The Draft Manuscript Edition

Copyright © 2021 Gordon Adomdza & Craig McCarthy

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced transmitted or stored in a
retrieval system, in any form or by any means without permission of the authors.

Publisher
Ashesi University
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Berekuso, Eastern Region, Ghana
PMB CT3, Cantonments, Accra

Authors’ Contact

gadomdza@[Link] or +233547047047

Cover Design
Jay-Ford Company

Ghana Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Adomdza, Gordon
Design thinking, project guide: the whys and the hows / Gordon Adomdza &

Craig McCarthy. – Accra: Ashesi University, 2021. 1. Design 2. Graphic Arts

I. Title
DDC 741.6 - - dc 20

ISBN: 978-9988-3-1189-6 GLCN – 19

 Dedication

This project guide is dedicated to all the pioneering students, teaching assistants and faculty of the
Foundations of Design and Entrepreneurship class, which provided opportunities to contextualize the
content for the book
 Acknowledgements
Special acknowledgement goes to the following faculty who provided useful comments, insights,
illustrations etc. that helped improve on the original manuscript.

Sena Agbodzah Agyepong (PhD)

Yaw Dankwah Osseo-Asare
Nepeti Nicanor
Rose A. Dodd
Dahlia Nduom
Keren Arthur (PhD)
Victor Randolph
David Hutchful
Kwami Justina Morris (PhD)
Abdul-Nasser Alidu
Theodore Philip Asare
Jewel Thompson
Eugene Eluerkeh
 1

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Problem Festival 2
Chapter 2: Innovation 14
Chapter 3: Creativity 32
Chapter 4: Chasing Mysteries 47
Chapter 5: Intro to Design Thinking 60
Chapter 6: Reframing 67
Chapter 7: Ethnography 73
Chapter 8: Lean Research 85
Chapter 9: Analysis Frameworks 95
Chapter 10: Ideation Techniques 127
Chapter 11: User Requirements, Value Fulfillment Blueprint and Dark Pattern Design
140
Chapter 12: Wireframing and Prototyping 156
Chapter 13: Business Model Canvas and Minimum Viable Product 165
References 194
 2

CHAPTER 1: PROBLEM FESTIVAL

Chapter Description Wicked Problems

Wicked problems are real-world problems
Have you heard of the phrase “a wicked
that acknowledge the complex
problem”? If not, this chapter will make you
interdependence of diverse factors and
understand what a wicked problem is, and
stakeholders, rather than simplistic, linear
you will also be able to use the necessary
cause and effect abstractions that isolate
space mapping tools to visualize and
the problem from its context (Wahl, 2017).
adequately explain a wicked problem.

According to the Interaction Design

Introduction
Foundation, wicked problems are problems
Einstein indicated that if he only had one with many interdependent factors making
hour to solve a problem, he would spend 55 them seem impossible to solve. Because the
minutes defining the problem and the factors are often incomplete, in flux, and
remaining 5 minutes solving it routinely. difficult to define. Solving wicked problems
Innovations are aimed at solving problems. requires a deep understanding of the
Some end up on the patent database, stakeholders involved, and an innovative
others in the museum, but a good number approach provided by design thinking.
end up on the market. The belief here is Complex issues such as healthcare and
that if you focus on the solution (solution education are examples of wicked problems
first) and it turns out to be the wrong one, (2018).
that may be the end of the road. However, The expression “wicked problem” was
if you focus on the problem and the coined by Horst Rittel, a design theorist and
solution turned out to be the wrong one, all professor of design methodology at the Ulm
you may need to do is pivot and develop a School of Design, Germany.
new or slightly different solution while still He describes ten features of wicked
focusing on the problem. However, a lot of problems:
innovators do not concentrate long enough ● There is no definitive formula for a
on the problem. How does one help wicked problem.
innovators focus enough on the issue under ● Wicked problems have no stopping
investigation? rule, as there’s no way to know your
solution is final.
 3

● Solutions to wicked problems are ● Every wicked problem is essentially

not true-or-false; they can only be good-or- unique.
bad. ● Every wicked problem can be
● There is no rapid test of a solution to considered a symptom of another problem.
a wicked problem. ● There are always various
● Every solution to a wicked problem explanations for a wicked problem because
is a "one-shot operation"; because there is the causes vary greatly depending on the
no opportunity to learn by trial-and-error, individual perspective.
every attempt counts significantly. Wicked ● Planners/designers have no right to
problems do not have a set number of be wrong and must be fully responsible for
potential solutions. their action.

Image 1:1: Wicked problems

 4

Image 1:2: African Wicked problems 1 complexity, simplifies the space and helps
identify the opportunity areas for
innovation.
● Florence Nightingale: [tells her story
from the 1800s, the pie chart looking
document, what it meant].
● Hans Roslin [tells the story of his
approach in recent times] uses more
advanced technology to tell stories and
explore problems using visualization.
If Florence Nightingale, a nurse could
provide data to make better decisions than
the army generals in 1858, what stops us
from providing better creative data
visualizations in 2021? This concept of data
visualization is discussed more in Chapter 9:
Analysis Frameworks.

Problem Space Mapping Tools

Africa has many wicked problems,
Designers have created several visualization
problems that are complex and have
tools for understanding problems. The
resisted solutions over the years as
following are some space mapping tools
illustrated in the above image. Some of
you can use to visualize data.
these include civil wars, poverty, hunger.
Poor leadership, lack of quality education,
The spider diagrams
inadequate health care, bad roads among
With spider diagrams, you need to structure
others
your thoughts around a problem. This can
be done in a group or individually. You can
Data Visualization
do it like this: At the center of a large sheet
One of the most powerful ways of of paper, flipchart, or whiteboard for larger
understanding problems is to visualize groups), write down the problem you want
them. The reason is that the visualization of to solve. Starting from this central problem,
the problem helps make sense of the create branches in all directions based on

1 Source: [Link]
[Link]/2012/04/is-africa-responsible-for-its-
[Link]
 5

thoughts and ideas you have about that

problem. Write as many sub-branches of
the problem as you can. This way, it gives
you a broader view of the problem.

Image 1:3: Spider Diagram

Fishbone Diagram
A fishbone diagram is also a visualization as a question rather than a statement.
tool for categorizing a problem’s potential “Why did <problem> happen?” rather than
causes to trace its root causes. The fishbone just “Problem.” Sometimes phrasing things
diagram gets its name from its shape. It as a question gets a better thought process
looks like the bones of a fish. Drawing it is than just a statement. Once you have the
quite simple. At the head of the fish is the head, you have the spine and the ribs
problem, also known as the undesirable representing the groups of causes. The
effect. It is better if you phrase the problem causes then branch off the ribs.
 6

Image 1:4: Fishbone Diagram

Tree Diagram

The tree diagram helps you map out the main problem, along with its causes and effects,
allowing you to identify clear and manageable goals and the strategy of how to achieve them.
The main problem is placed at the top of the tree and the roots lead to the causes and effects
of the problem.
Image 1:5: Tree Diagram
 7

Venn Diagrams

The use of the Venn diagrams can help problem space mapping because it allows the
illustration of the extent to which a problem and its possible causes overlap.
Image 1:6: Venn Diagram

2x2 Matrix
A 2x2 matrix is a tool to scaffold thinking and conversation about your users and problem
space. It can be used to help you think about relationships between things or people. The hope
is that insights will come out from using a 2x2. 2x2 matrices are also great to visually
communicate a relationship you want to convey.
 8

Image 1:7: 2x2 matrix

The 5 Whys

The 5 Whys is a mind mapping tool root cause. If one wishes to uncover
used to explore the cause-and-effect multiple root causes, the method must be
relationships underlying a particular repeated, asking a different sequence of
problem. The main aim of the 5 Whys is to questions each time. This method provides
find the root cause of a problem by no hard and fast rules about what lines of
repeating the question "Why?". Each questions to explore, or how long to
answer forms the basis of the next continue searching for additional root
question. The "five" in the name derives causes. Thus, even when the method is
from an anecdotal observation on the closely followed, the outcome still depends
number of iterations needed to resolve the upon the knowledge and persistence of the
problem. Not all problems have a single people involved.

Image 1:8: The 5 Whys

 9

Choosing the right framework- VUCA

The COVID19 pandemic has shown us that frameworks to analyze the problem space.
problems are more complex and uncertain. For example, using a tree diagram to
We do not have to look at only problems analyze this problem may lead to
but instead look for a process that allows us uncertainty on whether to create a full tree
to map out problem spaces and quickly diagram, one tree diagram or create one
understand them. However, looking at and then create situations where this new
covid-19, there is a lot of complexity and tree diagram will be formed. One way that
ambiguity around the problem. This results helps in guiding to choose the right
in uncertainty when using some framework for a problem is VUCA.

VUCA stands for Volatility, Uncertainty, unfolds. For example, a problem that
Complexity and Ambiguity. It was affects various countries like poor
introduced to illustrate a world of leadership may be hard to unpack since
uncertainty. Each of the letters in “VUCA” is different factors cause this problem which
described further below and it is also may differ for each country. With this, one
expounded on more in the Design Thinking needs clarity to focus on the key factors
Chapter. causing the problem. Therefore, when
dealing with a problem: Complexity needs
Uncertainty. Clarity: What problem space mapping tools
This refers to not being able to predict the should be used to provide clarity?
future. It can be caused by lack of
information, having false information or Ambiguity.
even too much information. In such a It refers to the vagueness of a problem, and
situation, one needs to understand the when the situation is entirely unclear. You
problem space more by collecting have heard of a saying that not everything
information, looking for interconnections is black and white, there are grey areas?
and perspectives. Therefore, when dealing Ambiguity comes in the grey areas. This
with a problem; Uncertainty needs makes interpretation hard since the
Understanding: What problem space information is unclear or contradicting
mapping tools should be used to hence affecting decision making. One needs
understand the problem at hand? agility/adaptability and flexibility to make
the right decisions. Therefore, when dealing
Complexity. with a problem, Ambiguity needs Agility:
It involves a number of factors in a situation What problem space mapping tools should
that make it hard to navigate how it be used to achieve agility?
 10

Stakeholders. Internal Stakeholders. Internal

stakeholders are those who are directly
After revealing the causes and effects of
linked to the problem and found within the
problems, one needs to identify relevant
problem space. They are directly affected
stakeholders that are causing the problems
by the problem or are the ones who cause
and those affected by it beyond what the
the problem. External Stakeholders. These
primary target user suffers. For instance, a
are actors outside the problem space that
drug addict youth’s problem is also a
have a relatively minimal impact on the
concern for the parents who will be
problem space. The problem does not
affected by it. There are two types of
affect them directly, and they are not the
stakeholders in every problem space.
immediate cause of the problem.

Image 1:9: Stakeholder Assessment Grid

Analysis of the macroeconomic space of a problem

Once the causes and effects have ways to examine the space around a
been identified and the stakeholders, it is problem.
time to explore the macroeconomic space PESTLE Analysis. The most common of such
around the problem. Below are some of the environmental scans is the PESTLE
 11

framework or pestle analysis. PESTLE of six external factors that surround a

analysis refers to an external examination problem.

Image 1:10: PESTLE Diagram

Political Factors. Social and cultural factors.

One of the most significant These are social attitudes,
environments surrounding your problem is behaviors, trends and cultural beliefs that
the political environment. It may either be surround your problem space. Examples
one of the causes of your problem or include attitudes and shared beliefs about a
suffers the effects of the problem. Examples range of factors including money, customer
of political factors could include tax laws, service, imports, religion, cultural taboos,
political stability, government regulations health, work, leisure, the environment,
etc. population growth etc.

Economic Factors. Technological Factors.

These refer to the overall economic Technology is one of the rapid
forces that surround your problem. Some of growing innovations in recent times.
these factors may be direct causes of your Technology has an impact on your problem
problem while others may contribute to the space in one way or the other. Examples of
causes of the problem you are trying to technological factors include technology
tackle. Examples of these economic factors and communications infrastructure,
include Economic trends, growth rates, legislation around technology, consumer
industry growth, seasonal factors, access to technology, competitor
international exchange rates, international technology, and development, emerging
trade, labour costs, consumer disposable technologies, automation, research and
income, unemployment rates, taxation, innovation, intellectual property regulation,
inflation, interest rates, availability of technology incentives, etc.
credit, monetary policies, raw material
costs among others. Legal Factors.
 12

These refer to current and future antitrust, intellectual property, data

legal and regulatory requirements that may protection, tax and discrimination;
impact on your problem space. Examples international and domestic trade
include Laws regarding consumer regulations/restrictions, advertising
protection, labour, health & safety, standards, product labeling, and
safety standards. Environmental weaknesses, and external opportunities and
Factors. These refer to factors in the natural threats. We can also use the SWOT analysis
environment that have an impact on your as a tool for analyzing a problem.
problem space. Examples include weather, S- Characteristics of the problem which
climate change, carbon footprint, makes it easy to understand and analyze.
environmental regulations, pollution laws W- Characteristics of the problem that
and targets, recycling and waste makes it difficult to understand and
management policies, endangered species, analyze.
support for renewable energy, etc. SWOT O- External Factors that can help us
Analysis. SWOT is an acronym that stands understand and analyze the problem. T-
for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, External factors that may hinder us from
and Threats. Business analysts will use this analyzing and understanding the problem
tool to identify the internal strengths and

Image 1:10: SWOT Diagram

 13

Conclusion Key Words.

The problem festival has the tagline Wicked Problem, VUCA, Problem Festival,
“Where problems get visualized, and Frameworks, PESTLE analysis, SWOT
solutions get penalized” The goal is to get analysis.
people to focus on the problems, map them
out, develop narratives of how the causes Problem Sets.
and effects are interrelated and present 1. List two mind mapping tools you will use
their findings in a science-fair style to analyze your problem and why.
presentation. Finally, one must understand 2. What is the full meaning of the acronym
the frameworks and use VUCA to guide in PESTLE?
choosing the right framework to apply to a 3. What is your understanding of a wicked
particular problem. problem? Give examples
 14

CHAPTER 2: INNOVATION

Chapter Description
At the end of this chapter, you should be
Innovation is probably one of the most used able to understand the meaning of
words these days. You continuously hear innovation and its approaches. You will also
people throw around slang like, “this is an be able to identify and describe each of the
amazing innovation”, “we need to be stages involved in Rothwell's evolution of
innovative”. The truth is that any business innovation and how this has affected or
that wants to survive in this 21st century shaped our present understanding of
will constantly have to innovate whatever innovation. The chapter dives deeper in
they are offering to suit our ever-changing each innovation stage, history of each
world. Imagine you still wore the cloth innovation stage, the advantages,
designs that existed twenty years ago. I am limitations among others. From this
sure that will feel weird. Surprisingly, we chapter, one will understand that
still wear almost the same kinds of clothes customers are currently sophisticated,
but with different designs. This is because which calls for new approaches to
they have been innovated to meet the innovation.
demands of these present times. Moreover, what does one need to consider
when taking on these new approaches?
In this chapter, we will look at innovation What are customers looking for? What
and how it has evolved to know what it factors affect the approach used? What
looks like today. What do you understand approaches are no longer enough in today’s
by innovation? world? Which new ones need to be
adopted? These questions and more will be
answered in this chapter.
 15

Introduction innovating a new approach, traditional

market segmentation is no longer enough
A new approach is needed when
because one segment’s solution may not be
creating; a new service or product, a new
the same for another segment. However,
strategy or when reimagining what we
the segment approach, one can ignore the
currently have. When a new approach is
other segments that may benefit from this
needed, one needs a new way of
segment’s solution. However, when
innovating. However, different factors
innovating under this approach, use cases
impact new approaches. When innovating,
that cut across segments, these consider
functionality needs are no longer enough as
the whole process and not just the
customers do not look at the product’s
segments.
functionality features (user needs, user
goals, and predict behaviors). They instead
Christensen, Cook & Hall (2016), argues
want the aesthetic (harmony, coherence,
that “people do not want to buy a quarter
composition and trends) and psychological
inch drill, but they want a quarter inch
(positive emotions and relevant thoughts).
hole.” People are looking for a job to be
Nevertheless, innovating for functionality
done so when innovating one needs to
needs is simpler than innovating for
innovate to a “job to be done”. One needs
aesthetic and psychological needs.
to understand the “job to be done” and this
Furthermore, customers are also looking for
is in relation to the psychological need;
a new meaning outside of what they
hence this also shows how innovating for
currently have. Customers are also
the functionality need is no longer enough.
aspirational as they move upwards on the
The concept of “job to be done” is
Maslow’s triangle as their needs are
explained further in this chapter. This shows
fulfilled. Here, it is hard to innovate for the
that customers have become sophisticated
customers; therefore, the approach to be
and therefore, innovators need new
used has to be sophisticated to capture
approaches to satisfy users.
their aspirations. Additionally, when
 16

Innovation Approaches and Design changed a lot since then and so has the
Thinking. approach to innovation. To fully appreciate
This chapter will argue that there the evolution of the innovation approach
are a number of approaches to innovation. over time, here is a historical overview.
However, the dynamics of our world’s
evolution suggests that the approach Roy Rothwell’s five generations (5G)
needed today has to be fluid and versatile. of innovation.
It needs to identify important information,
British sociologist Roy Rothwell
sanitize and sensitize it and then
developed a template for tracking the
incorporate it into an implementation plan
evolution of innovation through time. We
that delivers innovation. Traditionally, there
will use this template and also add to his
are so many ways of coming up with
historical overview. Rothwell identified a
innovative ideas. You can focus on new
macroeconomic factor that defined each
technology and discover a creative solution
stage of the evolution of an innovative
that solves a need for humanity. For
approach and named them generations.
instance, the Internet, GPS, Sonar, etc. all
[E.g., the 70s experienced hyperinflation
came from military-related research that
and contraction in the global economy and
was probably not user-centered or use-
made innovators look for ways of cutting
inspired but started with focusing on a
costs and making smaller units]. The idea is
technology breakthrough. A long time ago,
to find the list of macroeconomic factors
the belief was that ‘if you build it, they will
that drive each generation and argue for
buy’. It was said that Ford told customers of
which that generation’s approach is the way
his Model T car, ‘you can have any color you
it is.
want, so long as it is black’. The world has

.
 17

Image 2:1: Here is a model of how Rothwell’s work is summarized by another author 2

The time period

2 Source:[Link]
Perunovic_fig1_240233014
 18

1. Technology Push (1G model)

Image 2:2: 1G model (a)

Technology push views the innovation

process as simple linear and sequential with
There was fast economic growth from 1950 emphasis on R&D. The market is seen as a
to the mid-1960s, which increased receptacle of the results of R&D activity. Or
industrial expansion and “technology push” in other words, this is a supply side
in Japan and the Western world. Scientific approach of the innovation process.
breakthroughs and more “R&D” were the
main focus of the majority of companies. On the other hand, market information in
These two were seen as the solution to this model comes at the end of the process
societal problems. According to Rothwell as shown in the diagram below. Hence
(1994), innovations like commercial applications
are rarely adapted to the market as they are
taken as technical inventions (Rothwell,
1994).
Image 2:3: 1G model (b)

One of the proponents of for invention and innovation. It is important

technology push is Joseph Schumpeter. He to note that technology push could involve
explained the process of ‘creative basic research (such as often done in
destruction’ (old ways of doing things are university labs) and R&D-type of research
internally destroyed and replaced by new which is often in product development
ways) and where innovations came from. companies (e.g., P&G is reported to employ
He argued that technology innovations 7,500 PhD.’s and researchers in 71
were supply- side driven (from deep countries and holds about 25,000 active
pockets like Bell Labs). Advances in patents worldwide).
knowledge opened up new opportunities
 19

quantum mechanics such as the benefits

from quantum horsepower and quantum
Many of technological breakthrough
privacy (for cryptography); one can argue
innovations in the world came to us in
that the research process is going to
wartime and were pure technology push
progress until tangible discoveries are
concepts. For instance, here are seven
made, and then the question of what
wartime inventions that we use every day:
market needs exist for those discoveries will
Canned food, Plastic Surgery, Sanitary
be asked and answered.
napkins, Duct tape, Microwave ovens,
Digital photography and the Internet Let us also take the example of Ford
(Schellhase, 2015). economy trucks for ‘53. The invention of
these trucks could be described as a
On the other hand, Blockchain and 5G are
technology push because of the innovation
two technological breakthroughs that are
of the improvement in the features to suit
mind-blowing, but no one really knows
the technology at the time. The trucks were
what we will really use them for or how
completely redesigned from the tires to
they will work although we get the sense
every other part with new time saving
that they will really change the way we do
features to get work done faster. These
things.
redesigned features were new driver's cabs;
Some companies invest in technology push new springs are new brakes, new
research. For example, in 2004, one of the transmissions, new shorter turning, and
co-founders of RIM (Blackberry) donated new low friction power. All these
$45.8 million to the University of Waterloo innovations were made because of the
for Quantum mechanic’s research. While advancement and availability of technology.
there are general potential applications for

Image 2:4: Example of Technology push

Interesting case of technology push

Take Sony portable stereo tape recorder (the Pressman)

Remove recording circuit
Replace with a stereo amplifier
Develop lightweight headphones (most challenging)
Headphones – most innovative part of the system
Removed: second headphone socket
Finding: people wanted personal device
 20

2. Demand Pull (2G model)

Image 2:5: Illustration of demand pull

From the mid-1960s to early 1970s, there Market pull, views innovation, again, as
was a “market share battle”. This battle was simple, linear and sequential, but now with
characterized by a lot of competition which an emphasis on the market. The market is
led to companies to focus their the source of ideas to direct R&D, which
development to a “need pull”. Due to this plays a reactive role. Demand-side factors
increased competition, investors changed replace the supply-side approach of the 1G
their target from new products to model (Rothwell,1994).
technological change. Companies started
focusing on responding to the needs of the However, there is too much emphasis on
market. market-driven improvements of existing
products in the 2G model, which results in
many short-term projects. The diagram
below shows the process of the 2G model.

Image 2:6: Process of 2G model

Schmookler. J. (1966) conducted an sectional patent data and historical case

extensive analysis of time series and cross- studies and came up with findings that
 21

extended Schumpeter’s work. Schmookler researchers and AI to identify consumer

found that demand-pull influences were insights and deep dive opportunities for the
also important (in addition to tech push). world's most innovative companies. Our
The more intense the demand, the more research and workshops empower more
creative groups, and individuals were drawn than 500 brands, billionaires and CEOs,
to work on an unsolved problem and the including Coca-Cola, Adidas, Victoria's
more patentable inventions they generated. Secret, IBM, Cisco, Microsoft, and NASA.
Our head office is based in Toronto,
The Trendhunter magazine does a real job
Canada, and we are fueled by a global
in identifying trends and curating them for
network of 200,000 contributors and
innovators to respond to. Here is an excerpt
3,000,000 fans. Trend Hunter is currently
“With 20,000,000 monthly views,
studying more than 350,000 cutting edge
[Link] is the world's largest,
ideas using over 3 billion choices from
most popular trend community. Behind the
150,000,000 people.”
scenes, we leverage big data, human

Image 2: 7: Other examples areas where demand-pull innovation exists

Health consciousness New Materialism

Eco-consciousness Renewed Traditionalism
Ethnic diversity Altruism
Age waves Rapid techno change
Time poverty Intense domestic/globalized
Quality of Life competition
Quality of work life imperative Human capital management
Increased longevity Fast, responsive, network corporations
Value-consciousness

3. Coupling of R&D and Marketing (3G model)

Rationalization emerged under the pressure introduced as marketing and R&D became
of stagflation and inflation in the mid-1970s more tightly coupled. Here the innovation
to the mid-1980s. The main focus here was as a result of coupling the market needs
on corporate consolidation, which resulted and technological opportunities. The
in product portfolios. There was a reduction process is still sequential but with feedback
in operational costs as companies moved loops (Rothwell,1994).
away from individual R&D projects.
Structured innovation processes were
 22

The 3G innovation models’ main societal needs but rather focus on the
disadvantage is that they tend to neglect company's new technological capabilities
solutions for institutional barriers and (Berkhout, 2006).

Image 2:8: The diagram below illustrates the 3G model process.

4. Integrated Business Processes (4G)

From the early 1980s to the mid-90s the The innovation process changed from
product life cycles shortened, and the sequential shifting (function to function), to
central theme became a “time-based a parallel process of development, together
struggle”. The focus here was on “total with integration within the company,
concepts” to be developed by integrated upstream with key suppliers and
products and processes. According to downstream with leading customers.
Rothwell (1994),
The emphasis here was placed on the non-
sequential, messy character of the
innovation process and the role of
feedback. Hence this generation
emphasizes on concurrent learning with
customers and suppliers.
 23

Image 2:9: Example of the 4G model from Graves (1987)

The representation of 4G focuses on the parallel and integrated nature of the two primary
internal features of the process.

