1.602 x 10-19 C
Mass of proton = 1.672 x 10-27 kg
Note- the smallest and lightest positive ion obtained from hydrogen gas is called
proton. (in case of hydrogen anode rays are made up of proton)
Neutron- It is a neutral particle.
• It was discovered by Chadwick (1932).
• These particles were discovered by bombarding a thin sheet of Beryllium
(Be) by an alpha particles. (alpha particles is double ionized helium ion)
• that highly penetrating rays consist of neutral particles which were named
neutron
• Neutron were not deflected by electric and magnetic field so they are
neutral particles
9 4 12 1
4Be + 2He → 6 C+ 0n (neutron)
27 4 30 1
13 Al + 2He → 15 P + 0n
Charge on Neutron- Zero
Mass of Neutron- 1.674927×10−27 kg (slightly higher than proton)
Charge to mass ratio = 0
1. What are the essential condition for the production of cathode rays?
a) High pressure and High voltage
b) Low pressure and High voltage
c) High pressure and low voltage
d) Low pressure and low voltage

2. In nuclear reaction 4Be9+2He4→6c12+X, X will be

a) Proton
b) Electron
c) Alpha particles
d) Neutron
Thomson’s Model of an Atom/ Plum pudding model/watermelon model
• Atom is made up of sphere
• positive charge is uniformly distributed through out the sphere and
electrons are embedded
• a/c to him atom as a whole is electrically neutral the negative and positive
charge are equal in magnitude.
• An important feature of this model is that the mass of the atom is assumed
to be uniformly distributed over the atom
Positive charge= negative charge
Atomic radius= 1 A (10−10 m)
Atom is electrically neutral
Draw back of model
• It could not explain the stability of an atom
X-Ray discovery- Roentgen
• Highest penetrating power
• Not defected by electric and magnetic field so they are the part of
electromagnetic radiation
• X-ray are highly energetic radiation and can cause ionization
Henri Becqueral (1852-1908) observed that there are certain elements which
emit radiation on their own and named this phenomenon as radioactivity
and the elements known as radioactive elements.
This field was developed by Marie Curie, Piere Curie, Rutherford and
Fredrick Soddy. It was observed that three kinds of rays i.e., α, β- and γ-rays
are emitted.
Alpha rays-
Doubly ionized helium atom
Deflected by both electric and magnetic field so they are not the part of electromagnetic
spectrum
These are deflected towards negative plate

Beta rays-
Negatively charged rays deflected towards positive plate
Rays travel with higher velocity compared to alpha rays
Penetrating power is 100 times more than alpha rays

Gamma ryas-
Highly energetic, highest penetrating power, lower wavelength.
These are neutral rays so these are the part of electro magnetic spectrum
𝛼–particle scattering experiment/ Rutherford Nuclear model of
atom/nuclear model of atom-
• when fast-moving alpha-particles are bombarded on very thin gold foil ( it
had a circular fluorescent ZnS screen around it), following observations
were made:
• Most of the α-particles passed straight through the gold foil.
• Some of the α-particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
• One out of 20,000 particles returned back.
Conclusions made by Rutherford based on his observations:
• Most of the space inside the atom is empty because a-particles passed through the
gold foil.
• Very few particles were deflected from their path because +ve charge of the atom
occupies a very little space and this small space is termed as nucleus.
• A very small fraction of a-particles were rebounded back, shows all + ve charge
and mass of the gold atom is concentrated in a very small volume within an atom.
• The radius of the nucleus calculated was 105 times less than the radius of the
atom.
• The positive charge is heavy (nucleus)
• Atom is electrically neutral.
• Electron revolves in closed circular orbit around the nucleus. (electrostatic force=
centripetal force)
Failure of Rutherford model
[Link] can not explain the stability of atom.
According to Rutherford’s Model, electrons will circle the positively charged
nucleus, which is not expected to be stable
A charged particle travelling in a circular path would constantly lose energy
and collapse into the nucleus
2. He can not explain discrete spectrum of atom.
Bohr’s Model of Atom
• Only special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons are allowed inside
the atom.(electron revolves only fixed circular orbit with fixed velocity and
fixed energy)
• While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons neither gain energy nor
loses energy .These orbits are called energy levels. energy of shell is fixed
which is also called stationary energy levels.
• Electron revolves only those circular orbit for which the angular
momentum is integral multiple of h/2𝜋 this is the quantization condition
ℎ
of electron (available in fixed amount).(L=n ) where n= shell no, h=
−34 2𝜋
plank constant 6.635× 10
• Orbits or shells are represented by K, L, M, N or the numbers, n = 1, 2, 3, 4
• Electrostatic force will provide centripetal force (Fe=FC)
• Electron can gain energy and can loses energy, excitation and deexcitation
of energy. (E2-E1=hv)
Condition- if an e accept energy it jumps to higher energy level (higher
energy level)
If e loses energy it recedes back to lower energy level
Electron gain and loses only those energy which are equal to difference in
two energy level. (accept and loses only quantized energy)
• He also defined discrete line spectrum
• Maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by 2n2 (n = shell
number)
E.g., n = 1 (K shell) 2(1)2 = 2 electron
• The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the
outermost orbit is 8.
• Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell unless the inner shells are
completely filled.
Atomic No.(Z)- No. of proton or no of electron present in a neutral atom.
No. of Proton = No. of Electron