5. System Integration and Networking (5G)

Resource constraints rose from the 1990s generation looks like the networking
onwards therefore, to guarantee flexibility process in the 4G model with an addition of
and speed of development, the focus the time/cost tradeoff. In the 5G model,
shifted to system integration. There was the being a “fast innovator” helps determine
automation of business processes through the company’s competitiveness (Rothwell,
manufacturing information systems and 1994).
resource planning. The process in this
 24

Graph 2:1: Cost and time graph

To enhance the efficiency of the operations, Other Factors that affect innovation
5G uses a powerful electronic toolkit hence approaches today.
5G having the most powerful process of the
electronification of innovation across the The Network effect of the internet. The
whole innovation system. Furthermore, in Internet has changed how people look at
the 5G model, technological innovation is problems, how designers and engineers do
also not sequential but rather cross research, how they analyze data, how they
functional and multi-actor similar to the 4G do test and how they bring out the results.
model. The main synthesis from these For instance, users are becoming
generations is that the main fundamental accustomed to instant gratification.
approaches seem to be technology push Therefore, if they feel a need now, they can
and demand-pull (1G and 2G) with specific go online and search for a solution,
outcomes such as radical innovation and evaluate options and decide on the best
incremental innovation respectively. 3G is solution option pretty quickly because of
the integration (coupling) of 1G and 2G. It is the internet. Users also have many more
interesting to note that 4G and 5G focus options now than they used to have. Hence,
more on internal processes of innovation they are able to evaluate options along a
than on outcomes (4G is about cross- wider spectrum and therefore, sometimes
functional teams and 5G is about systems- beyond functionality. This means that users
integration and networking or open may focus on an emotional connection to
innovation). One of the factors that have the solution beyond the function it
supported and promoted networking is the provides. For instance, in buying a laptop, a
Internet. user that would like touch screen
functionality may ignore the fact that many
MacBook options do not provide a touch
 25

screen while many PC options do. Choosing These factors and the complication of
a MacBook over a PC when the touchscreen preferences have led to the breaking of
is a strong consideration will be going traditional segmentation approach for
beyond functionality to an emotion-based understanding when developing innovation.
connection. Companies used to focus on their levels of
market segments in innovating. Today, they
Complicated preferences in today’s world. find similar customers in multiple segments
Going beyond functionality to an responding preferences, researchers
emotion-based preference in making explore insights to help understand those
choices shows how the preferences of users actions according to their products and
have become complicated. It is partly due services in ways they did not develop the
to the overload of information (easy product for. As a user exercises his or her
Internet access) and a host of other factors. complicated
the Harvard Professor Clay Christenson, the help from a statistician. Here is what
Jobs To Be Done concept may explain how Christensen, etl. (2016) said about what a
people exercise these preferences. The user job is.
is hiring the MacBook to do a job for him or
her (e.g., a job of providing status for social “shorthand for what an individual really
recognition, a job that is not about the seeks to accomplish in a given
functions of the MacBook per se) circumstance”.
(Christensen, etl.,2016).
The circumstances are more important than
Jobs to be done. customer characteristics, product
A job to be done (JTBD) is a revolutionary attributes, new technologies, or trends.
concept that guides you toward innovation
and helps you move beyond the norm of The following is his description of how the
only improving current solutions. It is not a concept works.
product, service, or a specific solution; it's “When we buy a product, we essentially
the higher purpose for which customers buy ‘hire’ something to get a job done. If it does
products, services, and solutions. the job well, when we are confronted with
the same job, we hire that same product
The JTBD concept helps the innovator again. Moreover, if the product does a
understand that customers don't buy crummy job, we ‘fire’ it and look around for
products and services but rather hire something else we might hire to solve the
solutions at various times to carry out a problem.” What is the approach for
variety of jobs. This technique requires no innovation in the era of jobs to be done?
expert assistance, but you may neesampling Christensen says: “You should look at the
 26

workarounds that your customers need to

do. It becomes a real source of a lot of Other factors.
insights.” What is Christensen referring to? The role of other factors like global
Most people will agree that he is referring warming, unconventional war (VUCA
to Design Thinking. The process of ‘looking concept), the millennials, green planet, fake
at workarounds’ is the process of news, China, social media, lifestyle,
ethnography for Design Thinking Research. technology, demography, population
The idea of ‘getting insights’ from that growth, and other social consciousness
ethnographic process is the process of movements.
sensemaking and synthesis for Design
Thinking Research Analysis.

Design driven innovation

Generation of new meaning through Design Thinking Approach

Another expert, Roberto Verganti, can create radical innovation for long term
makes another argument in exploring competitive advantage. An example is
innovative approaches that can deal with Nintendo Wii (active physical entertainment
the problem of complication of user for all), wholefoods (a shift from organic
preferences in today’s world. He argues for food being a self-denying choice to
the Design Thinking approach to innovation reinvigorating experience). He notes that
as the logical next generation of innovation such companies “have generated products,
(6G?). He argues that radical innovation is a services, and systems with long lives,
major source of long-term competitive significant and sustainable profit margins,
advantage. However, radical innovation is and brand value, and they have spurred
difficult to come up with. One way to company growth”.
understand rational innovation is to
Design-Driven Innovation shows market
consider the innovation of meanings
leaders such as Apple build an unbeatable
because people buy meanings, not
competitive advantage through innovations
products.
that create new markets. Such leaders
People normally assume that meanings are compete through products and services
static and not innovative. However, the that provide a new meaning giving a new
innovation of meanings changes the game reason for customers to buy them
and elevates the extent to which designers (Verganti, 2008).
 27

Image 2:10: User centered Design and Design Driven Innovation

following diagram explains the contrast.

The y-axis refers to the level of technology
In contrasting design thinking with tech
(from incremental to radical) and the x-axis
push and demand pull, he argues that these
refers to the level of new meaning (from
traditional methods, especially demand
current adaptations to socio-cultural
pull, fail to innovate meanings. The
models to the generation of the new
meaning).
 28

Graph 2:2: Comparison of traditional methods and new meaning

to probe into the concept of the generation

New meaning of new meaning as described by Verganti.
Verganti contrasts new meaning with
In our section on creativity, we described
current socio-cultural models. These socio-
new ideas as those that sparked outside of
cultural bubbles will be akin to the box of
the box of categories. They are the ones for
categories we described earlier. The idea
which there are no previously stored
here is that new meaning for users will lie
templates for the brain to use in
outside of their box of categories.
categorizing them. We can use that analogy
 29

Image 2:11: Creating new meaning

Thus, Verganti argues that tech push and connections to things than the other two
design thinking approaches are more likely approaches.
to produce ideas that lie outside of the
Hence, new ways of doing old things may
users’ boxes of categories than the stem from an emotional connection to the
demand-pull approach that often focuses reimagined but previously familiar
on incremental innovation. The second experience that has been turned into a
relevant point to note here is that by completely new experience. The example
providing new meaning that is outside of that students enjoy the most is the Snuggie.
boxes of categories, the design thinking The Snuggie is a robe worn backwards but
sold as a blanket with sleeves that allow you
approach provides users with new ways of
to stay warm while having your hands free
doing things that they may be familiar with. to work the remote control or talk on the
Verganti talks about design thinking as phone. As of 2014, the Allstar Products
more effective in unearthing emotional Group had made $500m in Snuggie sales
alone. That said, new meaning may more
likely derive from tangible solutions and
experiences that the user is not familiar people …” ― Ernesto Gismondi, Chairman,
with than those that the user is familiar Artemide “If I had asked people what they
with. wanted, they would have said faster
horses.” ― Supposed Henry Ford quote. "A
The following quotes help substantiate the
lot of times, people don't know what they
view of the creation of new meaning.
want until you show it to them. “Steve Jobs
“Market? What market?! We do not look at ― BusinessWeek, May 25, 1998.
market needs. We make proposals to
 30

Nuances from contrasting Design thinking tech-push or market-pull. Also, most will
with the five generations model defy the time categories.

There are a few more points to synthesize Exercise 2

from the contrast of design thinking to the This exercise is to connect the 5 generations
other two fundamental approaches to to Verganti’s theses. The goal is to come up
innovation development. with a figure that puts all the generations
Although the five generations model was on the Verganti map with design thinking as
set in the era's past, it should be noted that the potential 6th generation approach.
this approach’s actual practice is very much It is important to note that 1G and 2G are
with us today. Tech push is still relevant in the most distinctive forms of innovation
many industries like drug discovery, and 3G and 4G and 5G are more process
software, etc. based which shows how you can combine
Demand pull is important for addressing 1G and 2G. So Verghanti can ignore 3G-5G
trends in society. in his model and focus on 1G and 2G
But design thinking is most important if we because you can use 3G-5G as processes in
want to focus on radical innovation which is developing design thinking innovation while
the source of long-term competitive arguing that design-thinking is not demand-
advantage. By focusing on radical pull and it's not tech-push.
innovation, you are aiming really high so It's important to note that we are focused
that if it. doesn’t happen, you can settle on on design thinking and look at the
a lower pedestal. The main argument is that generation of new meaning because of 1.
the generation of meaning is key. Disruptive innovation is the source of
competitive advantage and we need new
Exercise 1 meaning to create disruptive innovation. 2.
Since the students came to class with We are doing a business course, so tech
discovered designs, the instructor can ask push doesn’t work, and demand pull is
them to determine in which of the 5 relegated to the marketing field and 3G to
generational eras the innovation they found 5G work best at the firm level (organization
was situated. Often the common finding is because they are more process based). We
that most of the innovations will fall under are indeed very well aligned with 5G as we
focus on the meaning.
 31

Summary The smartphone was primarily made for

taking pictures and today its meaning has
Functionality is not enough
changed. So how do designers design for
The conclusion for why we need to change jobs and new meaning? Designing for
the approach we use for innovation today is functionality is hard enough. Design
the effect of our highly networked society thinking is the only approach that we know
and the fact that increasingly, it's becoming of that can potentially empathize with users
clear that functionality is not enough. There enough to understand them deeply enough
is information overload, and we need to be to potentially uncover the job they want to
very agile to be able to identify and be done and how it provides new meaning.
incorporate relevant data into our creative
outcomes. That said, when we get around Key Words
to figuring out a process of dealing with the
Innovation, Functionality, New meaning,
complexity of the process, you still need to
Demand pull, technology push
figure out what to innovate. Both
Christensen and Verganti show us that
functionality is not enough. We need to go Problem sets
beyond functionality. We need to focus on 1. Differentiate between demand pull
the generation of meaning for the customer and technology push innovation?
or user by understanding what jobs need to 2. Briefly explain the impact of the
be done. Once we understand what job the internet on innovation.
user is hiring the product for, we know that 3. What is the difference between
we have generated a new meaning for the design drive innovation and the other types
user, and it is beyond functionality. When of innovation in Rothwell's stages of
we buy smartphones now, we are hiring it innovation?
to ensure a status symbol, to take pictures
quickly and to be able to share immediately.
 32

CHAPTER 3: CREATIVITY

design thinking approach and develop

Chapter description mental models for success and problem
Creativity has been defined in many solving. In this chapter, we explore mental
ways by different people. In this book, we models which will push our brains out of
define creativity as thinking outside the categories. And once these categories are
box. What do you understand by thinking broken, we learn to think outside the box,
outside the box and thinking inside the box? thus presenting us with creative ways of
As you read through this chapter, you will making our thinking patterns more efficient.
understand all these and why the brain is Berns. G (2008) notes that novelty is
described as a lazy piece of meat. You will needed for imagination to commence. And
also understand how thinking outside the he also, notes that imagination and
box helps to stimulate creativity. How the creativity start with perception.
brain categorizes stimuli and how it breaks
those categories. This chapter will further Creativity
help you understand different ways in
which you can be creative and will also help
Thinking outside the box
you dispel myths about creativity. You will
get your hands around exercises on Thinking outside the box 3 is a metaphor for
creativity. By the time you are done reading thinking differently. It is said to be derived
this chapter, you will discover what makes from management consulting in the 1970s
you creative. and 1980s. It relates to the topographical
puzzle called the 9 dots puzzle arranged in
the form of a box with three dots with
Introduction
equal distance on each side and the ninth in
To have a different approach to the middle. Solvers were instructed to link
innovation in today’s world is to have a all 9 dots using four straight lines or fewer,
different mindset about how to go about it. once, without lifting the pen. The solution
To get a different mindset about the requires a creative approach that takes the
approach, we need to examine our thinking pen outside of the ‘box’ of dots to complete
patterns, learn about the inherent the trace in a way that most people do not
inefficiencies that are likely to prevent us think of (Kihn, 2005).
from being excellent in our practice of the

3 Kihn, Martin."'Outside the Box': the Inside Story,"

FastCompany 1995; Random House: Outside the
Box Thinking.
 33

Image 5:1: 9 dots puzzle

Creativity has since been described as or her brain. So, the brain quickly pulls up
thinking outside the box. Prior to this, that memory and this guides the child’s
creativity was seen in the forms of response. Imagine this process happening
evolution, revolution, synthesis, with all the interactions you have had with
reapplication, changing direction among your five senses to this day. Your brain
others. It turns out the field of neuroscience builds up a file cabinet of templates that it
confirms thinking outside the box as a way uses to process new information. This
of thinking to come up with new ideas. Our process is also called categorization.
brains perceive stimuli through our five So, your brain has categories upon
senses, vision, hearing, smell, taste, and categories, think files in file drawers in a file
touch, and respond with action. However, cabinet in the brain, which it draws from.
between initial perception and action, a lot This is why a person you just met but do not
happens. From childhood, our brains tag know can make you feel a certain way
perceptions and store them in templates in because your brain uses existing templates
our brain (in the limbic system). For of experiences of someone else this person
example, if a child touches a yellow flame, reminds you of to filter your perceptions of
this is stored in the brain so that the next the current person. It is also why you are
time the child sees a yellow flame, he or she quick to dismiss things you think you have
knows not to touch it because the painful encountered even if they present a
experience from touching it is stored in his completely new circumstance (Kihn, 2005).
 34

Image 5:2: Categorization Process in the brain (a)

The brain is a lazy piece of meat

In his book, Iconoclast: A Neuroscientist shout “Ferrari” in unison. This is thinking

Reveals How to Think Differently, Gregory inside the box of categories, browsing
Berns4 calls the brain ‘a lazy piece of meat’! through the file drawers and the files within
He says the brain is lazy because it these drawers to locate a template that fits
conserves energy by categorizing. that phrase ‘red, low laying sports car’.
Therefore, when it is confronted with new There are many different models of red low
stimuli, it simply draws from those laying sports cars that come in the color
templates, the categories to aid with red. Also, Ferraris come in different colors.
response generation without any more Whatever the explanation for the
thinking. This is thinking inside the box and association of Ferrari to that descriptive,
this is what Berns calls brain laziness. It is what is clear is that the color red and the
also akin to drawing lines within the box of brand Ferrari have been etched into the box
9 dots in an attempt to solve the puzzle of categories of young people in North
(Berns, 2010). Here is an illustration we America. Hence, the audience is often not
have used numerous times with young able to provide ‘creative’ responses to that
people in North America (millennials, it phrase. Thinking inside the box is good but
doesn’t work on baby boomers and we ... We are not suggesting that thinking
haven’t tried it abroad). “I am going to say inside the box is bad. In fact, thinking inside
something, and you immediately say out the box is useful. For the child who stored
loud what comes to mind: ‘Red, low laying the feeling of pain from putting a hand over
sports car’”. Every time we have gotten a yellow flame, processing inside the box on
more than 50% percent of the audience the next encounter with a yellow flame by

4 Berns, Gregory 2010 Iconoclast: A Neuroscientist Reveals How

to Think Differently by. Harvard Business ReviewPress; First
Trade Paper Edition edition (March 17, 2010)
 35

retrieving that stored template helps profiling). Thus, if creativity is about coming
prevent another burn. As humans, we need up with new ideas, then a person is unlikely
to think inside the box to survive, to avoid to be creative if his or her brain mostly
repeating mistakes and keep safe. We need processes within its box of categories and
to keep files in file drawers in our mental within the stored files of templates because
box of categories. Also, thinking inside the new ideas do not live there. Hence,
box involves utility, which is a great categorization and inside processing is good
component of creativity, and with it, one for our survival but inhibits our ability to
needs to identify and fully utilize what is consistently develop new ideas. We need to
available in the box before they can think process outside of our categories to
outside the box (Peterson, 2010). However, discover new ideas and be creative.
new ideas are often unfamiliar to us. Remember drawing the line outside of the 9
Technically, new ideas have to live outside dots in order to connect them without
the box of categories for them to be new. If lifting the pen.
new ideas live outside our boxes of
categories, then always processing inside
our box of categories is only going to make
us good analyzers if we apply the right
stored template (note that templates can
be used incorrectly leading to wrong
interpretations, e.g., in cases of wrongful

Image 5:3: Categorization Process in the brain (b)

 36

what happens when the actor describing

Breaking out of categories sunset on planet XB 40 is encouraged to
How does one break out of the box of keep talking and trying to provide a
categories? According to Berns (2010), the description. Soon, the actor starts to make
solution lies in how novelty motivates stuff up. Sometimes, the imaginative scenes
imagination. It is clear that imagination are so good that you wonder if the person
leads to new ideas, but the brain prevents could have contributed immensely to the
imagination when it processes inside the script for the movie Avatar. That is
box. This is because imagination by the very imagination at work. That is the brain
meaning of the word lives outside of the knocked out of its box of categories. That is
box of categories. You are only imagining the brain processing outside the
because you don’t find a useful template in box...thinking outside the box! A question
the file drawers. Berns uses the example of that often comes up here is that the actor is
trying to imagine a sunset on an unfamiliar not pulling from a particular file drawer of
planet. In our adaptation of that exercise, sunsets but is pulling from another file
we often ask for a volunteer to act out drawer of planets. That is true in a sense
instructions in front of the class. and all new ideas encompass old ideas to an
extent. However, the point is that at the
“Close your eyes and imagine a Florida moment of imagining a sunset on planet XB
sunset. Describe it.” The descriptions are 40, the actor had no exact templates in any
often what you expect. Nice sandy beaches, of the mental file drawers to draw from and
palm trees, yellow sunset in the horizon, therefore ended up creating new images.
beach chairs etc. “Close your eyes and It’s the imagination of the new images that
imagine a sunset on a newfound planet XB lead to the creation of new ideas.
40”. The actor normally struggles to
provide a description because he or she Novelty is needed for imagination to
has no stored templates of planet XB 40. Is commence
it a rocky or gaseous planet? is it cold or
“Travel to new places, do something
hot? It becomes really difficult to describe
unusual, meet new people, try new foods,
sunset in an unfamiliar and unknown
take a different route to school or to work”
scenery.
You have heard these prescriptions for
coming up with new ideas or for being
Creativity is imagination at work. Berns
creative? Berns notes that novelty is
notes that creativity happens when the
needed for imagination to commence. And
brain is forced out of its comfort zone, out
also, Berns notes that imagination and
of stored templates and is forced to
creativity start with perception.
imagine. Basically, make stuff up! This is
 37

Neuroscientists believe that Perception is a Does novelty need physical

product of a brain and not what your eyes movement to occur?
and ears transmit to your brain. We see this
in the planet XB 40 exercise. It is only when The simplest depictions of novelty
the actor was told to describe ‘sunset on encounters are when the person moves
planet XB 40” that the imaginative process from one physical space into another
started. This is the element of novelty that unfamiliar space. But can this movement be
was introduced to the actor to jumpstart purely mental without the physical
the imaginative process. Berns gives many component? It seems to be the case that
examples of this when he describes new perceptions in one physical space can
iconoclasts such as Kary Mullis who came evoke the type of novelty circumstance that
up with the basic principle of the sparks innovation. Hearing something on
polymerase chain reaction at mile marker the radio can unlock a writer’s block as that
46.7 on Highway 128 driving up the new information causes a novelty situation
Northern California coast when he that forces the writer to process outside of
encountered his creative instrument of the box of categories within which he or she
novelty “the stalks of the California is trapped. One could even argue that
buckeyes heavily in blossom leaning over daydreaming could also serve as a mental
into the road” This element of novelty is journey on which one could find many
what knocked his brain out of the box of novelty situations to spark the imagination.
categories of lab experience denaturing People can’t help but make up their own
natural DNA to imagine the structure of endings of movies that leave them hanging
polymerase in the form of the petals of the or make up the continuation of really
flower. Another illustration Berns uses is captivating novels they couldn’t finish
the story of Walt Disney. Walt Disney was a reading for one reason or another. These
good illustration artist who created creative moments do not involve physical
illustrations for ads that showed before the displacement.
main feature movie in the theatre. His
element of novelty came when he was Novelty in the unconscious
sitting through a number of ads with his In addition to daydreaming, alteration of
illustrated work when he imagined what it storybook and movie endings, there are
would be like to have the animation be the also stories of people waking up at night in
main feature. It was that moment, sitting cold sweats because they had a great idea
there and watching his work play on the big that they needed to write down. There are
screen that served as the moment of stories of people interrupting their shower
novelty which will go on to transform the and causing a mess because they needed to
animation industry. get out dripping in order to write down a
 38

great idea they got in the shower. Waking company had hired a 3-ad agency and
up from sleep and getting epiphanies in the didn’t like any of their work. So, the student
shower seem to result from a mental studied the campaign requirements really
download to the consciousness of an well, took time off work, traveled through
imaginative process that happened the city of Boston in the US, took lots of
unconsciously. It is as if the brain took pictures, went home, took a shower and
within-box processing during the day and went to bed. The next morning, three
ventured off to explore novelty situations campaign themes came to her, she wrote
when the body was sleeping. them down, shared with her boss and two
These novelty situations would then cause of the three got adopted! It’s up to you to
unconscious imaginative processing to read what you want into it, but that story is
happen and result in an array of outcomes a true story and includes conscious and
that are then waiting to be downloaded unconscious mental processing.
into consciousness once the body is jolted If your novelty moments often occur in the
out of sleep or maybe experiences a morning, then you should take the morning
temperature change from a shower. Clearly, download very seriously. If you set the
these anecdotal examples point to what alarm clock and jump out of bed and run
seems to be a process of feeding the brain out of the house, chances are you won’t be
with many inputs from different domains downloading what your brain computed the
(including novel ones) and then releasing it night before.
to do its own computations. The releasing
of the brain, after intensely engaging within The effect of novelty needs prior
the box of categories, could be taking a processing in the box of categories
short or long break, going for a walk, going
to bed or better still taking a mental trip at “Think inside the box before you think
your desk. It appears all of these options for outside the box” is what we often tell
novelty seeking can lead to creative ideas. students. Travelling, meeting new people,
There could be a scientific process (or not) taking different routes will do nothing for
for explaining all of this anecdotal evidence your creativity if you don’t have prior
but one thing it shows is that the brain can ‘inside the box’ processing for which the
realize or potentially construct novelty novelty serves as a break. Novelty has to be
situations and go on to create new ideas a break from some earlier processing or
whether consciously or sub/unconsciously. hypotheses. You have to be thinking about
something, and therefore establish a box of
There was a student in the masters’ level of categories, for novelty to cause imagination
this class whose company wanted to outside that box of categories.
develop a new marketing campaign. The
 39

For instance, as noted earlier, Kary Mullis break from the lab as well. Hence, thinking
was a scientist who thought a lot about inside the box is essential for thinking
polymerase before encountering his novelty outside the box. We often helped students
on the California coast. That novelty think inside the box through hypothesis
encounter was a break from the lab, a break development. For instance, to study the
from extensive inside-the-box thinking. nutritional needs of students on a university
Walt Disney was an illustrator whose campus, inside thinking will involve
mental category was probably set on the brainstorming expectations of student
concept of animations being solely used for behavior around nutrition. The research
ads before the feature film. His novelty process will involve novelty seeking in order
encounter was a break from that. Here is to experience outside-the-box thinking.
another one. Newton was a scientist More often than not, the insights will be
studying gravity long before the apple fell deviations from earlier inside-thinking
on his head. His novelty encounter of the expectations.
apple falling on his head was probably a

Exercises on Creativity

Students are encouraged to try out these two fun exercises to test their ability to think outside
the box.

1. Complete the Incomplete Figure Test

A classic test of creativity, the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking was introduced by psychologist
Ellis Paul Torrance in the sixties as a way to administer a more creatively inclined IQ test.
Respondents were given images like the ones below and asked to finish the picture. Higher
points were awarded for answers that included rich imagery, implied narrative, or used humor
or fantasy (Artwork Archive, 2019).
 40

2. Complete the Picture

This quick exercise dubbed “The Doodle Dandy,” was found on How Design, and is similar to the
Incomplete Figure Test, but has room for more variations. It’s basically the same principle as the
first exercise, except you get a stack of simple one-line scribbles and a stack of short phrases and
you must create the phrase from one of the doodles.

Here is their sample phrase list, though they also encourage you to come up with your own:
Happy as a clam, I can’t get any satisfaction, Where in the world? A hard day’s night, Human
nature, Is there a doctor in the house? The art of noise, Here comes trouble, Abracadabra!,
What’s that sound? (Artwork Archive, 2019)

Sample illustrations for the above exercises can be found at the end of this chapter as
appendices. These illustrations were taken from the Artwork Archive Website.

stay inside the box of 9 dots and connect

Are creative people born or made? the dots without lifting the pen. You just
need to be able to realize that if the line
This discussion of how the brain went outside the box of 9 dots, the puzzle
prevents creativity through categorization could be solved. The trick lies in the ability
and enables creativity through novelty and
to open your mind to outside the box
imagination can only suggest one thing. thinking, so to speak. We believe that most
People may be born creative, but everyone people expect creative
can be creative if they train themselves to
‘think outside the box’. You can be creative
if your brain can process inside and outside
of the box. You do not need to be born
creative to realize that it’s not possible to
 41

outcomes by staying in their box of moment of insight, your epiphany moment

categories and when they don’t achieve of coming up with a new idea, is unlikely to
these outcomes, they lament that they are come from a novelty encounter devoid of
not creative. ‘Am just not the creative type’, prior thinking inside a box of categories
we will hear people say. Well, your brain about a problem you care about. It won’t
needs to be lazy, as Berns puts it, to be happen when you are walking down the
efficient. However, if you develop a habit of street whistling your favorite tune, as the
jolting it out of its efficiency-mindedness, commercials make us believe without a
your chances of ‘thinking outside the box’ prior focus.
are high. But you have to realize that your

What you need to do to start realizing your creative potential

Be cognizant of problems around engines. What if any of these are not ‘true’?
you. Apart from the problems you What if they could be done differently?
encounter or things that annoy you, there 2. Invert your categories. We often ask our
are many other problematic observable students to use ‘why’, ‘how’ and ‘what if’
user behaviors that you either ignore on a questions to invert their categories in order
day-to-day basis or simply do not realize to allow novelty encounters to spark
they exist. Once you successfully enter that imagination in them. It’s important that
mode of cognizance, do the following. these inversion questions maintain the
status quo of the category without
1. Name your categories. To achieve suggesting potential solutions. For instance,
imagination from novelty encounters, you why do cars have 4 wheels? What if cars
first need to come to terms with your bias didn’t have 4 wheels? why do students have
on the issue. What is in your box of to read textbooks? What if students didn’t
categories about the problem? You need to need textbooks? How do insurance and
establish what you have believed for a long premiums work? What if the insured didn’t
time about this problem or what society need to pay premiums? How does SEO work
believes about this problem. Examples are in ranking websites on search engines?
cars need 4 wheels for stability; students What if page ranking was not done with
need to read textbooks to learn the course SEO? 3. Stop yourself from answering your
material, insurance works by the insured inversion questions. Rushing to answer your
paying a premium to the insurer for a future ‘how’, ‘why’ and ‘what if’ questions defeat
claim, SEO helps rank web pages in the the purpose of using them as category
search inverters.
 42

Your rushed answers are likely to be too It is this research mode that makes you
close to your categories. Put space between realize novelty situations. As hinted
the questions and the answers by seeking previously, without this research mode,
novelty situations that can really lead you novelty situations will do nothing to spark
on that new disruptive path to a new idea. your imaginative process. You can travel the
So, invert your categories and wait patiently world, be spontaneous, make new friends
for your novelty encounter. Elaborating on every minute, associate with people from
the mechanism for how the inversion different spheres of life, actively seek new
questions lead eventually to creative ideas, experiences etc. and in the end: you will
we do believe that the questions act as only say ‘that was a cool experience’ and
hypotheses and they put your brain in a not ‘wow, that was a completely different
research mode. experience from what I expected. I wonder

why they do it like that and not the other unlikely to start” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996,
way around. What if they did this instead?’ page 95).
Obviously, the previous statement doesn’t
have an element of curiosity but the later We think Csikszentmihalyi’s
does and the brain sooner or later develops description supports our assertion that you
alternative ways of presenting that need to get into the habit of processing
experience...you are on your way to a new inside your box of categories to unearth the
idea or a new business. In his book ‘felt tension’ that Csikszentmihalyi talks
‘Creativity’, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, known about. You may do that in different ways
to many as the father of creativity research, but if you are having trouble, try asking the
describes creativity as follows: ‘how, why, and what if’ questions about
things and events around you. Don’t drive
“The creative process starts with a sense everyone crazy with it, do it discreetly if you
that there is a puzzle somewhere or a task can. Make it a habit of making mental notes
to be accomplished. Perhaps something is of how things work, why they happen, and
not right, somewhere there is a conflict, a what if they were not what they are? As
tension, a need to be satisfied. The Csikszentmihalyi notes, your chances of
problematic issue can be triggered by a employing your psychic energy to imagine
personal experience, by a lack of fit in the potential solutions at your moment of
symbolic system, by the stimulation of novelty encounters are higher with the
colleagues, or by public needs. Without such tensions than without them. Individual
a felt tension to attract the psychic energy Creativity. We hope you become more of
of the person, the creative process is a creative person as we go through the
design process. The design process needs
 43

some creativity, although you do not need imagination through the questions,
to be a ‘creative person’ according to the thoughts etc. that they share. In that sense
typical description of a creative person one working in teams with diverse people is the
will find. We just want you to be able to best way to experience the creative process
straddle thinking inside and outside of your because it provides novelty encounters and
box of categories. Sometimes you need to also helps filter through imaginations
step outside the box for yourself and for the quickly to arrive at the most feasible and
users you are designing for. This is why it is desirable outcomes that the team seeks.
important to understand how the brain The results of putting students in such
works to both prevent and also enable teams in the past have been incredible. At
creativity. Ashesi University, Ghana, for instance,
putting students in teams in the past has
Working in teams. resulted in mega creative projects such as
We believe in teams and we normally put the Africa Transformers group, which
our students in teams whose members we recycles plastic water bottles to create
select. We vary team members as much as products like bins. In 2018, this team won
possible because of some of the arguments funding from the Millennium fellowship to
espoused above. We believe that a varied fund their project. One of this team’s
team makes each member a force of products is shown below.
novelty that leads other team members into

Image 5:4: Team’s product

 44

their novelty moments and utilizing on

Conclusion them. Moreover, working in teams also
In conclusion, we have established speeds up the creative process by creating a
that the brain uses existing categories to diverse environment that enables members
process new information. This however to have more novelty encounters which in
hinders creativity. In order to allow turn stimulate new ideas.
ourselves to be creative, we need to break
out of existing categories. This is achieved
Key Terms
by identifying the existing categories,
inverting those categories and instead of Creativity Thinking outside the box
rushing to answer the questions that arise Novelty Categorization
from the inversion, seeking novelty
situations that can help us come up with Problem Sets
new ideas. We have also established that
1. What do you understand by the term
while some people are born creative,
Creativity and Novelty?
everyone can be creative by identifying
 45

2. How does one break out of categories? 4. Do you think people are born creative or
3. Berns describes the brain as a lazy piece not and why?
of meat, do you agree or not and why? 5. What do you understand by the term
“Thinking outside the box”?

Appendix

1. Complete the Incomplete Figure Test- Sample answer illustration

 46

2. Complete the Picture- Sample Answer illustrations

 47

CHAPTER 4: CHASING MYSTERIES

a missing horse; Silver Blaze and the death
Chapter Description of its trainer; Mr. Straker. The Silver Blaze
This chapter introduces you to the was the favored horse to win the Wessex
design economy and other useful ideologies Cup horse race. This horse was owned by
such as abductive logic which will be key in Colonel Ross who lived in Dartmoor. This
enabling you to become a great design case is where the infamous line 'The curious
thinker. The chapter gives clear descriptions incident of the dog in the night' comes
and explanations to the different topics from, Holmes uses this line to arrive at his
covered, which will leave you fully equipped hypothesis for investigating the crime.
on how to conduct research as a design When Holmes and Waston arrive at Colonel
thinker. Nowadays, we are confronted with Ross’ stable in Dartmoor, Inspector Gregory
varied types of problems that require us to narrates the details of the crime to Holmes
rely on design rather than mere knowledge and Waston. The night before the incident,
in solving them. This concept is well a stranger had come to Colonel Ross’ stable
explained in this chapter. The chapter asking about the horse. The next morning,
introduces the concept of design economy, the stable boy was found drugged, horse
explains what we mean by different types trainer killed, and Silver Blaze was missing.
of problems, and shows the ways in which The stranger was suspected of doing all this.
we can traverse the old methods of Holmes questions the people that were
research and adopt methods that include around at the night of the incident and He
design thinking, in order to come up with also examines the contents in the jacket of
solutions that actually solve our problems. the murdered- here he finds a cataract knife
By the time you finish the chapter, you which was not an essential tool to horse
should be able to differentiate between the trainers. Holmes also finds bills among
deductive, abductive and inductive method contents in the trainer's jacket.
of research, and understand the role of While in the field at the crime scene,
ethnographic research as a method for Colonel Ross suggested removing Silver
conducting design research. Blaze’s name from the competition
however Holmes advises him not to do so.
Moving on, Holmes finds footprints of the
Introduction
horse and follows them which made him
Sherlock Holmes and his friend Dr. Watson conclude that the horse had fled to
investigate a popular case in England about Mapleton, a stable owned by one of Colonel
Ross’ competitors in the race, Lord
Backwater. Holmes finds the horse at
Mapleton but decides to leave it there till
 48

the Wessex cup. Holmes believes since then and today, it’s clear that with the
imagination is an important tool for advent of the Internet and its impact on
problem solving. Holmes also uses “why” how we interact with and consume
questions that spark his imagination to products and services, a new approach is
come up with possible outcomes. From needed for innovation development. We
these outcomes, he chooses to investigate start with an article titled “Business of
the most likely answer. Holmes focuses on design”, which was an interview of Roger
small underlying questions of the big Martin, former Dean of the Rotman School
question of “Who stole the racehorse Silver in Toronto until 20135 (he was also
Blaze and murdered his trainer?” An previously head of Monitor Consulting
example of the small questions Holmes company). The article outlines three main
focuses on is: Did the watchdog in the points: that we are entering a design
stables bark at Silver Blaze’s thief? From economy (from a knowledge economy) and
this question, Holmes realizes that no one that we are confronted with different types
mentions about the dog barking on the of problems (mysteries) and that we need
night of the incident. Holmes assumed that to traverse the traditional methods of
the thief was not a stranger given that well problem-solving.
trained dog did not bark during the night of
the incidence. As a reader, who do you Design economy
think stole the racehorse? Who killed the
horse trainer? The answers to these Roger Martin notes that we are being
ushered into a design economy where
questions will be expanded on later in this
abductive thinking will deliver more value
chapter.
than deductive and inductive thinking. We
will explain these terms later in this
The inspiration for Design Thinking chapter. A quick review of Rothwell’s
Methodology generations of innovation suggests that
Our discussion of the 5 generations of there is a progression from a technology
innovation shows that over time, there focus in G1 (build it and they will come),
have been different factors that have through a demand focus in G2 (relying on
impacted on the approach that society has consumer research), coupling in G3
taken to innovation. Once upon a time, the (integration of G1 and G2), a focus on cross-
notion was that ‘if you build it, they will functional teams in G4 and a focus on
come’. It was a production orientation. We systems integration and networking or
have gotten through different orientations open innovation in G5. Roger Martin also
talks about production, service and

5 [Link]
 49

information economies coming before the function a product provides is not enough
design economy and there could be related anymore and needs to provide meaning as
to 1G, 2G for production and service and well. G5 seems to do just that. It is based on
3G, 4G and 5G related to the information systems integration and networking of
economy. One can see the connection different functions in the organization and
between the design economy and 5G. A also involves open innovation which is
design economy can be described as an predicated on the notion of a porous
economy that draws from a systems organizational boundary that encourages
perspective in solving problems, building information flow in multiple directions
value propositions and engaging with (Henry Chesbrough). One way to think of G5
customers and citizens. This means that the is a design-thinking, systems approach, for
quest to solve problems has to tap into the organization. The question for us
many different sources of information using educators and promoters of design thinking
unconventional means and breaking as is what G5 looks like in the training of the
many constraints as possible. The Internet next generation of innovators. How do we
has made it possible for people and make the complex G5 system accessible to
companies to amass a wealth of the ordinary citizen? We believe this is
information (e.g., big data) and the where design thinking comes in.
challenge has always been how to harness,
process and utilize that information for the Different types of problems
highest impact.
Jeanne Liedtka of the Darden School of
Despite those challenges, it is clear that the
Business, University of Virginia wrote a
user has increased his or her palate for
preferences as more and more features of book on design thinking [Designing for
Growth]. In one of the sections, she talks
products and services become available.
about a developing narrative in the design
Gone are the days when you could get any
color for a car so long as it was black (a field, something Roger Martin also talks
about (Liedtka & Ogilvie, 2011). The
reference to an answer Henry Ford
apparently gave for why the Ford Model T narrative is that our current world presents
only came in black). A diverse user palate of more mysteries than puzzles. It sounds odd
because mysteries are things that are
preferences means the need for a more
agile system of developing new ideas and difficult or impossible to understand as a
dictionary will explain it. Jeanne argues that
solutions for user or customer problems.
we used to be presented with puzzles that
Apart from a variety of preferences, users
are focusing beyond functionality and are relatively easy to solve. For puzzles, you
just need to figure out how the puzzle
increasingly focusing on meaning in the
pieces fit together, and it's solved! This is
products and services they enjoy. The
 50

how business education has worked for were not creative at all and just followed
years. We present students with case the design thinking process. However, the
studies with the notion of puzzle pieces that problem is getting them to accept the
the students need to arrange to solve the framing of nutrition as a mystery.
puzzle. Students will prepare the puzzle
pieces in the case study, e.g., calculate It is important to stress the definition of
financial ratios, do a SWOT analysis, add mystery while maintaining the distinction
TOWs analysis6 and then solve the puzzle. from the puzzle. The idea is not that design
The idea is that our world is presenting us mysteries are impossible or difficult to
more and more with mysteries and not understand. As Roger’s definition says,
puzzles. Mysteries do not have mystery there are two parts to it. The problems are
pieces the same way puzzles have puzzle familiar or easily recognizable. The second
pieces. Mysteries are often hard to solve part is that we don’t fully understand them.
because the solution is often not obvious. This basically means that there is so much
The solution is often hidden in crevices no room to understand them that we can say
one thinks to pry into. It is important that we don’t fully understand them even if
though to note that the word Mystery is we can argue that for our current purposes
used here for the nature of the problems it our understanding is pretty good. When
presents more than for the element of you look at it that way, then a lot of
insolvability that it might have. problems can suddenly be mysteries. E.g.,
how people enjoy produced entertainment
When we have this discussion in class, we like movies, how people communicate, how
make sure to provide the definition of people get nutrition, how people grow old,
mysteries that Jeane and Roger provide and how people wake up, how people fall
then slightly build on it. Jeane’s definition asleep, how people take stimulants like
says that mysteries are those “problems we coffee, how people transport themselves,
are familiar with but don’t understand how people learn, how people get out of
well”. Students often find it odd to say that poverty, how people relate to the
a problem like nutrition is a mystery and environment. And the list goes on.
therefore needs to be reimagined. The fact
is if students reimagined nutrition (which Here is a good example of a problem that
they will tell you they understand really we are very familiar with but what
well) they will come up with new and entrepreneurs have done with it suggests
interesting solutions to nutrition problems. that we didn’t understand it or better put
This will be the case even if the students ‘there was a lot more to understand’. The

6 TOWS analysis is a tool that is used to generate, compare and

select [Link]://[Link]/tows-analysis/
 51

example is that of Instagram and Snapchat apply them to – with wonderful results.
both digital interaction tools in the shadow What we have tried to make our students
of Facebook. Instagram and Snapchat both understand is that the problems they
focus on a problem that we are very identify for their projects or clients can be
familiar with or very much recognize – familiar, easily recognizable, boring and
sharing of the photos and selfies we take. mundane.
Instagram was bought by Mark Zuckerberg The real question is what aspects of the
for $1Bn and Snapchat is worth about problem lend themselves to digging in to
$9.6Bn (Dec 2020). It is clear that even unearth deep and profound understanding
though the photo-sharing problem is one that can revolutionize how we think of the
that we are familiar with, the human problem and how we solve that problem.
behavior processes behind how people The real question is “is there room for a lot
share, will like to share, desire to share more understanding?” What are the
pictures is a ‘mystery’ – something with a mysteries in the ordinary and the
lot more room for understanding. We can mundane? It is also important to note here
argue that the founders of Instagram and that a lot of problems the team starts with
Snapchat got a glimpse of this mystery and may need to be reframed to make them
the valuations spoke to that. Who knows interesting mysteries to focus on. So, if the
how many more different aspects there are problem is not revealing its mysterious
to the mystery of sharing photos that have characteristics, reframing might be the way
not been uncovered yet? Wasn’t that the to go. There is the example of Continuum
groundbreaking idea that Facebook was reframing a problem P&G came to them
founded on in the first place!? with “How to make better cleaning fluid
dispensers”. When the problem was
So, our extension of the definition of a reframed as “How people clean” it
mystery, in this case, is that a mystery is a dramatically changed the way the team
problem that we are familiar with but there looked at the project and out came the
is a lot more room to understand it better. Swiffer, a multi-billion-dollar category for
Note the difference between this definition P&G. The concept of reframing will be
and the earlier one. In this definition, we discussed in depth in the “Reframing
are not saying that we don’t understand chapter” in this book.
nutrition well enough, we are saying that
there is a lot of room to understand it even Traversing traditional methods of research
better. It’s a subtle addition but we have
Roger Martin argues that the way to solve
found it to work and motivate students to
or study mysteries is to do things
apply the design thinking process to topics
differently. We need to traverse the
and problems that they would normally not
 52

traditional forms of research to embrace so that ordinary people can feel

methods that can engage and solve empowered to be designers and do design
mysteries. Traditional forms of research thinking and not relegate it to creative
involve deductive and inductive research. If types. Abductive thinking in that sense
you ever took a philosophy course in logic demystifies the designer label and the
and critical thinking, you would have better we are at describing and
encountered the mathematical definitions demystifying it the better this instructional
for deductive and inductive research logic. material will be for you and other users.
One research logic that is often left out of In academic research, deductive and
logic and critical thinking sessions is inductive logic are well used. And because
abductive research logic. We will choose most readers are familiar with these two
not to speculate on why it is less known in logics, a good way to introduce abductive
research compared to deductive and logic is to differentiate it from deductive
inductive research. In any case, abductive and abductive while explaining the two.
research is most associated with solving Deductive logic in the research sense often
mysteries and is at the center of operating follows a process whereby a theory is
in the design economy. We actually believe identified, a hypothesis is determined and is
that the extent to which a student or a followed by a collection of a vast amount of
student team excels in design thinking typically quantitative data through methods
depends on their ability to wrap their heads such as surveys. The data is then
around abductive research, internalize it aggregated and computed with a statistical
and operationalize it. Further, the ability to software paving the way for descriptive
operationalize abductive logic seems to be statistics and also the use of statistical
the main skill that art, architecture and inferences for conducting hypothesis
engineering students learn. If this is true, testing in order to understand the research
then what it means is that abductive logic is question under consideration. This may be
teachable, the ability to design is teachable why Roger Martin describes it as “proving
and therefore, anybody can be a designer. that something must be”.

That is a bold statement, and we make it Deductive Logic

because there is a perception that maybe
some people are more inclined to design Given our discussions about how to tap into
people’s aspirations, it is clear that
while others are not. If we believe that then
deductive methods will produce a lot of
there is no reason to unpack the design
information but will not get to the deep
process in any detail. If we don’t believe
‘whys’ about people’s aspirations. This is
that (which we don’t) then we need to help
because the method is focused on finding
democratize and demystify design thinking
 53

the average measurements of attributes Inductive logic

and estimating deviations from those
In the research sense is going into the
averages in order to develop a set of
research scenario without a hypothesis per
conclusions about the question posed. For
se but with previous literature about how
instance, from deductive research, we will
things should be or what the answers could
know that most millennials have an affinity
be in that research context. So, researchers
to instant gratification, and we can identify
will typically collect qualitative data, use
a number of factors that are correlated with
text analysis software or other methods to
that finding such as the prevalence of data
find patterns in the data and come to
through the Internet and a sense of
conclusions from which propositions could
entitlement. What we would not be able to
be drawn to generalize to the general
get from this research is an inspiration to
population on the research question under
probe a potential solution to problems
consideration. Again, back to Roger Martin,
resulting from these findings of millennials.
this description of inductive research seems
to line up with his description of it as
An example of a Deductive argument by
“proving that something actually operates”.
Muehlhauser Luke (2009).
This method is good for aggregating
thoughts about interesting trends in
Let us consider a deductive argument. If the
qualitative data and developing a theory of
premises when true succeed in making its
how to approach the insights from the
conclusion certain, the argument is valid. If
research. For instance, qualitative
the premises when true fail to make its
interviews of millennials may reveal a trend
conclusion certain, the argument is invalid.
of parental influence in upbringing and
Let’s look at an example:
social behavior. That will be an insightful
theory but what will be missing is there will
All mammals have lungs.
not be a strong connection to a tangible
All whales are mammals.
solution from that research.
Therefore, all whales have lungs.

Here is an example of an Inductive

This deductive argument is valid because
argument7
the conclusion follows with certainty if the
premises are true. There is no possible way
Most corporation lawyers are conservatives.
for the premises to be true and yet the
Betty Morse is a corporate lawyer.
conclusion false.
Therefore, Betty Morse is a conservative.

7 By Muehlhauser Luke
(2009).[Link]
 54

deductive and inductive in that it doesn’t

This is a pretty good inductive argument, focus on standard deviations from the
because (let us say) both premises are true. average. Roger Martin describes the
Thus, the conclusion is more likely true than abductive logic as a process that permits
false. the designer to ‘suggest something maybe
and reach out to explore it’. Using the
Abductive Logic example of research into millennial
behavior, abductive research will follow a
Unlike the methods for research in the case number of unique millennials (e.g., those
of deductive and inductive logic, using the who stay at home, those living on their
abductive logic in a research sense will be own, those within the school, those
going into the context with some working, high internet users, low internet
understanding of the situation but a pretty users, different ages in the millennial age
open mind and an intentional focus on range etc.).
generating insight from unique cases (e.g., Expanding on the Silver Blaze’s
extreme, one-off). This approach of interest disappearance and Mr. Straker’s death,
in unique cases can mean a distraction Holmes used abductive logic to generate
away from the average cases. If you insights from the case. For Example, he
consider research findings to be aggregated examined why the dog didn't bark on the
on a mound shaped normal distribution night of the incident? Why did the trainer
with the average cases in the middle of the have a cataract knife in his jacket? Why
highest peak of the mound, the unique would Mr. Straker have a huge amount of
cases may be distributed across the upward bills in his pocket under another name? This
and downward slopes of each side of the led Holmes to conclude Mr. Straker was
mound. These cases could also derive from living a double life under another name,
unconventional methods (see generative and the bills in the pocket helped Holmes
methods) that provide data that is difficult realize Mr. Straker had another wife. Mr.
to analyze with statistical tools. They will be Straker was in great debt due to the
unique from the perspective of something expensive taste of his second wife.
that is unusual from what one would have Therefore, these prompted Mr. Straker to
expected. go behind Colonel Ross’ back to make Silver
Abductive research will probe deeper into Blake lame by cutting his leg something Mr.
these extreme cases for inspiration into Straker had practiced with the sheep at the
potential insights that can lead to tangible stable. Silver Blake sensed something wrong
solutions. Although the unique cases lie before Mr. Straker could carry out the
away from the average in the middle of the
action, the horse panicked and kicked Mr.
mound, abductive differentiates itself from Striker to the ground resulting in his death.
 55

Holmes’ ideas of investigating this case are Sampling for abductive research
consistent with abductive logic which looks
This approach for sampling study subjects
at different hypotheses and goes with the
will be different from deductive which will
most plausible.
suggest enrolling a high number of people
and inductive which will concentrate on a
smaller pool but without the intentional
Another example of an abductive argument
focus on unique cases. It should be noted
by Muehlhauser Luke (2009).
that rigor could still be used in selecting
respondents for abductive research even as
The surprising fact, E, is observed.
unique people are being chosen. We often
But if H were true, E would be a matter of
encourage students to use a random
course.
number table to pick their respondents
Hence, there is a reason to suspect that H is
from among smaller pools of unique
true.
people. This is however not relevant at
times and therefore is not a strict
Here, E stands for the explanandum, the
requirement. Oftentimes the age-old
fact to be explained, and H stands for the
ethnographic chain sampling method of
hypothesis, aka the proposed explanans
respondents referring to other respondents
(explanation).
for the research works great. And then, of
course, students will normally enroll their
Image 6:1: Types of logic8
roommates and friends into the study.
Unless there is a need for a very strict
recruitment process, roommates and
friends provide good enough information –
which goes to support the strength of the
process in gathering aspirations even in
cases where you will expect biases to affect
the quality of the data. Every now and then
we will encounter a student team that is
really keen on getting things right that they
will go out of their comfort zone to properly
recruit for their study.
Back to the millennials' research. Let’s
assume that the abductive research process

8 Image from Real-World Economics Review Blog:

[Link]
 56

identifies a millennial who exhibits instant particular case to learn about how things
gratification only in certain experiences and happened in that case and relate it to the
not others. The team present case. But more often than not, a
will be excited about this person and probe criminal investigator of a cold case has to
deeper into the person’s behaviors and in rely on his or her hunch. What has been
the end, their objective would be to overlooked in the investigations? What is
determine the person’s aspirations and unusual about this case? What is likely
figure out how to meet those Aspirations. missing? What is out of place in the
evidence? Is that a reflection of somebody
Take another example of research into in those glasses that this guy in the picture
understanding the Northeastern University is wearing? A crime investigator works
(NU) experience. Deductive logic will outside of historical data. He or she thinks
suggest surveying 5000 students and abductively, ‘suggesting something maybe
drawing inferences from the data. Inductive and reaching out to explore it’. He or she
logic may suggest conducting deep finds ‘arguments to the best explanation’. It
interviews with a senior class in the is that type of thinking that helps solve the
business school to develop an cold case. Read above about how Sherlock
understanding of the NU experience. Holmes solved the murder case around
Abductive logic may include studying 5 Silver Blaze, the racehorse by discovering
different types of NU students, those with the curious case of the dog that
coop experience, those without, year or didn’t bark.
multiple year abroad, rich parents, poor
student on scholarship, average student – T-shaped thinkers and abductive logic
all to get different perspective that ‘suggest
Gregory Berns, the author of iconoclast
something maybe [in the NU experience]
reminds us that there are many people in
and reaching out to explore it’.
history who seem to have exhibited the
abductive logic in their discovery of the
Further, to provide more illustration for
inventions they are known for. He talks
those who might need it, a good analogy to
about Iconoclasts such as Florence
abductive logic is crime investigation of cold
Nightingale, Steve Jobs, Walt Disney,
cases. X-files kind of work. A crime
Chemist Kary Mullis, glass artist Dale
investigator can use deductive logic
Chihuly and others who exhibited traits that
(proving that something must be) by going
can be likened to abductive thinking. Each
through other case files for patterns. A
bucked the trend and chased a unique
crime investigator can also use inductive
insight in a way that revolutionized the way
logic (proving that something actually
we do things because of their discoveries.
operates) by going to a different but
 57

The relation of abductive logic to these Data and abductive thinking

iconoclasts also helps us connect them to a
Since the cases explored in abductive are
term that is used to describe innovators in
often unique, it will involve both
the designing thinking space – T-shaped
quantitative and qualitative logics but
thinkers. T-shaped thinking is the ability to
consensus about what is being observed or
be analytical (the tail of the T) as well as
processed may not rely on statistical
being empathetic, intuitive and
software as often used in deductive
experimental (the top of the T). It suggests
research or text analysis as often employed
that the designer should be empathetic and
in inductive research. Data will include
step into the shoes of the user. Since
visual, video, quotes, observations that are
empathy is not a science, the designer
difficult to run through software. As such,
needs to use intuition to guide the
analysis of abductive research data only has
empathetic process and be experimental
to rely on frameworks with a strong and
about it (iterative) because the designer is
keen aptitude for sense-making from
not going to get it right the first time.
complex and messy data. There will be
The increasing belief in T-shaped thinking
more discussions on the process later.
seems to be the underlying reason for the
growth in design courses and design schools
in a business school setting. The idea is to Abductive and design-driven
equip business students previously innovation
accustomed to analytical thinking with A natural link to abductive logic is the
intuition, empathy, and experimentation. connection to Roberto Verganti’s9 design of
As noted earlier, analytical thinking works a new meaning hypothesis. Verganti argues
well in solving puzzles. T-shaped thinking that the generation of new meaning will
goes beyond puzzles to gather information generate new markets or new demand.
in ways that lend themselves to solving New markets will come from outside of the
mysteries. Essentially, abductive logic in current market segments. It will follow then
research uses the process of T-shaped that in applying design thinking, we not only
thinking. Thus, without T-shaped thinking, study users but non-users as well so that we
students may find it difficult to be better can know what users love in order to maybe
abductive thinkers. The implication is that make a compelling case to non-users. If
without T-shaped thinking, students will not non-users get on board, that’s a new
be able to play in a design economy. market.