Mass No. (A)- No. of proton + No. of Neutron (collectively known as nucleous)

Isotopes- Atom with same atomic no but different atomic mass (mass no.)
Same chemical properties but different physical properties.
Eg- Protium, Deuterium, Tritium
Properties of Isotopes-
• An isotope of Uranium (U-235)used as fuel in a nuclear reactor.
• An isotope of Cobalt (Cobalt-60) is used in the treatment of cancer
• An isotope of Iodine (iodine-130) is used in the treatment of goiter.
• An isotope of carbon ([Link]-14) is used in the carbon dating technique
Note- Atomic weight of most of the elements are not whole number because
the elements contain mixture of isotopes having different atomic weight.

Whole mass of atom is suppose to be concentrated at Centre of an atom.

Isobars- Same mass no. but different atomic no.
Different chemical properties but same physical properties
Eg.- 18Ar40 19K40 20Ca40

Isotones- same no of neutrons

Eg.- 6C14 , 7N15 and 8O16

Isoelectronic- same no. of electron.

Eg.- N3–, O2–, F–, Ne, Na+, Mg2+, and Al3+
Valency- combining capacity of an atom. The electrons present in the
outermost shell of an atom are known as the valence electrons.
the outermost shell of an atom can accommodate a maximum of 8 electrons
Valency = no. of valence electron in atom (if no. of valence e-=1,2,3)
Valency= 8- no. of valence electron (if no. of valence e- = 4,5,6,7,8)
Octet rule- in order to acquire stability atom can either loose, gain or share
electron so that the valence shell contains eight electrons or to acquire
nearest nobel gas configuration.
Exception= Hydrogen (1e)
Helium (2e)
Limitation – molecules which does not obey octet rule
Molecule with incomplete octet
Example – BeCl2, BF3, AlCl3
2. Molecules with expanded octet
Example- PCl5, H2SO4, Pf5, SF6

3. Molecules which have odd electrons

Example- NO, NO2

[Link] rule fails to explain to shape and geometry of a molecule

1. Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering experiment was
responsible for the discovery of
(a) Atomic Nucleus
(b) Electron
(c) Proton
(d) Neutron
2. Isotopes of an element have
a) the same physical properties
b) different chemical properties
c) different number of neutrons
d) different atomic numbers.
3. Number of valence electrons in Cl– ion are:
a) 16
b) 8
c) 17
d) 18
4. Which one of the following is a correct electronic configuration
of sodium?
a) 2,8
b) 8,2,1
c) 2,1,8
d) 2,8,1.
5. Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in
80
35𝐵𝑟 .
6. How many gram atoms of hydrogen are present in 0.04 mole of
cuso4.5h2o?
a) 0.04
b) 0.2
c) 0.4
d) 4
7. An oxide of nitrogen has molecular weight 30. The total number of electrons in
one molecule of the compound is ?
a) 14
b) 15
c) 22
d) 23

8. Elements do emit radiation on their own and this property is known as _____
a) Radioactivity
b) Refraction
c) Absorption
d) Adsorption
If the number of protons and neutrons of an element is 13 and 14 respectively, then
what’s the atomic number(Z) and mass number(A)?
a) 13, 13
b) 13, 27
c) 14, 13
d) 27, 14

What was the source of alpha particles in the Rutherford scattering experiment?
a) Hydrogen nucleus
b) Argon nucleus
c) Helium nucleus
d) None of these