9 Roberto Verganti, Design Driven Innovation – Changing the Rules of

Competition by Radically Innovating what Things Mean. Boston, MA:
Harvard Business Press, 2009
 58

Another connection of abductive thinking is “lazy piece of meat” (Gregory Berns), many
to link it to the discussion of creativity and large companies become a “lazy piece of
pushing the brain to break categorization meat” and therefore find it difficult to
and operate outside of its box of a file innovate. According to that analogy, the
cabinet of categories. Because abductive brain becomes a lazy piece of meat because
logic more than deductive and inductive it strives to conserve energy by becoming
logic concentrates on ‘what might very efficient in processing new stimuli
be’/argument to the best explanation’ the against stored patterns for decoding
chances of imagination are high and information. This efficiency in processing
therefore insights are expected to be more means that the brain is not operating
radical and different from operating within outside of its file cabinet of stored patterns
the box of categories. In that sense, (the proverbial not thinking outside the
abductive logic is more likely to take us box).
outside of the box and make us more Since new insights and hence creativity lives
creative than deductive and inductive logic. outside of the file cabinet, the brain
becomes lazy at innovating and hence even
How companies solve mysteries. though it's very efficient at what it does, it
is a lazy piece of meat when it comes to
Both small and large companies innovating. Since companies get stuck in the
need to be agile innovators in the design routines, their own file cabinets, they find it
economy. The smaller the company the difficult to operate outside of systems and
more likely functional areas are organized routines to create new products and
as projects and it has the flexibility to services. Hence, most firms treat innovation
engage in prototyping and hence may be as separate projects through skunkworks
better at being agile and getting a profound (internal corporate venturing) or play
understanding of customers than later
venture capital by investing in new
companies. Larger companies that are able companies (think of these new companies
to function as small companies are likely to as projects - external corporate venturing).
reap the benefits of design thinking as well. Internal corporate venturing can lead to
However, that is often not the case. Many new innovations that are rolled into the
large companies did start small with an business of the company or spun out to
innovative product or service and then generate more value. External corporate
started growing and expanding. When venturing provides companies with first
companies grow big, they need systems and right of refusal if the newer company wants
routines to manage resources, risk and to sell and also allows them easy access to
ensure profit. Like the analogy of the brain
the technologies developed by the new
preventing creativity because it becomes a firm.
 59

with customers and citizens. T-shaped

Essentially, projects, internal or external, thinking is the ability to be analytical,
are better situated to birth innovation and empathetic, intuitive and experimental. It
creativity because they are not routinized goes beyond puzzles to gather information
within a file cabinet of old patterns that in ways that lend themselves to solving
they need to conform to but operate mysteries. Deductive, abductive and
outside of the organization's routines, a inductive logic are some types of research
place where new ideas, insights, and methods that can be adopted when doing
epiphanies live. Projects are more situated design research. And which logic applies
to allow abductive thinking and prototyping best in any situation. Finally, we have
to get abductive thinking right - since a lack learned how imagination works using the
of routinization means project teams are Silver Blaze’s case and how it also plays in a
not bound by deductive and inductive vital role in problem solving.
thinking. Because operating outside of file
cabinets is at the heart of abductive Key terms
thinking and because projects enable
Abductive logic Inductive logic
abductive thinking, then companies that are
able to leverage projects are also able to Deductive logic Design economy
utilize abductive thinking to solve mysteries
by understanding users in profound ways Problem Sets
and using prototyping to get deeper to the 1. How would have solved the Silver Blaze
level of profoundness that stretches case if you were Holmes?
abductive thinking to its deepest depths. 2. Differentiate between abductive,
inductive and deductive logic and give an
Conclusion example in each?
2. How do companies solve mysteries? And
In conclusion, we have learned that a design
what do you understand about a design
economy is an economy that draws from a
economy?
systems perspective in solving problems,
building value propositions and engaging
 60

CHAPTER 5: INTRO TO DESIGN THINKING

and see how they have captured Design

Chapter Description Thinking.
What is design thinking? And why do you For instance, in 2009, the Wall Street
think it is important to study design Journal reported that B Schools (business
thinking? By the end of this chapter, you schools) were going to disappear and be
should have a clear understanding of what replaced by D Schools (design schools). This
design thinking is and assess why the study prediction was in reaction to the opening of
of design thinking is critical. the D-School at Stanford University.

Introduction At General Electric, Procter & Gamble, and

other companies, a design perspective is a
You must have probably come across the
problem-solving apparatus that can be
word design thinking once or twice before
applied companywide (Wong, 2009).
today. If you never have, then that's no
problem, you are going to learn about Phil Gilbert, an executive at IBM is a tall
design thinking in this chapter. According to man with a shaved head and wire-rimmed
the Interaction Design Foundation (2018), glasses. You normally see him with cowboy
design thinking is a non-linear, iterative boots and blue jeans at work. Surprisingly,
process which seeks to understand users, he is an executive at IBM, a company that
challenge assumptions, redefine problems still has a button-down suit-and-tie
and create innovative solutions to reputation. If you cannot read meaning into
prototype and test. Coming up with an idea his dressing style, look at this, there's a
is easy. Coming up with the right one takes huge black-and-white photograph hanging
work. With design thinking, throwing out in his office of a young Bob Dylan, hunched
what you think you know and starting from over sheet music, making changes to songs
scratch opens up all kinds of possibilities in the “Highway 61 Revisited” album. It’s an
(Linke, 2017). Design Thinking is the new image, Mr. Gilbert will tell you, that conveys
buzz phrase! It is the new phrase in the both a rebel spirit and hard work. Mr.
business school setting. If you google it, you Gilbert is not trying to redefine an entire
will come across a number of application generation. Instead, he wants to change the
contexts. Before we define it, let's take a habits of a huge company as it tries to
cursory look at where it's being applied. We adjust to a new era, and it is not very easy.
do this by taking a number of reputable IBM like many other companies exists at a
international newspapers and magazines time when there is rapid advancement in
technology and is under pressure to meet
 61

up. For IBM and other companies, the been equipping their students poorly to
question is: Can you grow your new deal with the problems of today. That, a
businesses faster as your older, lucrative focus on analysis did not help understand
businesses decline? According to Mr. problems appropriately. Business school
Gilbert, the answer to this question is lecturers typically made students compute
design thinking. His title is general manager ratios and statistics for decision making
of design. Among other things, design devoid of any deeper evaluation of the
thinking flips traditional technology product psychographics of the users involved.
development on its head. The old way is
According to the above article, David Kelley
that you develop a new product idea and
argued that given the nature of problems in
then try to sell it to customers. In the design
our world today which are VUCA, we need
thinking way, the idea is to identify users’
to go beyond the analytical to utilizing
needs as a starting point (Lohrq, 2015).
empathy to ‘step into the shoes of the users
According to Ileana Stigliani (2019), and have a deep understanding of their
assistant professor of design and innovation needs. When we say VUCA, we are trying to
at Imperial College Business School, design describe the nature of the external
thinking is a skill that every MBA student environment in which most businesses are
needs because it's an important mindset found. It stands for:
that lends itself to solving complex human
Volatility- the process of being subject to
problems.
frequent, rapid and significant change.
Today, there are many professional sessions
Uncertainty- is a component of that
on design thinking such as the Insights for
situation, in which events and outcomes are
innovation Course, which focuses on
unpredictable.
human-centered design and at Universities
especially as “The Innovation of Products Complexity- the multiplicity of issues and
and Services” course. MIT’S approach to factors, some of which may be intricately
design thinking, a course offered by the interconnected.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Ambiguity- lack of clarity and the difficulty
In the 2009 article in the Wall Street of understanding exactly what the situation
Journal, they made an argument about is.
business schools, realizing that they have
 62

Image 3:1: VUCA10

Since empathy is not a science, there is a Designers use ethnographic methods in

need for Intuition to lead the structured data collection, sensemaking or synthesis
process of empathy. Intuition and empathy through visualization for analysis, ideation
are not going to make the designer get it techniques for developing solutions and
right the first time. Hence, the designer prototyping to test new ideas. In order for
needs to have an experimental mindset to ethnography to apply, the research effort
test new ideas with potential users and needs to take a 100-foot view to enable
stakeholders to get closer to the truth. focus around a large enough space around
the problem to include all necessary
These arguments meant that as a research
stakeholders.
process (because all problem-solving
processes are research processes), design The process goes through a flow of
thinking needed new tools for data divergence (when lots of disparate data is
collection, solution capture and testing, in collected), convergence (and analysis
order to be able to model empathy, narrows the frame) to a point of view that
intuition and experimentation. then leads to ideation (yet again opening
the frame) to prototyping (to narrow the
frame to an ideal solution).

10 Source: [Link]

[Link]
 63

Given the outline of the process, it is clear to help companies test ideas before they
that the approach has gained prominence commit significant resources.
for a number of reasons:
For these reasons and more, it is not
● Reframing: Ethnographic surprising that Design Thinking has become
methodology for data collection often a buzz phrase in today’s world.
requires (re)framing of the problem which
allows for a lot of effort to be point into Why is design thinking so important
problem space mapping and analysis, a in our world of today?
process that is not well done in typical
problem exploration situations. Over recent years it has become very
● Ethnography research allows important to develop and refine skills which
companies and researchers to consider allow us to understand and act on rapid
known user groups as unfamiliar people changes in our environment and behavior.
groups. Since ethnography has been used to We live in an increasingly interconnected
understand unfamiliar people groups, it and complex world. Design thinking offers a
allows companies to suspend the means to survive with all this change in a
knowledge they have about their users so more human-centric manner. Design teams
they can empathize more deeply and use design thinking to tackle ill-defined or
develop insights they did not have before. unknown problems (otherwise known as
● Sensemaking: Sensemaking tools are wicked problems). The process re-defines
able to organize and capture the essence of these problems to focus on people and
disparaging and multi-faceted data. This allows designers to focus on what’s most
allows for companies to be able to make important for users. Design thinking offers
sense of their qualitative data (which is us a means to think outside the box and
often ignored for quantitative). also dig that bit deeper into problem-
● solving. It helps designers carry out the right
Ideation: Design Thinking allows for
kind of research, create prototypes and test
problems to be thoroughly mapped, studied
out products and services to uncover new
and analyzed before solution concepts are
ways to meet users’ needs.
applied. It prevents jumping to conclusions
and taking decisions with minimal The design thinking process has become
information. popular over the last few decades because
● Prototyping: Prototyping in design it is the key to the success of many high-
thinking helps companies try out new ideas, profile, global companies such as Google,
fail fast and save resources. Prototyping Apple and Airbnb. This outside the box
extends from paper to software, to business thinking is now taught at leading
models canvases etc., all of which are tools
 64

universities across the world and is opens up an entirely new way to think, and
encouraged at every level of business. offers a collection of hands-on methods to
help you apply this new mindset.
Design thinking improves the world around
us every day because of its ability to
generate ground-breaking solutions in a Stages in the design thinking process
disruptive and innovative way. Design The design thinking process has 5 stages
thinking is more than just a process; it summarized in the diagram below.

Image 3:2: Design Thinking Process11

Empathize as immersing yourself in the physical

environment so you can gain a deeper
Empathizing is very important in the design personal understanding of the issues
thinking process. It highlights the involved. This will help you set aside their
significance of listening to the customer’s own assumptions about the world in order
requirements and wants relative to the to gain insight into users and their needs.
particular problem. The approach aids us
save our discoveries and learnings during Define
this stage in a systematic way such as
Here we combine all the insights collected
empathy maps. You can consult experts to
at the time of listening and observing
find out more about the area of concern
people at the empathizing stage. We start
through observing, engaging and
to synthesize in order to define the core
empathizing with people to understand
problem you and your team have identified
their experiences and motivations, as well

11 Source:[Link]
 65

up till this point. At this stage, you have to this stage remains the same; that is, we
frame the problem clearly, so it is easier to intend to create rough drafts of solutions to
come up with solutions or opportunities. decide if these will prove beneficial for the
problem.
Ideate
Test
After clearly framing the problem or the
opportunity it is time to search for possible The next stage is testing. In this stage, we
solutions. Since you have clearly test our prototype with the customers to
understood the needs of your users, you monitor the response and deem whether
need to start generating ideas on how to the solution satisfied them or not. This is
meet these needs. To do this, you have to the final stage of the five stage-model.
brainstorm or ideate. Design thinking However, in an iterative process, the results
stresses that during this phase, we should generated during the testing phase are
not ignore ideas that seem obvious or easy. often used to redefine one or more
Any idea can sprout a brilliant concept. So, problems and inform the understanding of
make sure to look into every idea with a the users, the conditions of use, how
fresh mindset. people think, behave, and feel, and to
empathize. Even during this phase,
Prototype alterations and refinements are made in
order to rule out problem solutions and
Prototyping brings the solutions into vision.
derive as deep an understanding of the
At this stage, you have to produce a
product and its users as possible.
number of inexpensive, scaled-down
versions of the product or specific features
found within the product, to investigate the
problem solutions generated in the
previous stages. Different methods are
involved in it, such as sketching, rapid
prototyping and many others. Whichever
method you go in for, the core purpose of
 66

Problem Sets
Conclusion
1. What do you understand by the
By now, you should be ready to take on the
acronym VUCA?
design thinking process. Design thinking is
2. Why is design thinking important in
very crucial in helping you come out with
our world of today?
human-centered solutions because it helps
3. Explain the stages you will go
you have a deep understanding of the
through in your design thinking process
problem and those it is affecting.

Key Words

Design thinking, ideate, prototype,

empathize, Test, define.

.
 67

CHAPTER 6: REFRAMING
begin with design thinking, the first step
Chapter Description you need to take is simply to identify a
challenge or problem. Avoid brainstorming
This chapter focuses on framing and immediately. You need to find a reason for
reframing of design thinking challenges. As the existence of your idea before the big
you go through the chapter, you will be able “aha” moment comes around. Albert
to understand why it is important to spend Einstein emphasized the importance of
more time trying to understand a problem identifying the problem with the quote “If I
rather than solving it. The chapter also had one hour to save the world, I would
discusses the importance of a human- spend 55 minutes defining the problem and
centered approach to solving design only five minutes finding the solution.” He
challenges and the usefulness of lean admits that his best innovation came from
research. As a design thinker, this chapter first carefully analyzing a problem. To set
will challenge you to frame your research the stage or get insights for your next big
questions that give the most possibilities. idea you have to Identify a gap, problem or
Design challenges, just like other problems challenge to solve (BridgeInnovate, 2019).
or research areas are framed in a certain
way. However, in framing design
challenges, three steps are followed. These
Steps to follow in identifying a
steps include creating a context of the problem to solve.
challenge, finding your focus and reframing
your design challenges in order to provide a ● Create context
good setup for design research. Reframing
Your challenge should not be too narrow or
opens more possibilities in a design
too broad. Custom tailor the challenge. It
challenge. More on this will be described
should be just okay. When you define a
further in this chapter.
problem, think of it regarding its next larger
context. Set the stage appropriately. You
Introduction are working to make a better recycling bin
From startup entrepreneurs to as part of a town-wide sustainability
Fortune 500 executives, innovators at all program. Before you even find a problem to
levels use design thinking. People are able innovate, examine the recycling bin and its
to come out with innovative ideas by ability to fit the people you are designing it
involving human perspective at all stages of for. You may decide to make the bin for a
the design thinking process. When you dining room, which is in a ranch-style
 68

house; which is in a middle-class numbers add up to 10?” The idea is that the
neighborhood; which is a suburb of Accra second question lends itself to many
city. Understand where your problem rests possibilities while the first one restricts you
in the greater picture of life to one answer (Seelig, 2013).
(BridgeInnovate, 2019). This is a quote from a CoDesign article that
she wrote in which she said, “mastering the
● Find your focus ability to reframe problems is an important
tool for increasing your imagination
Now, you have the right context, frame the
because it unlocks a vast array of
challenge in human experience. The
solutions.”.
human-focused innovation is the genius of
Design Thinking. Put the person using the
Although we try not to overdo it, we often
bin at the center of it all. For example, you
can relate the concept of reframing and the
are crafting a challenge statement for
two quotes from Seelig to the box of mental
increased sustainability. Which one of the
categories. In this relation, we see that the
following example statements will you
first question of the sum of 5 plus 5 restricts
consider best for human-centered design?
you to the inside boundaries of your box of
1. Increase the town’s recycling efforts
categories but the second question of what
from 40 to 50 percent.
two numbers add up to 10, keeps you
2. Solve all the town’s current and
outside the boundaries of the box. If the
future environmental problems.
aim of the design is to be insightful and see
3. Increase sustainable behavior
things in the research that may not have
among the town’s citizens.
been seen before and also potentially come
Number 3 is the answer for Design Thinking
up with needs that people didn’t realize
since it frames a challenge around human
they had, then why wouldn’t we reframe
involvement. The first two challenge
our questions into forms that lend
statements focus on the inanimate
themselves to creative thought? (Seelig,
(BridgeInnovate, 2019).
2013).
● Reframing your challenge
Tina Seeling talks about Why and How to
As noted, most mysteries or problems need format for reframing questions. Why
to be reframed to provide the best set-up questions force deep search for
for design research. Tina Seeling has an understanding. One illustration of the
interesting piece in her book inGenius in power of the word ‘why’ is the 5 Whys
which she states a problem and its approach, one originally developed by
reframed form. “What is the sum of 5 plus Sakichi Toyoda and used within the Toyota
5?” which was reframed into “What two Motor Corporation. It is the iterative
 69

question-asking technique to quickly get to reframe the question P&G asked, we

the root cause and effect of a problem. It wouldn’t have gotten the Swiffer today!
comes from the Japanese Kaizen concept Students have come up with questions that
and is widely adopted in engineering. So, get reframed into:
the power of the word is very well How do people eat, how do students plan
established. Tina Seeling talks about the for their daily commute, how do students
Whys as a way of opening the frame for a do laundry, how do members of a dorm
question. We often encourage our students sign in non-members? Each of these
to use Whys but not go all the way to questions is begging research and
number 5. We caution them that using the engenders the students to learn about the
5 Whys for problem framing could lead to mystery in a broad way. [We will use HOW
premature insights in a problem to frame problems].
brainstorming section before the research
commences. The 5 Whys for this purpose NB: the use of HOW here is not the same as
may be adaptive for experienced designers the How Might We framing that we have
but students who do not have prior encountered. The How Might We frame is
experience may develop biases in the best suited for ideation more than
process. Hence, we advise to try the How generating new insights from users.
framing first and then add a few Why
frames. How framing lends itself to research An illustration of reframing by Tanner
more than brainstorming of potential (2019)
solutions (Seelig, 2013).
“Imagine yourself as a child waiting with
Here is the example we often use to several friends for a fruit snack after an
illustrate the framing discussion. This is the afternoon of hard play. Each friend receives
basic 5 plus 5 question that P&G asked the their own special fruit from your best
design company Design Continuum, now friend’s mother: mangoes, apples, grapes,
Continuum Innovation, to help them solve. and oranges. You are happy to get your fruit
“How can we dispense cleaning fluids more as you know it will be special (since this is
innovatively?” As a design company, your best friend’s mother)—that is, until
Continuum reframed the question to “How your bowl of lemons arrives.
do people clean?” The research protocol After receiving your lemons, you have two
was then developed for the reframed choices. The first choice that comes to your
question and the Swiffer was born. While mind is to feel sorry for yourself as you now
remembering that Swiffer became a multi- realize how much your best friend’s mother
billion-dollar category for P&G, it should does not like you. As an innovative child,
also be noted that if Continuum didn’t however, you think differently.
 70

difficult situation and finding something

positive to make out of it. You put another
You look at this problem as an opportunity! frame (perspective) on the situation you
You take your lemons and go home and face. You look for other ways to view your
make lemonade and then sell glasses to situation” Tanner (2019).
your friends. With the money you earned,
you go and buy your favorite tropical fruit.
In effect, you make lemonade out of
lemons. This is the essence of positive
reframing: taking what appears to be a

Image 9: 1: Lemonade12

12 Image Source: [Link]

 71

want to check the role customs that play in

Reframing: The Airplane Analogy promoting or curbing teenage pregnancy in
Africa. This is almost impossible to do. The
scope of our study is too large and there are
Most often, when people have a
too many stakeholders involved. How do I
problem, they focus too narrowly on the
start studying the cultures of the 54
problem. Is that what you do? If yes, you
countries in Africa? Or subcultures that
need to change that. This is because when
exist in the various tribes or even
you look too narrowly at a problem, you
communities? It is therefore important that
focus only on the user and forget about the
you come down a little.
stakeholders affected by the problem.
When this happens, whatever solution you
design may not effectively solve the Bulls Eye View
problem because it does not work for all
those affected. It is worthwhile for you to Looking at the problem from the bullseye
step back and look at the problem again, view makes it too narrow. It focuses on the
taking into consideration not only the users user and is too specific. It lets you focus on
but a few relevant stakeholders that play a only one user, solve the problem for that
huge part in the understanding of the user and later realize that there are other
problem. Now, how do we look at a stakeholders who cause that problem or are
problem in a way that we consider all the affected whom you did not include in the
relevant stakeholders and the user? We will problem analysis. For example, in trying to
use the airplane analogy to explain that. In solve the problem of teenage pregnancy,
the airplane analogy, we look at three levels you may try to educate only girls about
of thinking about the problem. teenage pregnancy. This is not enough
because they are not the only ones
Spy Plane View involved. What about the boys who
impregnate the girls? Or the traditional
leaders who create customs that allow for
The spy plane goes up high and hides in the
teenage pregnancy? You may have to
sky to spy on a target. If you think about a
consider all these stakeholders or else you
problem using the spy plane view, you are
will find yourself creating a solution that
too far from the problem or looking at it
does not solve the problem.
from a wider perspective. That is, you are
including too many stakeholders or
irrelevant stakeholders when analyzing the
problems. For example, you are tackling the
problem of teenage pregnancy and you
 72

Helicopter View Conclusion

As a design researcher, you should not just
When you step off the Spy plane jump into brainstorming your solutions but
view and drop right down to the bull eyes rather take time to understand the problem
view and discover you are too far below, you are trying to solve. Take a moment to
you have to step up to a perfect height step away from the problem and carefully
above the problem to have a perfect grasp look at it. It may not be what you think it is.
of it. Use the helicopter view to do this. Always ensure that you reframe your design
Helicopters do not fly above the clouds. research questions in order to get more
Looking at the problem from here gives you possibilities from them. By now you should
the opportunity to have a closer look and be able to frame design challenges
grasp of the problem. The clouds are no following the steps given in the chapter.
longer blocking your vision. You can see the Not forgetting the different views of looking
problem clearly. It captures the right set of at the problem space; spy plane view, bulls
stakeholders surrounding the problem. eye view and the helicopter view. Which
Because you are high up enough to see view should be employed when? These will
those who cause the problem or those who help in tackling your problem space
are affected by the problem in the analysis properly.
of the problem. For example, in analyzing
the problem of teenage pregnancy may be
Key Terms
in Berekuso village, it will be important to
include everyone in Berekuso ranging from Reframing, spy plane, Helicopter, Bullseye
the girls and boys to the teachers at
schools, traditional rulers and community Problem Sets
leaders to have a complete grasp of the
1. Think you of any situation you have
problem and create an effective solution.
encountered and reframe it using the
While doing the helicopter view, you need
reframing knowledge you have acquired
to consider the practices of social
from this chapter
distancing. This means the helicopter view
2. Pick a problem of your choice and
has to have a wider view because that view
state a possible “spy plane”, “Helicopter”
has to be socially distanced. This has been
and “Bullseye” view of the problem.
influenced by COVID19 pandemic.
 73

CHAPTER 7: ETHNOGRAPHY
Chapter Description how to carry out ethnographic research
while social distancing.
In Greek, the word Ethnos means
people and grapho means to document,
Introduction
therefore, ethnography literally refers to Ethnography
studying people. It involves observing During the 20th century, a British born;
participants in their natural environment or Bronislaw Malinowski developed the term
habitat, in order to understand certain ethnography. Simultaneously, other early
social behaviors or cultures. As a result of
sociologists in the U.S affiliated with the
its social aspect, ethnographic research
Chicago School embraced ethnography and
plays a key role in design research. As you started using it in urban sociology. Moving
go through the chapter, you will be able to on, a lot of sociologists have massively
get to know what design ethnography is, contributed to developing ethnography and
and how you can use it in your projects. formalizing it in books. From the Glossary
Moreover, you will encounter various Term, Coleman & Simpson defined
ethnographic research methods, such as Ethnography as stated below.
analogical reasoning, immersion,
observational shadowing, depth interviews “Ethnography is the recording and analysis
among others. of a culture or society, usually based on
participant-observation and resulting in a
written account of a people, place or
Furthermore, research is a very important institution”
component of design thinking. This chapter In ethnography, the researcher aims at
introduces you to ethnography as a way of
developing a rich understanding of how and
conducting design research. Throughout the why people think, behave, and interact as
chapter, you will encounter different they do in the field of study. This is achieved
ethnographic approaches, and learn about by the researchers or ethnographers
cases where these methods can be used to
embedding themselves in the field of study
conduct research. Finally, what you would for a long term to properly understand and
do where social distancing is required and document what they are studying
yet most of the ethnographic research (Crossman, 2019).
methods require getting involved with
people? This chapter provides methods on
 74

Ethnography is about telling a credible, rigorous, and authentic story.

David M. Fetterman

According to Denzin (1998), ethnographers should consider the following eight principles when
observing, recording, and sampling data:

1. The groups should combine symbolic meanings with patterns of interaction

2. Observe the world from the point of view of the subject, while maintaining the
distinction between every day and scientific perceptions of reality.
3. Link the group's symbols and their meanings with social relationships.
4. Record all behavior.
5. The Methodology should highlight phases of process, change, and stability.
6. The act should be a type of symbolic interactionism.
7. Use concepts that would avoid causal explanations

“Guards and prisoners in jails, patients, and physicians in hospitals, the elderly, the various
religious groups—all have cultural perspectives…. As people move from one cultural scene to
another in complex societies, they employ different cultural rules. Ethnography offers one of the
best ways to understand these complex features of modern life. It can show the range of
cultural differences and how people with diverse perspectives interact” (Spradley, 1979, p. 12.).
 75

Illustration of ethnographic research

live, work, and interact hence, we observe,
Imagine a group of Ashesi students from
interview, and facilitate direct interactions
the Foundations of design and
with people in order to understand them
Entrepreneurship class that go to carry out
and their world better. We are part
ethnographic research in the Ashanti region
mentalist, and part altruist. We weaponize
about galamsey. Galamsey refers to illegal
empathy so that we can deploy it daily to
gold mining in Ghana. Their research is
craft advantages for our customers,
concentrated on a problem question of
communities, and our world.
“Why some people have continually
participated in galamsey despite its harm to “The goal is to see people’s behavior on
the environment.” Since these students are their terms, not ours. While this
carrying out ethnographic research, they observational method may appear
will have to stay in the Ashanti region for a inefficient, it enlightens us about the
long period of time of at least 2 weeks. context in which customers would use a new
During this time, they will immerse product or service and the meaning that it
themselves in the daily lives of the people might hold in their lives” Ken Anderson.
participating in the galamsey so as to
understand and get a full picture of what A design ethnographer is someone who
they are researching about. These students facilitates empathic conversations between
will follow the galamsey people to the users, clients and other designers, as well as
mining sites and see what exactly happens other experts and stakeholders involved in
hence employing the observational the service design process. Wisegeek
approach of ethnographic research. Also, provides a nice succinct description of the
these students will have to study what work of ethnographers,
activities these galamsey people engage in
apart from illegal gold mining. Additionally, ” An ethnographer is a person who gathers
they will employ the various methods of and records data about human culture and
ethnographic research like in depth societies. There are various research
interviews, diary methods, experiments methods that can be applied to the different
which will be discussed later in this chapter. sub-categories of this social study, such as
field, design or visual ethnography. An
ethnographer often needs to be able to find
Design Ethnographer
patterns in and understand issues faced by
According to Dudek (2017), people are a wide sample of people with diverse
studied in the environments in which they backgrounds.”
 76

Ethnographers are trained to extract the Design ethnography can be applied to

voices of stakeholders, the people that will absolutely everything.
be affected by the decisions derived from
our work. Ethnographers are people-centric Take this as a challenge: Find a problem
and story-based. They put themselves in the space on this planet that does not have a
shoes of others to understand how they significant human component tied into it
see, feel, or think when they look at the somewhere. Sometimes, as a design
world. They spend a lot of time discovering ethnographer, you hear the annoying
and looking through the lenses that our phrase ‘get into their head’ which is
participants use to understand their world. invasive and fairly improbable. In reality,
Design ethnographers live in “problem the closest you can ever be to ‘being in
spaces” which are zones of exploration someone’s head’ is to have an educated
which can be specifically targeted as, what guess and founded on the information at
kind of power button should be placed on a hand. This is what we specialize in,
microwave, or as vast as a deep dive into obtaining information and transforming it
the blogosphere. into useful knowledge. The work of design
ethnographers has three major stages,

It is also important to note that design

Realizing
ethnographers are design thinkers. They
firmly understand the design process, they Begin by making the problem space real for
know what is required in every stage, how you. You need to understand the landscape
this can be explored, discussed and shared. of a problem space and a way to render it,
This is why they are able to conduct in order to find ways to study it. This sets
research in a way that reveals what users the pace for creating tools to facilitate the
need, and they are able to provide flow of information from our participants
information that is useful to product into our research. The work of an
designers who are now able to incorporate ethnographer always begins with a deep
the necessary features in the final product. understanding of the surrounding
As you take this class, you will be environments, constraints, and social
encouraged to conduct ethnographic structures, within the problem space. When
research in order to have a better working with people you cannot force them
understanding of the target users whose to voice out their opinions; you have to
problems you are trying to solve and also to know what's going on and begin by dipping
have a clearer understanding of the in a little toe.
problem as it relates to users.
 77

Sympathizing Empathizing
Here we begin to feel for our This is a critical moment for ethnographers
participants since we know what their pain as they are so immersed in the participant's
points are. We begin to see things from the world, that we feel with them. There are
perspective of our participants, and we use stories of ethnographers in the field who
this to begin our analysis. We synthesize immerse themselves in another way of life
insights into how the problem space can for research purposes and are unable to
affect our participants and create find their true selves again after a period of
frameworks and methods to understand time. Empathy is necessary for us to be able
the complex systems in which each person to derive representative insights about our
lives. These frameworks are the beginnings participant groups, but we must carefully
of how we will communicate our findings. temper it with our own expertise and filters.
Our clients are the people trying to It is much harder to do this than it is to
understand a problem space, and with time describe it.
to improve it.

Ethnographic Research

Image 7:1: Characteristics of Ethnographic Research13

13 Image source:[Link]
 78

of questions to ask and the same questions

Ethnographic Research Methods are asked to every interviewee. On the
other hand, Semi-structured interviews also
These are methods that researchers or
have a set of questions to be asked, but the
ethnographers employ when carrying out
interviewer has the flexibility to add
ethnographic research. They include In-
additional questions based on the
depth interviews, observational shadowing,
interviewees' responses. Semi-structured
Immersion, among others.
interviews are more flexible, and they give
room for more specific questions to each
In-depth interviews
interviewee. However, with fully structured
In-depth interviews involve conducting interviews, the interviewer can more easily
intensive individual interviews with a small compare the responses from one person to
number of respondents to explore their the next, since the questions asked are the
perspectives on a particular idea, program same. (Ethnographic Methodology, 2019)
or situation. They are used when you want
detailed information about a person’s Take note of the following when carrying
thoughts and behaviors or want to explore out interviews.
new issues in depth. While in-depth
interviews have an advantage of providing Image 7:2: In-depth Interviewing tips14
much more details than other data
collection methods, they are also prone to
bias, time intensive, require interviewers to
be properly trained and the results from
these interviews cannot be generalized as
samples are small and not randomly
chosen.
Interviews give an opportunity to learn
from people what they believe, how they
think, and how that affects their life by
asking them questions. Interviews should
be crafted to answer a research question or
problem. There are two different forms of
interviews: fully structured and semi-
structured. Fully structured interviews are
interviews where the interviewer has a list

14 Source: [Link]
 79

Observational shadowing understanding about them. During this

This is a method of data collection in which time, researchers live and do things just like
the researcher closely follows those being the locals. Immersion can take months or
studied in their natural habitat, to years to set up and perform. An example of
experience the situations in their daily life immersion is language immersion, where an
or work, collecting insights through the individual only speaks a non-native
detailed nuance of firsthand real time language in order to learn it.
exposure. It is used to gain insight on who
the individuals being studied really are as Immersion Research: Pros and Cons
opposed to who they say they are. In design
The pros and Cons of using immersion
research, observational shadowing enables
method are illustrated below:
design researchers to understand existing
Pros
behaviors so they can adapt their designs to
● This method enables the researcher
those behaviors (Interaction Design
to gain more qualitative information about
Foundation, 2019).
a subject or culture than any other method.
Observational shadowing can also involve
Cons
the following users to observe how they use
● Immersion takes months to years to
a product or service in their natural habitat.
set up and then to carry out.
An example of observational shadowing is
● A researcher needs permission to
following a doctor around in the hospital to
understand how they interact with patients. participate in the activities of a particular
Another example is how a product may be group. A researcher must get permission of
developed for a particular use, but people the people who are being studied,
use it in a particular way. They may not be communicate the intent of the research,
aware, and they may be subconscious that and also gain the trust of the community
they are using it in the wrong way. with regards to the information not being
Following such groups of people is misused.
observational shadowing. ● Additionally, completing
professional ethics responsibilities to the
Immersion university and permits from governmental
This is a form of ethnographic research in bodies to carry out research using the
which researchers immerse themselves immersion method takes a lot of time.
totally in the society in order to gain an in- ● Human behaviors are complex
depth understanding of it. It involves leading to different observations every day.
visiting a particular society or community, ● This method can be dangerous since
befriending the people and living there with the researcher is always working in an
them for a certain period of time to gain unfamiliar environment.
 80

Diary method Experiments

This research method involves This is a scientific method where the
having participants record entries about the researcher manipulates one or more
activity or experience being studied in a log, variables, and controls and measures any
diary, journal or a self-administered form change in other variables. This research is
that you give them. The data is recorded mainly carried out and controlled in
either when events occur (event-based laboratories. An example of experimental
diaries) or at specified times or time research is conducting a laboratory test
intervals (time-based diaries) (Lavrakas, where the research is being conducted
2008). The recording and collection of data under scientifically acceptable conditions.
by participants is done over a period of Great experimental research is considered
time, usually a couple of days or months. to be successful only when the researcher
Lavrakas also points out that diary data can confirms that a change in the dependent
be used to make cross-sectional variable is solely due to the manipulation of
comparisons across people, track an the independent variable (Bhat, 2019).
individual over time or study processes
within individuals or families. An example of Below are the advantages and
a diary method is giving participants a disadvantages of experimental research
product for example soap and having them (Ayres, 2019).
keep a record of the effects or changes they
experience whenever they use the product. Advantages
Diary methods can be used to study issues ● Researchers are given a high level of
such as mental health, media exposure, control.
nutrition time use etc. An advantage of the ● No limitation to the industry or
diary method is that there are technological subject matter involved.
innovations such as voice recorders and ● Experimental research provides
web-based diaries that make it easier to
conclusions that are specific.
record data. Moreover, it allows for events
● It is hard to replicate conditions that
to be recorded in their natural setting.
could take a long time so that the variables
The disadvantages include the fact that it
can be tested appropriately.
requires a lot of time commitment which
● Experimental research allows cause
can discourage participation. Moreover,
and effect to be determined.
data entered by participants may not be
● Experimental research can be
very accurate. Participants can also forget
to record data, causing errors in the combined with other research methods.
research.
 81

Disadvantages conversation and respond with their own

● interpretations (Given, 2008). One of the
There are possibilities of human
advantages of Participatory research is that
error since results are highly subjective.
it allows understanding social reality from
● It creates unrealistic situations.
ordinary people’s perspectives and on the
● Experimental research consumes a
other hand, one of the disadvantages is the
lot of time.
mistrust of the society and participation
● It does not give actual explanations. fatigue can highly influence the outcomes
● Difficult to measure the human of participatory research (Tadevosyan &
responses in experimental research. Schoenhuth, 2019). This method suits well
in a social context compared to other
Participatory research (co-discovery) ethnographic methods.
Participatory research is a method
of research that involves including and Analogical reasoning
collaborating with members of the
This involves using patterns of past
community where the research is taking
incidences to determine the future. It's
place to understand and resolve community
commonly used to make decisions and
problems. The researchers using this
solve problems. Aravind hospital in India
method employ various kinds of research
uses McDonald- fast food company as an
methods like group discussions of personal
analogy. Aravind hospital learned
experiences, interviews, surveys, among
management principles from McDonald’s
others.
which enables them to make a profit of
millions of dollars a year and yet they
With this method, participants give a
provide free eye treatment to millions of
perspective to the process of being the
poor Indians. Aravind’s surgical procedures
object or subject of research by getting an
are organized like assembly lines and this
opportunity to tell their own stories. Also,
was influenced by McDonald’s. Each
participants are able to give a voice to the
operating room at Aravind hospital has two
community or group that is being
tables. The doctor performs a surgery which
researched by offering their own
takes around five minutes on one table. By
interpretation of the researcher's findings,
the time he finishes, a new patient is ready
voicing their opinion in response to the
on the next table.
researcher. Collectively, the researcher and
the participant derive conclusions and offer
“Analogical reasoning is using an analogy, a
each other feedback. The activeness of the
type of comparison between two things, to
participants involved in the research
develop understanding and meaning. It's
encourages other participants to join the
commonly used to make decisions, solve
 82

problems and communicate” (Spacey, Recommendation: Hormone replacement

2017). therapy could reduce the effects of aging in
postmenopausal women.
Reversal- after doing research
Reversal: Subsequent analyses showed that
This happens when the recommendations
hormone replacement therapy has complex
given from a particular research are
risks and benefits. Therefore, the hormone
reversed.
replacement therapy is not suitable or
recommended for the prevention of chronic
“In a June 2019 meta-analysis published in
disease in postmenopausal women.
the journal eLife, Diana Herrera-Perez and
colleagues mined nearly 3,000 randomized-
controlled trials published in the Journal of Ethnography with Social distancing
the American Medical Association, the
Lancet, and the New England Journal of The coronavirus pandemic has presented a
Medicine from 2003 to 2017. In total, they challenge in carrying out ethnographic
identified 396 medical reversals.” research since the guidelines in reducing
the spread of the pandemic include social
Below are some excerpts of the distancing. This will be difficult to carry out
in depth interviews, immersion,
examples.
observational shadowing among others.
1. Wearable technology Saleh (2019) However, ethnographic research can also
be done remotely using the methods
Recommendation: Wearable technology, below:
which tracks physical activity and burned
calories, helps with long-term weight loss. Use of existing content
As the saying goes, there is nothing new
Reversal: In a subsequent clinical trial,
under the sun, whatever your research is
adults in a weight-loss program were
about, there would be a high chance of
randomized either to use a wearable device
similar research that has already been
plus web interface or to use a self-
done. Take content from existing content
monitoring program. After 24 months,
like pictures and videos analogically. This
participants using the wearable devices lost
will involve analogically extracting
an average of 3.5 kilograms versus 5.9
information from these existing pictures
kilograms in the self-monitoring group.
and videos. Then transcribing this
information, this requires writing out the
2. Hormone replacement therapy
information in the content. It will aid in
 83

getting quotes and notes from the Another example of research involving a
transcription thus helping in understanding proxy user.
the situation that you’re trying to explore. A team made a website that would allow
Here you don’t have to collect the data but people to request for household services
rather collect third party content that like mowing the lawn, dry cleaning, running
captures the context of your study to errands among others. They tried to get
extract content to inform the topic you’re professionals to sign up, but they were not
studying. Be careful about capturing successful, so they organized a role play
important insights. session with a random person who played
the role of a professional banker. During the
Use of a proxy user role play and the interview, this person
This involves getting people to role play the indicated that he would never go to this
experience of your users so you can extract website as he would prefer using an area
insights. Take an ordinary person, profile boy to come and do this kind of work for
and recruit them to make sure they can him. From this, the team realized that there
play. Then train them on the situation that was a problem of trust and security with
you want them to act. Expose them on a their services. So, the team incorporated
hypothetical journey map of the user you trust and security in the system by putting
want to understand. If you want to insurance of items used in errands,
understand for example a teacher, you can background checks for people who do the
get your mother, explain the journey map errands, and including other things that
of the teacher to your mother and ask if she would provide trust and security. But they
can play that role so you interview her. The got this from a proxy user.
person you are using does not have to be a
professional actor or actress, but they need Conclusion
to be able to fit in the role of the intended We have established an understanding of
user. There is numerous research that how one can carry out ethnographic
proves proxy users are good at doing research. Which ethnographic research
research for example a study by Gielen would be best given a particular situation
&Stappers (2013) about “Design research by and topic under study? The different
proxy: Using children as researchers to gain methods of ethnographic research, the pros
contextual knowledge about user and cons among others. We have also
experience.” established how ethnographic research can
be carried out where social distancing is
necessary. And as part of this course,
students will be required to do research for
the different problems that they are solving
 84

therefore, we hope that this chapter will Design Ethnographer, Immersion,

help the students realize, sympathize and Experiments, Diary Method, Proxy User
empathize while deploying the various
ethnographic research methods. Problem Sets
1. What do you understand by the term
ethnography?
2. Give 5 examples of ethnographic
Key Terms research methods and define them.
Ethnography, Analogical reasoning, In- 3. How do you carry out ethnographic
Depth Interview, Observational Shadowing research where social distancing is
required?
 85

CHAPTER 8: LEAN RESEARCH

Chapter Description Introduction

The main objective of this chapter is A few years, the Berekuso township burned
to make you gain full knowledge of what Ashesi students from carrying out research
lean research is all about and be able to in the community. Ashesi students used to
apply lean research principles in carrying go to the Berekuso community; carry out
out research. This will help in ensuring that research, promise, leave and never return
you are able to meet the objectives of your to talk about their findings. So, it got to a
research. This chapter also dives deep on point where the Berekuso residents got
the guiding principles and questions that disappointed and burned Ashesi students
can be used while carrying out Lean carrying out research there. This is the main
Research. How we carry out research reason why lean research was introduced at
matters because the research process Ashesi University. Lean research puts the
involves interference in the lives of people
respondent at the center of the research. It
(research subjects) and this interference also involves the 4Rs which makes the
could lead to positive or negative research to be relevant, rigorous, rightsized
outcomes. and respectful towards the respondents.
Lean research is a research framework These 4Rs help to cater more to the needs
aimed at creating positive outcomes from of the respondents regardless of the
the research process by placing the research methods applied. The 4Rs will be
experience of research participants and explained further in this chapter.
other stakeholders at the center of the Considering that the needs of the
design and implementation of the research.
respondents as Lean research does is in line
Disrespectful and inefficient data collection with Ashesi’s ethos of training ethical
practices that produce irrelevant data are leaders. This is because ethical leaders
common, therefore, it is important that usually put people’s interests or wellbeing
researchers come up with alternative at the center as lean researchers also put
research methods that incorporate the lean the interests of the respondents at heart.
research principles (which will be discussed Lean research is a way of realizing the
in this chapter) to ensure that research data Ashesi mission because it teaches putting
is meaningful not only to the researcher but attention to the needs of the respondents.
to research participants and stakeholders. Also, the lean research process works well
with design thinking of which Design
thinking is the core of this course. Lean
 86

research also is respondent centered and is participants, especially those confronted

user centered. with poverty and vulnerability. They,
The best way to implement lean research is therefore, came up with lean research to
to capture it within the protocol that is ensure that this intervention is of benefit
developed in research methods. For and positively impacts those involved. They
example, tying lean research in do this applying the lean research principles
ethnography includes coming up with of rigour, respect, relevance, and right-size
ethnographic approaches and then looking to reduce the burden of research-on-
for how to make them lean research. This research participants at the same time
can be done by starting with what increasing the value of the research output
traditional research would say about what to both research participants and
approach or ethnographic method to use. stakeholders.
Based on the conditions on the ground, When deciding on how to design research,
how can that tradition be improved by lean research draws from human-centered
using lean research? approaches to development and design,
enabling it to place the experience of
Lean Research humans who are the research subject at the
center of the decision-making regarding
Lean Research is a research practice research development and design. Lean
aimed at guiding and improving the practice research is aimed at increasing the quality
of field research involving people and their of information gathered during research,
communities in relation to international increasing the use of research findings to
development and humanitarian work. Here, stakeholders and ensuring that the research
research is done to comprehend and outcome is beneficial to study subjects and
increase the impact of programs that seek their communities as well as donors and
to improve the lives of people in
decision-makers. Lean Research is able to
communities characterized by poverty, achieve this by creating a respectful and
vulnerability, and other challenges. Even enjoyable research experience for the
though the outcome of the research is often research subjects.
to improve the lives of research
participants, the impact of the research
The Lean Research Framework
process on the lives of research subjects,
communities, and local partners is often In order to reduce the burden of research-
ignored. on-research participants and maximize the
Scholars, practitioners, and donors value of its output for stakeholders, lean
acknowledge the fact that research is a research offers a guiding framework for
form of intervention in the lives of research carrying out and evaluating research.
 87

research subjects--and by orienting the

These are: process around their insights and priorities.
1) rigorous, regardless of the research It challenges researchers to improve already
methods applied existing research practices and opens a
2) respectful towards research subjects, space to innovate new ways of approaching
implementing partners, and others engaged familiar steps in the research process.
in the research process
3) relevant to research subjects, partners, Lean Research Principles
and decision-makers
4) right sized, in terms of protocols and Rigour
costs compared to the potential usefulness
and impact of the study. Lean Research is conducted according to
the method and procedure which is best
The four principles of Lean Research are not suited to the specific nature of the study.
new but are often pitted against each other Research must adequately address issues of
as trade-offs. Lean Research emphasizes the both internal and external validity and
fact that it is important to conduct research ensure accurate reporting of results while
in a way that reflects and exemplifies all protecting sensitive subject data. High
four principles of lean research and standards of rigour ensure the integrity of
challenges them to identify ways in which the research process and results, a
they can implement them in an integrated precondition for research that is respectful
manner. As a broad framework and of participants’ time and usable by research
approach to social science research, Lean stakeholders.
Research can be applied regardless of
whether the methods are quantitative, Respect
qualitative, or mixed. For research to be respectful, it has to place
Lessons drawn from lean manufacturing as the dignity and delight of the human
well as human-centered design helps the subject at the center of the research
practice of lean research to focus on the experience. It should consist of a clear,
continual improvement of the research intelligible informed consent process, in
process, especially at points of interactions which research subjects feel truly free to
where researchers interfere with research reject participation without fearing negative
subjects, local partners, and others engaged consequences. If they decide to participate,
in research production. It seeks to improve subjects find the experience enjoyable and
research outcomes by improving the meaningful. Subjects have the opportunity
experience of those most directly involved to review and refute research findings and
in research production--particularly the
 88

feel that their contributions to the research

have been appropriately valued.

Relevance Right-Size
Research should be of value to stakeholders To ensure that research is right-sized,
and addresses priority issues and questions research scope and methods should be
for research subjects, study communities, well-suited to the research objectives and
as well as donors and decision-makers. the priority of the research questions to
Research findings are understandable and stakeholders. Right-sized research is only as
accessible to research subjects, time-consuming, burdensome, and costly as
practitioners, and policymakers. Research it needs to be, and all unnecessary
studies and results are framed in ways that questions, activities, and protocols are
can inform action and decision-making at removed.
various levels of authority, and stakeholders
commit to using findings to inform action.

Image 8:1: Insights from Lean Research

 89

Lean Research Process Gathering Data

After going through the lean research At this stage, you go into the field to collect
principles, it is important for us to establish data. Here, you may want to consider doing
a set of actions we have to take in order to the following
● Recruit locals who can retain
achieve the desired outcomes from the objectivity and make the research
research. Imagine after knowing the great participants feel comfortable. For example,
benefits of lean research and also the a translator when you cannot speak the
principles but not knowing how to go about local language of the research participants.
the research. Below are the stages in the ● Ensure that the research assistants
lean research process. are well trained.
● Consider conducting surveys at a
Scoping and Designing the Research time, and in a place that is convenient for
It is very important to lay down a plan on respondents.
how you will carry out your research. This ● Consider utilizing strategies to
will serve as a guide when you get into the assess data quality.
field. At this stage, you do the following ● Consider reflecting on the research
● Establish which data collection experience during the data collection
method is appropriate for the research process
(Primary or secondary).
● Consider engaging stakeholders in Analyzing Data
the research upfront to identify research
After collecting data, you have to make
questions and expectations.
meaning out of the data. This is known as
● Consider building up from verified analyzing. This stage involves doing the
previous work to save time and resources. following
● Reduce data collection burden on ● Sustain commitment to research
the research participants. participants’ priority research questions and
● Pre-test survey questions in the field analysis of those questions.
to make sure the questions are clear, ● Consider engaging research
culturally appropriate, and necessary. participants and other key stakeholders in
● Create a respectful consent process the data analysis
in which research participants feel
comfortable saying no. Reporting and Dissemination
● Plan for effective feedback to
This involves reporting research findings to
research participants
research participants, donors, and
 90

stakeholders for decisions to be made. At design? How do we know that our research
this stage, you have to do the following adheres to the highest standards of our
● Think about reporting near-final discipline or field of practice regarding
results to participants and other key research and instrument design, data
stakeholders as quickly as possible. collection, cleaning, and analysis?
● When presenting research findings 2. What steps should we take to
to participants, consider adapting content ensure the internal validity of the research?
and format to the audience’s needs and 3. If applicable, what steps should we
preferences. take to ensure the external validity of the
● research?
Consider sharing data with other
4. How are we designing and
partners and other researchers
implementing our research process to
ensure that the research is reproducible?
Lean Research provides a guiding
5. What steps will we take to clearly,
orientation to encourage innovation and
accurately, and transparently report all
continual improvement in research practice
relevant research results to stakeholders?
and not a set of rules to follow. From
6. How are we protecting the data of
selecting research questions to the
the people who participate in the research?
implementation and dissemination of
7. If the research is an impact
findings, the principles of rigour, respect,
evaluation or trial, is it registered with the
relevance, and right-size are aligned with
social science registry?
the research process. The different types of
8. Will the research be reproduced or
research require different implementation
verified by an independent party? If there
strategies. For Lean research, the questions
are no current plans for this, is the research
below can be used to guide an iterative
conducted in a way that it can be easily
process of incorporating the Lean Research
verified?
principles into planned and current
research activities. These questions are an
Is our research respectful?
excerpt from The Lean Research
Framework by MIT D-lab 1. What are we doing to engage the
research subjects, members of their
Consider the following questions communities, or similar populations (where
appropriate) in the design of our study and
when carrying out Lean Research
our informed consent process?
2. How are we designing the informed
Is our research rigorous?
consent process to ensure that research
1. Who or what resources have we subjects receive all the information that
consulted to obtain input on our research they need in a way that is understandable
 91

to them in order to decide if they wish to 3. What steps should we take to

participate in the research or not? understand what aspects of the research
3. What actions should we take to local host institutions find most relevant
ensure that the human subject feels truly and how are we factoring that into our
free to reject participation in the study or to research design and dissemination
drop out of a study once it has started strategy?
without fearing or experiencing negative 4. Have we identified stakeholders in
consequences? advance of the research project who have
4. What actions should we take to given input into how they would like to
create an environment in which research receive and use research findings? How are
subjects can enjoy and find meaning in the we incorporating this? input into our
experience of participating in research? research design?
5. Are we appropriately using existing 5. Are the research subjects and the
information and knowledge that local host host institution able to clearly articulate the
institutions may have? How are we helping value of the proposed research study?
local host institutions to obtain the 6. What steps will we take to
information they need about the proposed communicate and share the research
study to determine if it is to their benefit to findings in ways that are understandable
participating in the research? and accessible to all stakeholders, including
6. Have we determined culturally research subjects?
appropriate forms of compensating subjects 7. Have we allocated time and budget
and host institutions for their time and to the process of disseminating research
expenses, and have we consulted key results to stakeholders and decision-makers
stakeholders in this process? at various levels?
8. Have decision-makers agreed or
Is our research relevant? expressed interest in using research
findings in advance of the study? After
1. What secondary research have we
completion of the study, have decisions
done in order to assure us that primary
been made based on the findings?
research on the topic we are proposing is
9. Are we planning to share de-
actually needed.
identified study data, if appropriate? With
2. What process are we using to
whom will we share it and how will we
identify the research priorities of the
identify additional opportunities for the
research subjects and, if relevant, their
data to be used?
communities? What criteria are we using to
10. What approach will we use to
determine to what extent these priorities
understand the impact that the research
should be included in our research.
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has had (for example, on the decision, participants? How are we designing our
debate, issue or audience of interest)? research protocols and instruments to
ensure that interviews do not exceed this
Is our research right sized? length of time?
4. If the research involves sampling,
1. What criteria are we using to assess
how are we selecting the sample to ensure
how large (in terms of people or households
that it is large enough, but not too large?
involved) and costly it is reasonable for the
5. If the study involves enumerators
study to be? Are we considering the
who are not on the core research team,
relevance of the research question to key
how are we planning to train and
stakeholders and the type of decisions that
compensate them and have we consulted
will be informed by research results in
relevant stakeholders in this plan? In
making that assessment?
addition to fair compensation, how else are
2. How are we assessing which
we ensuring that enumerators experience
activities and questions are essential to the
the research process to be respectful,
research objectives and which ones we can
meaningful, and enjoyable?
eliminate? Are we eliminating all non-
6. What specific steps will we take to
essential protocols and questions?
provide study subjects with opportunities to
3. With input from various
review and refute (if applicable) the study
stakeholders, have we determined the
findings? Do we plan to publish any
length of time that is acceptable for an
refutations along with our original research
interview from the perspective of study
findings?
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Illustration of Lean Research

The Idea to Impact Project15 is a (NEXTi2i) through the incubator. This helps
collaboration between Ashesi University D- businesses apply the lean research
lab and MIT D-Lab funded by the USAID to principles of rigour, respect, relevance, and
create an incubator that trains right-size when carrying out research. This
entrepreneurs whose business model enables them to keep the user or research
focuses on creating ventures that tackle the participant at the center of the research
United Nations Sustainable development and eventually the outcome of the business
goals. The Idea to Impact aims at redefining to ensure that their businesses meet
the core purpose of business creation so community needs.
that entrepreneurs do not only consider
profit Conclusion
but also impact. In order to do this, Through the four principles of
businesses are introduced to the lean rigour, respect, relevance, and right-size,
research methodology by the Ashesi D-lab lean research creates maximum value and

15 [Link]
ashesi-and-mit-d-lab-partner-to-support-student-and-alumni-
[Link]
 94

usefulness of research data to stakeholders Key Terms

and minimizes the waste and burden of the
Lean Research, Rigour, Relevance, Respect,
research-on-research subjects. Lean
Right sized,
research is very important if you want to
yield positive outcomes as researchers and
especially as innovative students who are Problem Sets
looking at starting up ventures that aim at 1. What do you understand by lean
creating impact. Although lean research research?
may not apply for every research study, it is 2. How will you incorporate the lean
a guide to improving your own research as research principles into your team’s
it lays emphasis on continual improvement research?
of the research practice. 3. Why is lean research important?
 95

CHAPTER 9: ANALYSIS FRAMEWORKS

recommend the program to others or not”

Chapter description among others. Qualitative data can be
collected through in-depth interviews,
After getting out into the world and
observations, focus groups among others.
talking to people during the research
On the other hand, Quantitative data is
(empathy) stage you come back exploding
divided into Discrete & Continuous Data.
with a variety of findings. It can be
Discrete data consists of only counting
incredibly exciting to know you have all this
numbers. Examples include the number of
potential collected in your head, but it can
chairs in a hall, the number of days in a
also be a little intimidating knowing that
month, a person’s age etc. Continuous data
you somehow have to take all the noise and
can be broken down into smaller units. It
make sense of it. This is where the analysis
can also be measured on a scale like length,
part of the process comes in. The analysis
time, weight among others. Quantitative
stage helps you figure out what is at the
data can be collected through surveys,
heart of the issue so you can find the right
questionnaires etc. (Blaikie, 2003).
solutions that help every party involved,
from users to the businesses. It can seem
daunting to start, but having a clear process How to represent Quantitative Data
makes the problem much more
approachable. These are some of the common types of
how quantitative data is captured and
Introduction represented:
This chapter dwells on the two types of
data; qualitative and quantitative data. It 1. Bar graph represents data by
also illustrates the various analysis displaying bars of equal width on the grid. A
frameworks and how visualization helps us diagram in which the numerical values of
to be creative. First and foremost, variables are represented by the height or
Qualitative data is information about length of lines or rectangles of equal width.
qualities, how people feel about something. 2. Pictograph: Uses pictures and
You cannot count this data. For example, symbols to display data, each picture or
“sharing what people like about a certain symbol can represent more than one
product” “how they think it could be object.
improved” “whether they would
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3. A line graph represents a graph the Crimean War in the 1850s and that such
showing data segments joined by a line deaths were avoidable by observing that;
segment to show trends over time. for most soldiers, poor living conditions was
4. A scatter plot is a graph in which the the root cause of their deaths rather than
values of two variables are plotted along battle wounds. Nightingale showed that
two axes, the pattern of the resulting points soldiers were much more likely to die of
revealing any correlation present. preventable diseases than male civilians,
5. Circle graphs or pie charts here data even during peacetime. Visualizations
represent portions of one whole or one became one of Nightingale’s preferred ways
group. of communicating about the need for
sanitary reforms to save lives.
However, data is not usually countable or
ratable as quantitative data so that’s why
qualitative data analysis comes in. On the other hand, Hans Rosling took
Qualitative data focuses on the opinions, visualization to a modern level. Rosling
emotions and perceptions of individuals. expressed his opinions by using numbers
and figures. He visualized trends in large
data sets using the latest technology. In one
Visualization
of his presentations, “he showed bubbles of
Florence Nightingale used the concept of data which represented different countries
visualization to change the hospital and of different sizes, and different colours
saved lives with her determination, hard were different continents” (Hucki, 2017).
work and later changing the nursing This can be seen in the Image 9:1 below.
profession forever. She was a data From this we see that visualization provides
visualization and statistics pioneer. From insights for research. Just like Nightingale
the numerous data she collected, and Rosling we need to be creative in
Nightingale realized the poor sanitation visualizing data. This can be done using
caused the highest mortality at hospitals. analysis frameworks; these provide room
She used tables and diagrams to present for a lot of creativity in people coming up
the data she collected. Nightingale with templates that do a good job in
illustrated that simple sanitation revealing insights.
techniques, such as handwashing, available
fresh air and washing of the bed linens
could stop the spread of infectious diseases
and wounds of the soldiers. She showed
that poor sanitation, not battle wounds, lay
behind most English soldiers’ deaths during
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Image10:1: Data visualization by Hans Rosling

The process of analyzing all your

Making the Data Manageable
data is incredibly fluid, with one insight
Before you can move onto any creating a chain reaction to a bunch of
actual analysis, you need to be able to other insights which can make you look at
organize and manipulate all the information the first one in an entirely different light.
you collected. When you are fresh out of Because of this you will often find yourself
the information collection process it can be circling back to tweak or re-do things you’ve
daunting to try to imagine how you are already “finished”. It’s really important to
going to get everything organized. With embrace and encourage this iterative
information in so many different formats, process within the analysis because it can
none of which are easily quantifiable, it isn’t lead to radical insights that didn’t appear at
always obvious how to categorize things. first. It also means that sometimes it makes
First and foremost, you have to understand sense to do things “out of order”. Maybe
what type of information will be helpful or you need to do a few frameworks to get
not. But even with a clear set of steps to your ideas clear enough to do a point of
follow, it is important to keep a few things view (POV), or maybe you need to get a
in mind while getting into analysis. POV together to focus your frameworks.
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Analysis frameworks not only bridge the quotes they heard, observations they have
gap between the themes and the POV but or pieces of relevant secondary data they
also help uncover unique insights as the had collected. All these pieces of
structure of the frameworks forces information are captured on post it notes-
combinations of information outside the the cards. In a sense card sorting is really
norm (or box of categories). In that sense post-it notes sorting. Note that the area of
the framework structure information in a Voice of the Customer studies supported by
way that forces an insight to appear e.g., a the Center for Quality Management has a
quadrant of a 2x2 that lends itself to a POV. very rigorous process for developing the
Analysis frameworks provide second level voices, the quotes from the study
exploration of the raw data after first level transcripts. It draws from the Japanese
exploration methods such as open card- focus on quality and efficiency. A great book
sorting. written by Christina Hepner Brodie titled
“Voices into Choices: Acting on the Voice of
Processing data the Customer” written with Gary Burchill,
provides a detailed process on extraction of
Sensemaking voices and subsequent processing, all of
Once you have collected information from which is widely accepted in the industry for
various sources using various media, it’s voice of the customer work. We often do
time to make sense of them. Going to not hold students to that level of rigour
context and capturing from observations, although it could certainly be achieved.
in-depth interviews, diaries, etc. leads to The post-it notes are then splashed on an
production of pictures, scribbled notes, open surface, typically on easel-size point it
video, audio, diagrams etc. If you were paper or on the wall of the classroom. We
using the deductive method, your data make the point that students should resist
would be mostly quantitative, and you will the temptation to develop these notes on
use statistical software to analyze it. the computer and sort them (there is
However, in the design-thinking situation certainly a software that does this). The
we have qualitative but in unusual formats point of splashing the notes on a surface is
like pictures and notes which need to be to allow for visual and comprehensive
put together for sense making. Hence, we sorting by the individual and the team.
need methods that are sophisticated While it is certainly possible to simulate the
enough to handle the variety. group rearrangement digital post-it notes,
there is something special and real about
Card sorting
doing physically. We have had teams want
Here team members extract quotes from to do the sorting through these notes online
their data gathering efforts. These will be with very convincing arguments for why it
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works, and we have always had to disagree Your goal is to take a different perspective
and ask them for what they consider the old to see what you can create from the
fashion way. Overtime, they see the benefit frameworks. NB: This approach needs a
of visually working through the notes on the little bit of experience and a heavy dose of
wall in a group. tolerance for ambiguity because you need
to meta-cognitively identify patterns upon
Here is an exercise where the student
layers of patterns without sorting the data.
teams can set-up a card sorting exercise.

1. Write out the cards/notes from your 2. Start with the trends and themes
user’s perspective (not your interpretation) from card sorting and then go back to the
considering your mystery points. What did raw data to learn more about interesting
people say? What did you see (what were areas to probe into – this method better
they trying to do)? What did secondary provides evidence of abductive thinking
research reveal? Paste cards/notes because you are going to be following
randomly on table or sheet or wall unique insights to probe a little more into.
2. Rearrange them (each person Within this method, there are two ways of
should have a turn) – not more than 6 notes using the themes.
together
o Look for patterns/groupings – The Analysis Frameworks
intuition galore (how's your T-shaped The following are a list of analysis tools we
thinking?) use for synthesis. It should be noted that
this is one area where a lot has been
o Write higher level labels for patterns
written about. You are likely to find a lot
o Tell a story of what you see, still no more frameworks in other resources. For
interpretations, save the story to use in the instance, Design Thinking 101 by Vijay
analysis frameworks Kumar has a lot of frameworks that can
prove very useful. The Bootcamp Bootleg
After your team has completed your card and the Human Centered Design Manual
sorting exercise and developed high level both by the [Link] and IDEO also provide
themes, there are two ways in which you a lot of frameworks that can be used for
can transition to analysis frameworks analysis.
(synthesis)?

1. Use the raw data from the post-it Personas

notes created for the card sorting exercise We start with the persona because this is
and directly put them into the frameworks. the person we are trying to design for. This
This requires you to temporarily disregard is the person whose values and aspirations
the themes and trends from card sorting. we are trying to pinpoint. Personas are at
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the core framework in the DT process and “new mom”. Companies put huge emphasis
can be used in lots of different ways to help on understanding their target markets, but
you achieve different goals. What are they? ultimately all that these dossiers give them
If you have ever done anything with is a bunch of numbers, not a true
marketing research, you have probably understanding of WHO the people are.
spent some time talking about Businesspeople can rattle off a huge list of
demographics and target markets. numbers and demographics their target
Companies often spend thousands of market might fit into, but they can’t actually
dollars to collect data to better understand picture a person that fits it. This is where
their target markets. They might then be personas come in.
presented with a nice little table with tons
Here is an example of a market segment
of information on age range, gender,
developed by Sprint PCS, a mobile service
location, education, and maybe even
provider for one of their segments.
psychographic labels like “fun loving” or

Image 10:2: Sprint PCS market segment

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- Job role & responsibilities

- Position in household/workplace

• “Flavor”

Continually, personas are personified ● As design options are created each

explanations of who, exactly, you are one can be very rapidly tested.
designing for. Basically, personas are the ● Illustrates the objectives while
“human” version of all the metrics and creating a sounding board for potential
demographics. In that sense, a persona solutions.
helps you humanize the common traits, So instead of talking about blanket
demographics, psychographics, business statements that describe entire
attributes, and general lifestyle of a typical populations, we reframe the data and make
(not average) consumer or customer. In a it about a single person. Personas are
consulting project, personas are used to almost always a made up “ideal” person
describe your client’s ideal (not current) that exemplifies all the traits you think your
consumer/customer. However, they may target market has, but you can sometimes
certainly be used to describe the use a real person you interviewed as your
consumer/customer that your client persona if they are naturally a perfect fit.
currently views as ideal in the long run. Thinking of your target market as an actual
personified human being, with a name and
Personas:
a life and everything, can help you get past
● Answers the key question for design the numbers and start designing for actual
- “who is this for?” people, not just demographics.
● Demonstrates the emotional and
functional needs of users through
humanizing those needs Here is the person Continuum Innovation
• Personal profile developed from the segmentation data
provided them by Sprint PCS.
- Age, sex, education, job, hobbies, family,
socio-economic group, etc.

• Role
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Image 10:3: Persona

What Continuum did was they took the company relate to that segment rather than
data on the Sprint segment and humanized stare at the segmentation data.
it as suggested. For instance, they named
him Pete and wondered how Pete’s life
looked like if he earned $74,000 income,
what kind of car he drove, what he listened
to, watched etc. It really helped the
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Another example understand the people you are designing

for; you get to feel like you know them.
Let's say that you are analyzing the target
market for Urban Outfitters. A traditional Personas are not just great to help you if
take on identifying the target market might you already have a clear picture of who
come up with something like this: your audience is, they can be really helpful
to clarify your ideas when you are not so
● 15–25-Year-olds
sure. If after the data collection period you
● Students come back and feel like you are just
● Trendy swimming in way too many people’s heads,
● Middle to upper middle class it can be super helpful to step back and take
● Urban and suburban a minute to gather all the perspectives
While looking at users in this way isn’t together into a persona or two. The process
wrong, it doesn’t actually describe much of building a persona can also help to
about who you are talking about. A accentuate similarities or differences
persona, on the other hand, gives you a between your users. What at first might
clear snapshot of exactly who might be seem like a single type or persona might
walking into an Urban Outfitters, and can grow into two or three upon a closer look,
help you remember some of the finer or vice versa.
details and intricacies that they might be
Personas can also help you clearly
experiencing. One persona that might work
communicate your user base to other
for urban outfitters is this:
people. Having a persona can help outsiders
Sarah instantly and vividly understand who you
are designing for, but they can also help
18, high school senior
with inter-team communication. Once you
From a suburb 15 min outside Boston and your team come up with a shared
vision of your users it becomes easier to
Sarah is about to graduate high school and
maintain your cohesive group
is excited to start college at a large
understanding. Personas are part of the
university in Boston.
language-building process that occurs
Importance of Personas within teams and strengthens the
connections and communication.
Personas can do lots of things. First and
foremost, they force you into a new frame How do you do it? Personas can be
of thinking, making you think of your incredibly easy to pull together, but they
project in the context of someone specific, can also be a challenge. Ultimately, creating
not just a blanket audience. This helps you personas is really just telling a story. The
to really connect with and deeply first step in being able to craft a really
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accurate persona is completely immersing persona and not through their own eyes.
yourself in the research process. After The designer is encouraged to identify
interviewing and observing lots of people quotes or observations about what the
you will probably start to get a pretty clear persona was hearing from their
sense of who you are focusing on. Start to environment, what they are thinking and
build a list of attributes you associate with feeling, what they are seeing and what they
the people you are designing for, figure out are saying and doing. From these empathy
the themes that seem to be running notes, the designer can identify what the
through everyone you spoke to. Once you persona’s pain points are and what will
get a basic idea of what things connect all constitute gains.
the people you focus on, start to come up
In that sense, the empathy map not only
with a person that you think would fulfill all
maps out details of the persona’s life from
the criteria you just set, and then make
their own words but also suggests what
them a back story. What do they do in their
their aspirations might be and what is
free time? What sort of things might they
hindering them from reaching those
be interested in the outside of your scope
aspirations. This enables the designer to
of focus? Who are they? Make up a story
easily create a POV statement from the
for them and tell it!
framework.

Empathy map To be able to use the raw data for the

persona, you may have to sift through the
An empathy map provides the designer
date to identify the respondent that is
with the opportunity to unpack the persona
closest to the depictions on the persona
identified. Since it's focused on unpacking
framework. Another way to do it is to have
the persona, the analysis starts with the
multiple empathy maps or to use data from
raw data, maybe the cards or notes, and the
multiple people from the respondent pool.
map is built on that based on the criteria
that is prescribed by the map. It should be Different quotes (e.g., from opposing views)
can make the empathy map confusing and
noted that in developing the empathy map,
difficult to work with. A little more intuition
the designer is completely providing
information through the eyes of the will be helpful in clearing any confusion
about the map.
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Here are some examples of empathy maps.

Image 10:4: Empathy map 1

Image 10:5: Empathy map 2

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Image 10:6: Empathy map 3

aspirations and what their ideal experiences

Value-Aspirations-Experience
could be. This framework was developed by
The Values-Aspirations-Experience Continuum Innovation to connect values
framework also drills down into the data to and aspirations to ideal experience in order
map out connections between the values of to tell the story of how these elements
the respondent, what they state as their support the point of view of the research.

Image 10:7: Value aspirations experience diagram 1

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The following are examples of the values-aspirations-experience framework developed by

students.

Image 10:8: Value aspirations experience diagram 2

Their POV from this framework is as restrict students to developing the right
follows: Skipjacks employees need a side first. However, the complete picture
scheduling system that is user-friendly, providing the right side based on the values,
interactive and accessible at any time and aspirations and the experience of the
any location so they can be more efficient. respondent and the left side which focuses
on the problem, solution and features of
On the left side of the framework, the story
the solution
can be continued to a solution. We often

Here is an example from a student team that was trying to develop a tool to aid design thinking
training
 108

Image 10:9: Value aspirations experience diagram 3

Their POV is as follows: Students need a on in an interview. There are in fact digital
design thinking device that enables them to tools that can do the mapping but because
capture insights to problems and build there is the need to be intuitive and tightly
solutions so they can achieve their creative connect the mystery question to the
genius. research data, we often encourage students
to develop the map themselves and not rely
Mind Maps on software to find the connections for
Mind maps are also used with raw data or them. Here is some advice we give students
the quotes from card sorting. A mind map for the construction of mind maps. In order
shows the connections between the various to complete a mind map, you need to take
topic areas (bubbles) a respondent touched the time to review your research. Take one
 109

or two interviews that are close to your you may use hobbies, needs, cost,
persona and map out the bubbles from the convenience, and more. You should take
conversation. Highlight recurring themes, each of these bubbles one step further and
identify patterns, and assess common traits identify the first things that come to your
among these interviews. Also go to the respondent’s mind along those lines. The
mystery questions, look for bubbles that goal of a mind map is to identify unfilled
point to what the persona is trying to do needs (and the corresponding, necessary
(empathy insights) and then find a way to features/considerations) so as to get a
connect them. better understanding of your respondent
and their aspirations. The point of a mind
When you draw your mind map, you put
map is to find multiple, important bubbles
your respondent or persona in the center
that need to be connected. Oftentimes,
and surround it with thought bubbles.
when one outlines the different bubbles of
These bubbles should correlate to major
topics in the map, it shows connections of
aspects of your respondent’s thought
interest that the respondent is not currently
process with regards to the mystery
making. This provides the insight the design
question under consideration. For example,
team needs to develop a POV.

Image 10: 10: Mind mapping Diagram 1

In the above example, the respondent

provides an interview about his experience
 110

with diabetes. A care scan of the map there did not seem to be a direct
shows that Tony, the respondent identifies connection between the diabetes drug
a strong value or aspiration as follows “I’ve Crestor and that statement. Hence, a POV
got two beautiful sons and a beautiful wife. emerges that attempts to draw a direct
I want to live”. However, in his interview, connection between those two notes.

Image 10:11: Mind mapping Diagram 2

This is another example on a project we did people at the Red Cross showed that while
with the South African Red Cross on one of they knew of e’pap and other similar
our field studies programs. We were products, there wasn’t a strong connection
investigating the benefit of a nutritional between the mention of the HIV patients in
supplement called e’pap on the nutrition of the conversations and e’pap.
HIV patients. The interviews of different
 111

Image 10: 12: Mind mapping Diagram 3

The following example was developed from interviewing a very active member of a burgeoning
urban farming cooperative in Nyanga, Cape Town, South Africa. The mind map provided some
ideas about how to incentivize young people.

Image 10: 13: Mind mapping Diagram 4

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identify any preconceived notions you may

have. They can also be used in that early
stage to help figure out potential mystery
Journey Maps
points you may want to focus your research
Journey Maps are one of the core on, basically to form a hypothesis. The
frameworks in Design Thinking. A lot of important thing to remember about this
people’s first introduction to Design pre-research, or hypothesis, journey maps
Thinking is learning how to make a journey is that they are NOT evidence of anything.
map. You absolutely must not let the hypothesis
maps drive any conclusions. Very often you
What is it? Essentially, journey maps are
will find that after going out and getting
incredibly detailed timelines of a process.
research, many things in your initial journey
That definition is annoyingly vague on
maps will be completely wrong. This can be
purpose, because you can make a journey
a really valuable insight as long as you
map of pretty much anything you can think
totally let go of the incorrect assumptions
of. Regardless of whether you are mapping
you held before.
the process of finding an engagement ring
or of building a house, the ultimate goal is Journey maps are also great analysis tools
to be as detailed as possible. This means to help you organize the data you’ve
thinking about when and where the process collected. You can use post-research
you are mapping actually began, and when journey maps either as an exploratory tool
it actually ends, and including everything in to help focus your thoughts before tackling
between. So that map for the engagement the POV, or as an insight building tool that
ring, it might start all the way back at the is driven by the POV. How you want to use
couple’s first date, and end after the the journey map is entirely dependent on
wedding. The goal is to take note of every what you feel you need, and oftentimes you
tiny thing that happens during the entire might find yourself wanting to use it both
process so that you can find hidden ways.
questions, or mystery points, that no one When it comes to actually developing a
has thought of before. journey map, one will realize that in
addition to identifying the respondent’s
main actions for a journey map, sometimes,
What’s it good for? Journey maps can be
different journey maps could be created on
incredibly helpful at nearly every stage of
different processes or behaviors exhibited
the Design Thinking process. They can be
in the research. Our advice is to take a few
used before you start research to identify
theme areas that are clustered during card
your current level of understanding and
sorting and develop journey maps on how
 113

people will go about responding to that map that was developed during the
area. This journey map can then be research phase.
compared with the hypothesized journey
Client journey maps: When doing consulting How to do it? Regardless of how you are
projects, the journey map shows the step- using the journey map, the first step is to
by-step process the client’s customer must try to identify where to start. This can be a
go through in order to fill their needs. It lot more complicated than it seems, so it is
describes their behavior before, during, and important to really think about it and talk it
after the need is met. Depending on the over before just slapping it down. If you are
scope of your client’s problem, your journey doing a hypothesis map you will just base it
map may not be focused specifically on off of your best guesses and understanding
consumer/customer behavior, especially if of the problem at hand, but if you are doing
the problem is not focused directly on the a post-research journey map you will want
consumer/customer. It could focus on the to pull all of your information straight from
step-by-step process your client goes your research. You can make a map for one
through to provide its goods or services. specific person, or as an amalgamation of a
few people. You might find yourself needing
For client projects, journey maps can be
to make multiple paths or branches of the
used both as a pre-research tool (before
map to accurately portray the different
data collection) and as an analytical tool
ways the process can unfold. The important
(after data collection). During analysis,
thing about journey mapping is not to make
journey maps usually portray common
the process fit into a specific map, but to
‘work-arounds’ that your client’s ideal
make the map fit the process.
consumer/customer must use in the
absence of a real solution. However, as a Journey maps could also be developed for
pre-research tool, journey maps are used to business systems (called value chain
map out the step-by-step process for analysis). The design is very similar with the
consumers/customers in an ideal situation. only difference being that the value chain is
When using the journey map as a pre- on the business process and the journey
research tool it should portray your client’s map is on a human’s experience. As the
desired end state after a solution has been following example shows, women are
developed. grossly underrepresented in the production
of honey.
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Image 10:14: Journey map Diagram 1

Here is another value chain-based map that is focused on the journey a blanket makes from
procurement to being used for disaster relief.

Image 10:15: Journey map Diagram 2

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spaces in between with supporting

Activity clocks
processes and habits of note. Once full,
Activity clocks are mainly used to map out map out areas of need and inefficiency in
the actions or activities of a respondent in a your individual’s daily routine in order to
time-based fashion. Activity clocks allow reach a new POV.
you to map out an individual’s daily routine.
They are recommended for any research
An activity clock can also be used to map
that dives deeply into a user’s schedule and
out the day in a life of a person.
habits. They are similar to a journey map,
but they map out your individual’s routine For instance, the following is the day in the
by the day as opposed to by the process. life of a 12-year-old. There are different
Activity clocks can be drawn in a circular color codes for the different ways in which
model or in a horizontal (start to finish) she communicates with the different
model. Plot major points of the individual’s people she interacts with.
day at specific time periods and fill in the

Image 10:16: Activity clock 1

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Image 10:17: Activity clock 2

Here are two examples with different levels of detail.

Image 10:18: Activity clock 3

The final one is the activity clock of the of a poor woman in a village
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2x2 matrices

2x2 matrices allow you to map individuals, by (or qualities of) existing competition to
products, or services along two major your client’s services, these points can
matrices. The matrices can either be represent alternative products or services.
mapped on a low-to-high basis (such as low- When you find clusters of points in a
to-high cost on one axis and low-to-high specific quadrant, these can represent new
convenience on the other) or on a POVs. If you plotted individuals, these
contrasting basis (such as domestic vs. quadrants could also represent opportunity
foreign on one axis). Once you have chosen areas because they identify common areas
two-dimension labels and placed each one of need among your general research bases.
on an axis, you plot various points along the The empty areas could even provide a sense
axes. When mapping out the of who the persona could be or in another
values/preferences/needs of respondents, sense could help validate a persona. If you
these points can represent individuals. This plotted products/services, you could find
will be the case where you took the opportunity areas in relatively empty
different respondent data, and you mapped quadrants, because these represent areas
each respondent on the 2x2 matrix. that have not been addressed by existing
alternatives.
The 2x2 could also be used to map out the In the example below, this particular group
external environment of the study context. was able to identify an opportunity area for
For instance, it could be used to map out its high quality, high-price, social-impact
the macroeconomic situation of nutrition products: older generations, who were less
while your study collected individual price-conscious and less concerned with
perceptions of nutrition. In that sense, it brand value than their younger
could also be used to map out the counterparts. This is an example of a person
competitive environment of the mystery who collected data on the beer brands in a
question under consideration. For instance, store and wanted to know what type of
it could be used to map out the needs filled beer could sell in a new beer business.
 118

Image 10:19: Data on beer brands

The following is a developed 2x2 matrix on the beer brands collected about. Guess what labels
go on the axes.

Image 10:20: 2x2 Framework

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Here is another example of different ways in which different breakfast cereals can be presented
on a matrix.

Image 10:21: Cereal data

should draw one circle to represent each

Venn diagrams
different group. In intersecting areas,
Venn diagrams allow you to find common identify all common traits and relationships
areas of interest among two or more between the two intersecting groups.
different things. They are often made of Identify all uncommon/individual traits in
circular cards of different sizes and colors the rest of the circle. All intersecting parts
that are placed in relation to one another are where you will find new POVs and areas
on a base area. They can be used to of interest. However, non-intersecting parts
compare respondents or the different could raise questions that could lead to
themes or categories that were organized insights about why they are not
during the card sorting process. The intersecting.
structure of Venn diagrams is simple. You
 120

Image 10:22: Venn diagram 1

Here is an example the outlines the components of design innovation

Image 10:23: Venn diagram 2

The following is an example of the intersection between the characteristics of an employee and
those of a manager.
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Image 10:24: Venn diagram 3

Here is another example that is used to find a life partner

Image 10:25: Venn diagram 4

Venn diagrams can use more than 3 intersecting circles if the designer can process the different
interacting parts

There is a variant of simple Venn diagrams intensity of the interaction. For instance,
which is relational diagrams. Relational when trying to represent different
diagrams are often used to map out constituents such as men and women,
institutional concepts with the size wealthy and poor, young and old, there will
representing the level of importance while be different sizes and levels of intersection
the degree of overlap represents the between the diagrams.
 122

Image 10:26: Venn diagram 5

Here is an example that represents different countries

Image 10:27: Venn diagram 6

Here are two other examples of situations in the developing world. The second diagram actually
shows cause and effect as well as solution from the mapping exercise.
 123

Image 10:28: Venn diagram 7

Analogies

Analogies allow for a different perspective design Analogies allow for a different
to be applied to the results from the design perspective to be applied to the results
thinking research. The use of analogies to from the design thinking research.
reach unique understanding and inspire

Image 10:30: Analogies

 124

The idea for an analogy could develop from Express wanted to answer was how to
peculiar information in the research data. deliver a Centurion card. After a lot of
The data might lead the design team to research, the team developed an analogy
think of an analogy that provides a stronger that will inspire them to the solution. The
sense of what the data is saying than the analogy was that of the card being
situation itself. In the following example, delivered by a British chauffeur driving a
American Express approached Continuum Rolls Royce. The card would be placed on a
Innovation looking for inspiration for how covered platter and the chauffeur would do
to design the delivery packages for its an extensive bow and open the platter for
Centurion black card. The Centurion card the client to pick the card. This analogy
has no limit and is given by invitation only. depicted in the picture below inspired the
It is the kind of card you could probably engineers to develop the packaging seen in
walk into a car dealership with and drive the picture. You can see implementation of
away without a car loan or a briefcase with the black sleeves of the chauffer with the
wads of green notes but only the slide of white shirt cuffs protruding from the
the metal card. The question American sleeves. The box also opens like a platter.

Image 10:31: Packaging from an Analogy

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The second example was developed by a Image 10:32: Inesfly

group of students on a field study trip to
South Africa. The challenge was how to
develop a chicken farming business that
was protected from burglars at night. This
business was going to be in the township of
Nyanga where most unsecured things
vanished at night. The students had heard
of Inesfly, an anti-malaria paint that
prevents mosquitoes from flying around in
a room and thereby prevented mosquito
bites in enclosed areas where the paint was
applied. They used this analogy to propose
that a wall be built around the chicken farm
and a 24hr convenience store be built into
Summary
the wall. The store will give coupons to the
Remember when you are diving into the
police to shop there and because it stayed
analysis process, it is important to consider
open, it will have human and police traffic
a few things before you start actually doing
and therefore prevent burglars from
anything. First, analysis is like rugby, not a
attaching the farm and thereby
relay. What does that mean? It is much
safeguarding the business. While they were
easier and more effective to do the analysis
given free rein to come up with new ideas,
with other people. Every person’s
they were surprised that a chicken farm
experience during the information
project ended scaling beyond a daytime
gathering stage will be different and being
activity to include a complex nighttime
able to share those different experiences
activity that made the daytime activity
will bring a greater depth to the group’s
sustainable. If they had not used that
collective understanding of what is going
analogy, they probably would not have
on. Working with other people will also
been able to discover a two-part solution to
shed light on different perspectives on the
the problem.
same experience. Hearing other people’s
understanding of something can open up
doors you never would have come across
on your own. This is why it follows naturally
from card sorting where you posted the
notes randomly but worked with team
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members to identify the categories and what you’re studying. Re-listen to the
trends from the data. recordings of interviews and re-read notes,
then do it all again. This process can often
Second, you have to make things tangible. If
be pretty painful, and that is totally OK! If
you take nothing away from this book, at
you rush through the process just because it
least get this. When you are dealing with
is hard or boring, you will miss out on the
abstract ideas it can be really challenging to
“Aha” moments lurking inside the muck and
wrap your brain around them, but it
mire. Give yourself time to really soak in the
becomes so much easier if you can turn
problem, let yourself wander around the
those ideas into something you can actually
fog for as long as you need. While it may
touch. So, take everything that is floating
seem pointless or frustrating while you are
around in your head and throw it out into
doing it, you will quickly come to see just
the real world. Take notes, take pictures,
how powerful immersion in the problem
use post-its, draw pictures, build models, do
can be.
whatever you need to do to literally get a
grasp on your thoughts. This doesn’t just Key words
help you better understand your own
Visualization Frameworks Persona
thoughts, it allows you to get a grasp of
Empathy Maps Activity Clocks
what other people are thinking and share
Card sorting Sensemaking
your ideas with them. If everyone can
Qualitative data Quantitative data
literally see and touch everyone else’s
ideas, it makes it so much easier and more
Problem sets
productive to collaborate.
1. Differentiate between qualitative
Third, it is so important to give yourself data and quantitative data?
time to marinate in the findings. Completely 2. What do you understand by
saturate your space with your findings, visualization?
cover the walls with the tangible evidence 3. Why is card sorting important in
of your findings. Go through every little analyzing data?
detail until you truly know everything about
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CHAPTER 10: IDEATION TECHNIQUES

Chapter Description
Introduction
Ideation is a creative process that leads to
the formation of ideas. Ideation is the third Look back at a time when you had a paper
to write and you opened a blank word
stage of the design thinking process. At this
document and stared at it for what seemed
stage, your team must have clearly defined
the problem you want to tackle and stated like ages waiting for that “aha moment”
the point of view (POV) to inspire and guide that will come with that one big idea that
will blow off the mind of the lecturer. Truth
everyone. Then you can start the ideation
is, that “aha moment” will come faster if
process. Your team members will have to
you do not limit yourself to looking for only
come together to conjure ideas. Remember,
one perfect idea but give yourself the
at this stage, there are no “bad ideas”.
chance to explore many different ideas and
Everyone should, therefore, feel free to
pick out that which is best. Ideation will
contribute theirs. You have to be bold and
help you do this. Furthermore, ideation
curious in order to challenge commonly
comes from imagination and thinking
held beliefs and explore possibilities past
differently. Gregory Berns; a neuroscientist
obstacles. The goal of ideation is not
coming up with the “right idea” it is aimed refers to the brain as “a lazy piece of meat”!
This is because Berns says the brain
at coming up with the “broadest range of
categorizes stimuli in templates and when
possibilities. At the end of this chapter, you
confronted with a new stimulus, the brain
should be able to define all the ideation
checks the existing templates for a response
techniques and also identify the ideation
techniques that are appropriate to use in rather than doing further thinking. Berns
calls this “thinking inside the box” hence
each situation. These techniques may help
the brain being a lazy piece of meat.
in achieving the best ideas for the course
Therefore, we need to overcome
group works. This chapter looks at each
categorization because it makes us come up
idea technique deeply and note that several
with ideas from inside the box.
ideation techniques can be used at once.

However, how do we overcome

categorization and think outside the box?
According to Berns, we need imagination as
it brings new ideas. The brain only imagines
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when it thinks outside the box and not in drawers. The ideation techniques in this
the inside. Imagination lives outside the chapter are designed to push one to think
box of categories as we imagine when we outside the box and to break categorization.
do not find a useful template in the file For example, the nine-dot puzzle from the
creativity chapter shows how one can break 1. Mind Mapping.
categorization. The ideation techniques play Mind mapping (brainstorming or
a similar role in pushing oneself out of spider diagrams) involves taking note of
categorization. This topic will be expanded every idea that comes up no matter how
on further in the creativity chapter. far-fetched it may seem. Come up with as
many ideas as possible as this will increase
Ideation Techniques. the chance of finding the best idea
(Gardiner, 2013). When brainstorming try
Beginning your work with full gusto
not to reject any ideas, you should always
only to find yourself stuck after the first
say “yes” to the ideas your group members
sentence is infuriating, but what’s worse is
bring. Avoid using “yes but”. Here are five
staring at a blank page for what seems like
rules for effective brainstorming: postpone
an eternity, waiting for ideas to appear
all judgment of ideas, encourage wild ideas,
from somewhere. Even if you have a
aim for quantity over quality, build on ideas,
designated topic, it can often be seemingly
and every person and every idea have equal
impossible to think of anything worthwhile
value (Daly, Mckilligan, Seifert & Gonzalez,
to say about it. Sadly, much to everyone’s
2016). Ideas generated are blended to
disappointment, your work isn’t going to
create one good idea. This is embedded in
write itself. For people who create content
the slogan “1+1=3”.
every day, it can be difficult constantly
Mind mapping has four key visual-
coming up with new ideas. Luckily, if you
oriented elements: Keywords,
have hit that creative wall, there are several
Diagramming, symbols, and colours.
techniques you can implement to get those
According to (Polczynski, 2016); keywords
creative juices flowing again. Below are
record thoughts, diagramming shows
several creative problem-solving
relationships among keywords, symbols add
techniques. These don’t just apply to
increase memorability by adding visual
content creation either, they can be used in
variety and colours represent a various
all aspects of life.
group of ideas.
Mind mapping is expanded on further as an
analysis framework in Chapter 10.
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Image 4:1: An illustration of a mind map of a family16.

(Gardiner, 2013). Below are the meanings

2. Six Thinking Hats of each hat (de Bono, 1999)
This technique was developed in the early White Hat – Facts
80s, but it has now been adopted by When you wear the white hat, you focus on
businesses all over the world. It involves the data available.
making decisions using metaphorical hats. Red Hat – Emotions
Each hat has a different colour which
represents a different direction of thinking

16 Source: [Link]
 130

Wearing the red hat lets you look at value in it. Gives reasons for your thoughts
problems using intuition, gut reaction, and or the ideas you bring forth.
emotion. Green Hat – Creativity
Black Hat – Judgement, Caution The green hat lets you develop creative
Using this hat, look cautiously and solutions to a problem. It is an unrestricted
defensively at all the bad points of the way of thinking, in which there is little
decision. Try to see why it might not work. criticism of ideas.
Yellow Hat – Logic, Positivity Blue Hat – Control
This hat helps you think positively and to Thinking with the blue hat on, helps you
see all the benefits of the decision and the keep an overview of what thinking is
necessary to scout the subject.

According to Gardiner (2013), this method good at this as their curiosity and
can be used individually or in a group, and imagination are boundless. When playing a
one can ‘wear’ more than one hat at once. “why” game with a child you will
This method of ideation is advantageous understand what is being explained here.
because it generates understanding among However, as we grow old, the questions we
group members that there are multiple ask also reduce partly because we have
perspectives on an issue, is a convenient answers to some of these questions.
way “switching gears” while thinking and it Imagine we asked more questions despite
leads to more creative thinking. the knowledge we already have? Our
imagination will increase, hence improving
3. The Checklist our content. Therefore, the checklist
technique comes in to help to ask questions
The checklist helps spark imagination by
asking a lot of questions. Young children are
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before you start your work. Here are six An example of lateral thinking by Gardiner
universal questions that can be asked: (2013).
Why? Where? When? Who? What? How? “You have a client who sells tractors. If you
Any time you want to create content, ask were thinking in a linear fashion, you may
yourself these questions. This will help to feel the need to create content about how
generate great answers (Gardiner, 2013). great tractors are because you need to sell
tractors. Thinking about things laterally
4. Lateral Thinking opens up a world of possibilities. Try looking
This refers to giving a situation a different at the bigger picture.
look. It involves solving problems linearly; Tractors are a key component to farming,
for example, a situation occurred because farming produces food and resources.
of .. However, the easiest answer is not Farms also house animals. A popular
always the correct one. According to de children’s rhyme about farm animals is Old
Bono (1999), during lateral thinking, one McDonald, you may wonder how that
has to step aside and look at the situation rhyme came to be. Why not create content
differently. around the origin of that rhyme?”

Image 4:2: Illustration to show lateral thinking17

5. Random Word Generation

Here you are required to pick two random dictionary; or write words on plastic balls,
words by using an online generator, a throw them into the air, and then select the

17 Source:[Link]
 132

words on the balls you catch first (Gardiner,

2013).

Image 4:3: Random Word Generation18

Then develop a story around the photo;

6. Change Perspective how it was taken, and you should work
This involves putting yourself in other backwards.
people’s shoes. It helps to look at work
from a different angle. This is because you An example of picture association by
may be too attached to your work and also (Gardiner, 2013)
too close to notice faults in it. Alternatively, “If you see a picture of a dog looking up at
you can get other people to look at your the night sky, ask yourself what it could be
ideas. This will help in getting constructive thinking. Is it a stargazing dog? Does that
criticism however you do not need to dog secretly long to be an astronaut?
integrate all the given feedback (Gardiner, Perhaps a story about a space dog would be
2013). awesome! A space dog would make a great
mascot for any business so we could look at
7. Picture Association the best business mascots. So, on so forth.”
Here you pick a random photo from an
image search on the topic of your choice.

18 Source: [Link]
 133

8. Get Up and Go Out among others. Allow the miracle of nature

to inspire and energize you. Similarly,
This involves letting your mind wander, if
meditation is another great method to
you work around screens all day, get up and
enhance creativity (Gardiner, 2013).
walk for a bit. You can take a walk around
your neighborhood, in the woods, field
3. Use some of these assumptions as
10. Questioning assumptions thought starters to generate new ideas.
Questioning assumptions at every 4. Make sure to consider all aspects of
development process brings new ideas and your business.
possibilities that hinder obstacles against
the success of the business. 11. Wishing
Bryan W. Mattimore, in his book; Idea This involves starting by looking for the
Stormers: How to Lead and Inspire Creative impossible and then look for ways to turn
Breakthroughs, tells the story of “his the impossible to possible in order to make
colleague Gary Fraser, who took over the your wish tangible. You do this by following
oral care business unit at Unilever and had the steps below.
to take on two much larger, deeply 1. Formulate 20 to 30 wishes about
entrenched competitors in the toothpaste your business with your team. Don’t limit
market, Colgate and Crest. He couldn’t your imaginations and welcome every idea.
compete with them head-to-head from a 2. Then focus on some of these
product standpoint and could not possibly impossible wishes and use them to
outspend them in marketing. The solution generate ideas.
was for Fraser and his team to question According to Mattimore (2013), you need to
every facet of their business, including think widely as a team so as to get different
product packaging, pricing, and advertising. perspectives of the challenge. This will aid
The result was the world’s first baking soda in seeing new possibilities (Frey, 2013).
and peroxide toothpaste, Mentadent, which
was very successful” (Mattimore, 2013). 12. Opportunity redefinition
This ideation technique involves first
When using this technique, Mattimore
creating a statement that simply defines
(2013) recommends the following.
your creative objective. Opportunity
1. Decide how to formulate your
redefinition helps you to see a wider range
creative challenge.
of possibilities by removing “blinders” that
2. Come up with 20 to 30 assumptions
may be restricting your vision (Frey, 2013).
either true or false surrounding that
Mattimore (2013), shares the example of
challenge.
“working with the Catholic Knights
 134

Insurance Company to help grow their 1. The facilitator/group leader gets

business. preselected images, hands them to every
“In this case, the opportunity statement team member and instructs them to write
was, “How can we sell more insurance to every idea what the images spark in their
Catholics?” minds. The preselected images should be
Next, pick three of the most interesting interesting and customized in regard to the
words in the opportunity statement and challenge at hand (Mattimore, 2013).
generate creative alternatives for each of However, to spark the most creative
them. Mattimore recommends using words solutions, the facilitator/group leader may
that represent the 5W’s and H- who, what, include some random or irrelevant images.
when, where, why and how – of your The latter is helpful when trying to generate
challenge. Once you have generated your new product ideas.
2. In pairs, participants can discuss the
three lists of alternative words, place them
ideas they wrote down and also brainstorm
in a table, with the original words at the top
possible solutions to the challenge they are
of each column and the alternatives you
tackling.
have brainstormed arranged in columns
3. Then, the pairs can present their
below them.
ideas to their groups.
Finally, redefine the opportunity by
selecting one word from each column at
14. Triggered brain walking
random, plugging them into the original
opportunity statement and creating new This technique is the most flexible one as it
variations of it. For example, “How can WE can be combined with other techniques. It
SELL more insurance to CATHOLICS?” could also allows each member of the group to
become “How can we get FRIENDS OF participate.
CATHOLICS to BE INCENTIVIZED to sell life According to Frey (2013), this is how this
insurance to CATHOLIC GRANDPARENTS?” technique works:
1. The group begins by looking at
13. Picture prompts different aspects of the problem to help
generate ideas.
This technique involves analyzing challenges
2. With the help of the
visually. It can also be referred to as
facilitator/group leader, several pieces of
visualization. Visual techniques help express paper are taped to the wall.
our intuitions, emotions, and feelings. This 3. Each participant writes their ideas
makes them suitable for brainstorming on paper, builds on their ideas and well as
solutions to challenges that have an their colleagues’. Or a group can brainstorm
emotional root or involve people and after a paper is passed on to every
(Luenendonk, 2016). group member to write their ideas. This can
This is how this technique works:
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be done when the group is seated in a 2013). Below are the steps to follow when
circular form. This technique leads to a using this idea.
team generating a variety of diverse ideas. 1. Select three sets of keywords
related to your challenge. For example, if
15. Semantic intuition your challenge is related to a consumer
product, the three sets of keywords would
This technique can be used to energize a
be, the needs of a customer, promotional
team that is exhausted towards the end of
appeals and places in a store.
brainstorming. This technique requires
2. Then generate variations for each
team members to merge several sets of
set of words.
keywords to generate the name of a new
3. Combine one word from each set
idea even if they have not yet got a new
randomly and then brainstorm a ministry
idea. Semantic intuition helps to make you
around it.
have a different perspective (Mattimore,

Image 4:4: Example of Semantic Intuition

Walt Disney uses this tactic to tackle their

16. The Disney Method (Disney’s Three projects. This method was further studied
Rooms) by NLP guru Robert Dilts who named it the
This method involves having three rooms: ‘Disney Method’. While using this method,
the dreamer, the realist and the critic one can either use three corners of a large
rooms. These rooms each provide a room or three separate rooms (Ruijter,
different perspective and stage for ideation. 2017).
 136

3) The Critic/ Spoiler

1) The Dreamer This is the last ‘room’ and it requires us to
This is the first ‘room’, and everyone comes punch holes in the ideas. Judge, improve
up with crazy new ideas. Diverse ideas are and reject ideas. Find out what possibly
encouraged without judgement. Also, the could go wrong with this idea? The
sky is the limit here (Ruijter, 2017). obstacles? The risks? among others. The
comments raised in this room become
2) The Realist/ Maker/Doer questions for dreamers. This process is
In this second ‘room’ we make those crazy repeated until you get satisfying results.
new ideas feasible. The ideas are Walt only took on ideas that survived this
re-examined to make them practical. We stage (Ruijter, 2017).
can do this by applying convergent thinking
and creating a plan to evaluate and select
these ideas (Ruijter, 2017).

Image 4:5: An illustration of Disney’s three rooms19

19 Source: [Link]
 137

Online idea generation tools

17. Worst idea
Explore as many ideas as possible as the
This technique comes in when others seem more the ideas, the better the chances of
not to be working. It can be used to re- getting a great idea. If you have not found
energize group members (Frey, 2013). any idea with the above techniques, try the
This is how the technique works: online tools below (Gardiner, 2013).
1. The participants start by creating a Google Trends
list of terrible, gross, and illegal ideas. This
These give an overview of the latest
will help re-engage and make participants
information of what the world is searching
laugh.
about.
2. After generating a list, the group
should formulate good ideas from those
Übersuggest
bad ideas. With every bad idea, there’s a
good aspect to it so focus on finding that This tool helps to provide inspiration for the
value (Frey, 2013). topics to tackle. It shows the trending
keywords related to your search.

Portent’s Content Idea Generator

This tool generates random titles related to your topic. It can also be used to generate ideas.
 138

Image 4:6: Four Rules for Ideation20

Examples of phrases to avoid during Ideation

• We tried that • Now's not the right • Burner for now.

before time. • It won't work in our
• Not enough help. • Can't teach an old place.
• It's too radical a dog new tricks. • I don't see the
change • Good thought, but connection.
• Let's get back to impractical. • Let's all sleep on it.
reality • Not that again. • It can't be done.
• That's not our • Where'd you dig • It's too much
problem that one up? trouble to change.
• I don't like the idea. • We did alright • It won't pay for
• I'm not saying without it before. itself.
you're wrong • It's never been • It's impossible.
• But tried. • I know a person
• Time. • Let's put that one who tried it and
on the back failed

20 Source: [Link]
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• Has anyone else • Let's look into it • Quit dreaming.

ever tried it? further.

Conclusion all the ideation techniques and also identify

the ideation techniques that are
Now that you know your ideation
appropriate to use in each situation.
techniques, go ahead and get as many ideas
Remember that you can use multiple idea
as you can. No idea is stupid, and some
techniques at once.
great ideas come from the worst ideas. To
get as many ideas as possible, it is very
Key Terms
important to use multiple ideation
Ideation techniques, Creativity,
techniques. The goal should not be to get
Imagination, Categorization
one idea that works but to get as many
ideas as possible and work on them to get
Problem Sets
the one big idea. While generating ideas try
to be openminded and not judgmental to 1. What do you understand by the
your team’s ideas. Allow the ideas to flow term “ideation”?
and also avoid negative phrases as those 2. List three ideation techniques your
illustrated in this chapter. At this moment team will use and reasons for choosing each
you should be able to define technique
3. Compare and contrast any two
ideation techniques of your choice.
4. How do ideation techniques help to
break categorization
 140

CHAPTER 11: USER REQUIREMENTS, VALUE FULFILMENT

BLUEPRINT, AND DARK PATTERN DESIGN
any project, especially computer system
Chapter Description projects, to be successful. This is where
many projects fail, in that they do not
At the end of this chapter, you will have
specify correctly what the system should
gained in depth knowledge on Value
do. In fact, many systems have just been
fulfilment blueprint (VFB), the various
given a deadline for delivery, a budget to
components of VFB, Personal journey map,
spend, and a vague notion of what it should
Requirements Definition, Front end actions,
do
Back end actions and support processes and
systems. The chapter dives deeper on
requirements definition and dark pattern Introduction
design. This is to help readers to design a Whether it is the sale of a book (tangible
solution that will deliver what is expected product) or the provision of a hotel service
and also to ensure that the solution is void or the running of a campaign (intangible
of any traces of dark pattern design. product), there is the need to fulfil value to
Imagine you buy a new video game and find the user. Both users and firms are often on
out that it is not what you expected it to be. a journey in search of value fulfilment. The
Very disappointing, I guess. Or imagine you journey will outline how the user goes
spend long hours at night writing code and through the process of encountering,
then it runs and gives you a different accessing, and using the solution as well as
output. That is even more frustrating. This is engaging the solution provider in after sales
what happens even with design. Every good interaction. Experiences along this journey
design should be able to deliver exactly involves value fulfillment. The journey in
what you want it to deliver, that is why it is pursuit of value fulfilment includes a
important to specify what is desired from number of sequential steps undertaken by
any system or solution you are designing. both users and firms. Thus, while the users
User requirements are what you want or are taking steps to fulfil their need for
desire from a system or solution, which you value, firms also take measures to ensure
believe will deliver you a competitive they are able to respond to the needs of the
advantage. You need to come out with a users in order to create value. The user’s
good set of user requirements needed for experience together with the firm's
 141

corresponding actions are captured in a a similar tool, the Service Blueprint from
framework called the value fulfilment marketing literature21 that seeks to unpack
blueprint (VFB). user service experience at a high level of
To build a journey map, the user experience detail. The service blueprint outlines the
is often captured in the form of a user user journey (customer actions) that a
journey map which provides the step-by- service organization needs to map out in
step outline of experience points as order to properly fulfill it. The journey map
mentioned above. The user journey will is outlined from the perspective of how the
typically be developed to unpack the user user might expect to receive value to fulfil
behavior around a solution. It will outline their needs. It then outlines actions of the
the experience points that the user company that respond visibly to the user
encounters in going through the pain points journey and another layer of actions that
or the solution points that the developer or respond invisibly (in the background) to
organization came up with. So, if a designer enable the visible actions. In our case, it is
or organization focuses on providing value important to note the requirements
at each of those experience points, the definition after outlining the user journey
designer would be fulfilling value at an so as to properly inform the company’s
optimal level for the user. actions. Finally, there is a set of systems-
related infrastructure or databases that the
Value Fulfilment Blueprint (VFB) visible and invisible fulfilment actions pull
from, which will also benefit from proper
Blueprints have been used to describe the requirements definition (Shostack, 1984).
art of building. They provide instructions for
how to develop projects and provide the
Steps to creating a VFB
necessary information that will enable
other people coming into contact with the Creating a VFB is particularly important
project to understand what it involves and because most services and goods reach the
the requirements to move it from one final consumer via a process such as the
phase to another as well as a sense of the Awareness, Interest, Decision, and Action
outcomes. The Value Fulfillment Blueprint (AIDA) model from the marketing literature.
draws from the strengths of the concept of Though, such processes in this blueprint are
the blueprint. often considered as a peculiar feature of
To ground the concept of value fulfillment services, firms producing tangible goods
in previous work, the VFB was adapted from undeniably also go through some sort of

21 Shostack, G. Lynn. "Designing Services that Deliver", Harvard Management Review, 50(3), 66–94.
[Link]
Business Review, vol. 62, no. 1 January - February 1984, pp 133–139
<Online Bitner, M. J., Ostrom, A. L., & Morgan, F. N. (2008). Service
Blueprinting: A Practical Technique for Service Innovation. California
 142

AIDA process to reach their final users that it determines the flow of both front
(distribution-to-end-users). Hence, it is and back end actions.
useful for producers (both tangible goods
and/or services) to map out and understand
The importance of the journey map
the processes involved in getting their value
(goods or tangible products service) to the Imagine you worked for Apple and were on
final user. The VFB as adapted from the the team that first developed apple music.
service blueprint comprises five main You knew that the goal was for customers
components as described above, which are to stream and download music from your
centered on the customer experience and servers, but they needed to pay you for this.
journey to finding value. The five Instead of envisioning what the customer
components reveal the various facets of the would do, you would have developed a
customer’s journey to pursuing value; journey map. This is a simple way for you to
probable point of contact with the firm’s know what the customer would do so that
employees or product (truth-test minute); you can develop something that gives
accompanying background activities; and him/her a great experience. Not to mention
support infrastructure to support the a great experience for you in terms of
creation of value. revenue.

To think of what a simple journey map

Components of Value Fulfillment would look like, you can think of starting a
Blueprint waakye stand. Putting yourself in a
customer’s shoes, you know he/she is
1. Persona Journey hungry and looking for a meal. Thus, the
Persona Journey comprises the steps that first thing in the experience is seeing a
users take as part of his/her pursuit of waakye signboard. The signboard should
value. In our case, we are focused at this have pictures of tasty looking food to
point on how the persona we developed attract customers to the stand. Within this
interacts with the solution that we stage, the decision of where to locate the
prototyped in order to derive value from it. stand would come into play. You then know
So, the team has to outline the specific the customer would want to know what
experience point before, during and after exactly there is to buy, so having a display
the persona interacts with the solution. of the food for the customer to see is
These experience points are often specified essential. After this, a price list will be
across the top of the VFB. The persona needed for the customer to budget. Once
(user) journey to assessing the value he/she has ordered, he/she needs a way to
promised, is often at the crux of the VFB, in eat, either on site or take-out. Having a
table and chair, bowls, take-out packs and
 143

cutlery is essential here, so planning of this because you did not truly empathize with
must be done. These steps will be well them. A journey map could have helped you
structured on your journey map to have realize that they would be thirsty, so they
good insight on setting up your business in would order drinks first, hence having a
the right way. drinks menu on the table first.
● In the process of iterating your idea,
Another simple train of thought for this
Apple Music journey map would be the a journey map gives guidance in knowing
where along the customer experience,
customer needs to have a form of payment
change would be affected.
(i.e., Credit card, debit, mobile money). This
● Focus on the customer and not
would be the first point of contact in the
customer journey after hearing about the yourself. You may be tempted to design a
service. Creating an account will be next, product how you want because you believe
then he/she would need to have a way to it will work. However, your experience
search for music. Once this is done, an might not be the same as other people.
option to stream and download music Thus, the journey map aids you in
should be available. empathizing with what a customer would
truly need from your product or service.
The journey map is important because it ● It aids everyone on your team to be
aids you in identifying the path that users
coherency. If everyone has ideas of how a
will travel on. Even though your map will
customer journey will look like, the journey
not necessarily detail out the perfect
map synthesizes each idea to become one
journey, it will give you good grounds to
distinct process everyone agrees on.
develop a product or service that customers
will appreciate. 2. Requirements Definition

According to Vivekanandarajah (2019), Once the persona journey has been

other importance of the journey map outlined, the second component of the VFB
include. is requirements definition along the
persona journey. Requirements definition
● Eliminating roadblocks that could tells us what the system or solution must
creep up in the customer’s experience. do, and we apply it in the VFB in terms of
● Knowing what exactly a customer what the system must do for the user in a
would want in a specific scenario way that also provides business advantage
● Understanding the true process of for the firm. We focus on functional and
how customers move through your service. nonfunctional requirements. Functional
Imagine that you own a restaurant and requirements are what you want a system
believe that customers will order their meal to do and non-functional requirements are
once they sit down. You could be wrong restrictions on the type of solutions that will
 144

meet the functional requirements. The researching, gathering first-hand

team must identify functional requirements information from people who face the
for each experience point and also identify problem and ideating on what a solution
the non-functional requirements that will could be, the entrepreneur must then think
meet the functional requirements. For of how the solution will work.
instance, when the persona (customer)
If we look at a water bottle (bel-aqua for
orders, the system should store the
example), we are used to its shape and size
customer and order details (functional
because most water bottles look like that.
requirements).
After using water bottles almost every day
of our lives, we know the value of the
The details should be specified, e.g., order
bottle. This value is however understated.
details captured in 3 secs (non-functional
In this case of functional requirements
requirements), so the needed information
definitions, picture a world where bottles
is stored. Non-functional requirements also
do not exist yet. The only way people drink
break into performance and development
water is by pouring water from taps into
constraints. Performance constraints are
bowls and then consuming. Also, people
how the system should perform when it is
drink water hand to mouth in this world
delivered. Performance constraints may
(find a tap, fetch with your hand and pour
include some development constraints such
into your mouth). Now as an entrepreneur,
as the time the solution should be
you realize this is a problem and after all
delivered, how much money is needed to
your research, you ideate on a solution that
develop the solution and quality standards
could help people have water with them on
used to develop the solution including
the go.
project management, development
methods etc. Development constraints also
include design objectives which assist in
At this point, you do not have a clear idea
selecting a solution from several alternative
on what the solution is, but you can analyze
solutions which meets a specified criterion.
what the product must do. Since customers
are on the go, the product must be easily
The importance of functional requirements accessible (i.e., Must be easy to carry). Then
you realize that customers would want to
Every product or service operates in ways physically see if their water is clean, so they
that deliver value to a customer. If a trust the product. Also, you foresee that the
product did not work or “function”, it would product must hold water securely and not
not even be purchased in the first place. spill and must be able to withstand certain
When a problem is first discovered and an temperatures.
entrepreneur seeks to solve it by
 145

Knowing these things (keeping in mind that have in order to provide a valuable solution
we do not know what the product will look to problems.
like) we can create functional requirements. ● They help in the creative thinking of
It is with these requirements that overtime a designer and help avoid creative blocks in
aid you in developing a final product. design. Salustri (2015), states that a bad
example of a functional requirement is to
If we look at a bottle cap and its design in
our example’s context, we can assume that state the exact material a product should
have. Instead of saying that your product
it was developed through a functional
should use plastic, rather say it should use a
requirement that states the product must
hold water securely and avoid spillage. It durable material that can withstand certain
temperatures.
could also have been developed through
● These requirements can also guide
another requirement that focuses on the
user drinking water easily. you in avoiding mistakes. If you start
developing a product without having
Filippo Salustri, a Canadian researcher gives detailed out what the product must do, you
good examples on what good vs bad can end up missing something essential.
functional requirements sound like. If we This could lead to wasting resources like
need a product that helps users drink Milo money and time.
in the mornings, we know that coffee would ● Again, functional requirements aid
most likely be drunk hot (maybe even cold).
designers to empathize with potential
In in developing a requirement, you can
users, thus developing a well-needed
state that:
product or service.
The container must be able to sustain hot
3. Front End Actions
and cold temperatures. In this instance, the
container is mentioned as opposed to cup The front-end actions are the next
or jug because we do not want any creative important aspect of the blueprint. These
blocks. Cup or jug will automatically have us actions include the face-to-face interactions
thinking about what the product will look employees make with users in the delivery
like and be able to do and will limit the of value for service and contact with the
requirements that follow in your goods, in the case of tangible products. It is
definitions, hence producing something at this stage that the “truth-test minute”
without unique value. occurs. This is the moment that users get an
opportunity to assess whether the firm is
Thus a few importances of functional offering the value promised by coming into
requirements are: direct contact with the goods or service.
● They help the entrepreneur know
what key features the product/service must
 146

4. Back End Actions After being greeted at the door, you walk to
Back end actions mostly comprise activities take a seat and get approached by a waiter
that are not visible to the customers. These to take your order. This is another front
are usually activities that employees stage action. The waiter must be
undertake in preparation to offer value to appropriately dressed, address you
users. respectfully, have a pen and paper to take
your order and may have a few
How front and backstage actions support recommendations or specials for you to try
touchpoints on the customer journey. out. This is a front-end action because you
can see what is happening. This is a point
If you want to have a nice bowl of fufu and on your journey at which you are physically
light soup on a Saturday afternoon with interacting with some part of a product or
your friends, that sounds like a lot of fun for service.
you. All you need to do is find a restaurant,
sit down, eat, pay and leave. However, for When the waiter takes your order to the
the restaurant, a lot of processes go into chef, this is a backstage action. This is of
making this experience worthwhile for you, high importance along your journey
so you appreciate it and come back another although you cannot physically see this part
time. of the process but have some awareness
that it is happening. Preparing the meal
Picturing yourself as the customer, you comes with smells, coordination among
head to La Fancy Restaurant in East Legon kitchen staff, a lot of hustle and bustle and
with Kwame and Briggs. La Fancy is a three- heat. This is done behind the scenes and
star hotel and is very popular for their good away from paying customers because it is
tasting local meals. When you arrive, you not an experience the customer intends to
are greeted by the doorman who opens the have. The customer wants a serene
door for you and makes you feel welcome. environment where he can have peace to
That is a front stage action. have conversations.
A front stage action is a physical interaction
between a customer and a service. Usually,
the customer interacts with an employee. It Once the order is ready, the waiter delivers
is a visible and interactive moment in the it to the customer’s table, which is
customer’s journey. These actions are what considered as another front-end action,
provide a customer with satisfaction and since the customer interacts with the waiter
help the customer see the value in the again. After your meal, you head to the
product or service he/she is using. front desk to pay for your meal. The point
where you give your cash to the manager is
a front stage action, but when he/she is
 147

processing your payment on the computer, what the processes will be when developing
that is a backstage action since you have no a business idea.
part in that interaction.
5. Support Processes and Systems
After all this, you leave and are once again
saluted by the doorman, giving you a smile The final aspect of the VFB is to determine
and making you feel like a return to the the support processes and systems
restaurant will happen soon. necessary for the execution of value. These
are mostly the infrastructural requirements
Along the customer journey, many front needed to facilitate the provision of the
stage and backstage actions occur which goods or services
deliver value. It is important to detail out

Image 11:1: VFB for overnight Hotel Stay service

 148

user goes through to know about the

The VFB can be said to provide 3 main solution, decide to use it, use it and then
advantages: whatever the user does after use. Hence, it
1. A step-by-step outline which helps might be slightly different from the journey
examine the complex interactions between map that was created during analysis in the
the persona and the idea concept. design process but will definitely be
2. It also provides an opportunity to strongly connected to it. (We often
improve on the experiences and creating a encourage the team to redo/adapt their
sustainable process to ensure repeatability. design journey to fit the solution
3. Allowing consideration of the experience).
system that shapes and supports the ● Since the VFB is based on the
customer’s experience with the brand. journey map of solution experience and the
journey map is focused on the before
Key Summary Points (The Value during and after of the solution experience,
fulfillment & Service Blueprint) the VFB also outlines the actions the team
needs to take to ensure that they are
● Value Fulfillment Blueprint is an fulfilling the value touch points in the user
adaptation of the Service Blueprint, a journey for maximum impact on the user.
common framework used in mapping out ● It is important to incorporate the
organizational response to customer
Requirements Definition in the VFB to
actions in the service industry (Bitner,
optimize on value delivery. Requirements
Ostrom and Morgan, 2007).
definition comprises the functional and
● It helps design teams to quickly map non-functional requirements. Functional
out the implementation outline of creative requirements need to be identified by the
solutions, leveraging the customer journeys team for each experience point and non-
they created during the design process and functional requirements identified to meet
also before they develop a business model the functional requirement.
canvas. ● Also, since the VFB was originally
● We use Value Fulfillment Blueprint created for service value, it can be difficult
instead of Service Blueprint because our to apply to products. Students often
focus is on value delivery and it is easier to struggle with what a ‘before’ and ‘after’ of a
model it for use for Products as well. The product experience is. Note to make is that
key feature of the VFB is the customer for products, the ‘before’ is the steps the
journey map (customer actions): This is the user goes through to learn about the
journey map of how the user uses the product and make a choice (the typical
solution that the team has developed. In production adoption process/cycle). The
other words, the ideal experience that the ‘after’ is what the user does to ‘keep in
 149

touch’ with the product use experience ● The VFB is an important step before
(e.g., of a question for team is ‘should they the business model canvas (BMC). It forces
develop a user community for the product the team to think about what they need to
so that the users will share stories on do to acquire customers, fulfill the need
use?’). they found and sustain the customer
● The Physical Evidence line in the VFB lifetime value as much as possible. After
can be a distraction for value modelling and successfully developing VFB, the BMC is
should be avoided if possible, at this early typically a breeze because some BMC
stage. However, physical evidence is components are identified in the VFB.
incredibly valuable if ambience influences Trying to identify the employee actions also
the value. helps the team come to terms with how to
● Support services make more sense if build capacity (e.g., what to do in-house
explained as infrastructure, user database, and what to outsource (all of which affects
order processing system, logistics system or the cost/revenue equation components on
any implemented system. the BMC)).
 150

Image 11:2: Example of a Blueprint22

want or desire from a system. For example,

Requirements Definition when running a business, look at, “what do
According to Coley Consulting (2019), a customers want or look out for from my
requirement aids in specifying what you system, which I believe will deliver me a

22 Source: [Link]
 151

business advantage". The advantages of this requirements. There are two types of Non-
are a reduction in costs and time for functional requirements: Performance
processing. constraints and development constraints
(Watt, 2012).
Classification of requirements
Performance Constraints

1. Functional Requirements This refers to constraints of “how the

system should perform when it is
This refers to characteristics you require the
delivered”. The washing machine example,
system to portray. Functional requirements
without any constraints, might result in
are focused on the “WHAT, not the HOW.
solutions being offered for everything from
That is, WHAT the system will deliver, not
drying, ironing, folding. To restrict the types
HOW it will be delivered” (Coley Consulting,
of solutions you might include these
2019).
performance constraints:
For example, the functional requirements
● It should take a laundry load of 5kg.
for designing washing machines for a
● The drum must always be covered
business can be:
● before washing.
The capacity of the machine; should
be holding a specific number of clothes at Development Constraints
the same time.
These are constraints done by mainly
● The time it takes to finish washing. project managers to restrict the types of
solutions offered. Development constraints
2. Non-Functional Requirements can be classified in three types (Coley
Imagine having a washing machine that can Consulting, 2019).
also serve as a cooker. Sounds weird right. Resource - The amount of money available
Nonfunctional requirements are the to develop the system.
restrictions or constraints to be placed on Time - Period taken to deliver the system.
the system and how to build it. Their Quality - The standards based on to
purpose is to restrict the number of develop the system like project
solutions that will meet a set of defined development methods.
 152

Image 11:3: Differences between Functional and Non-functional requirements23

Verification: Determine how you will verify

Tips for writing a good requirement a requirement. Decide on the criteria for
acceptance. This will show whether that
A good requirement should be necessary,
requirement is verifiable or not.
attainable, verifiable, and have clarity
(Hooks, 1993).
Attainable: The requirement should fit
Necessity: Ask yourself “What is the worst
within the budget, schedule, and other
thing that could happen if this requirement
constraints. It should be feasible. You need
were not included? If you fail to answer this
to carry out a feasibility study if uncertain of
question, then that requirement is not
the feasibility of the requirement.
necessary.

23 Source: [Link]
 153

Clarity: The requirement should be simple, make profits. They use their dark pattern
concise and easily understandable. It should design as a bait to their users.
be easily expressed in a single thought.
Dark pattern design examples by
Dark Pattern Design Fagerstrom (2019)24
A report released by Norwegian Consumer 1. Credit card-required free trial
Council (Forburkerrådet) reveals that some
tech companies are using dark patterns to “Most sites give you the option to do a free
discourage us from exercising our rights to trial before subscribing to their sites. Using
privacy. Dark pattern design appears to be the free trial requires you to again give
innocent but are they ethical? Are you using them your credit card details, how then is it
dark pattern design in the name of offering free? During the account setup process,
a great user experience? you’re asked to provide your credit card
info. You don’t think it’s a problem as the
Definition sign-up form has a big text saying, “FREE
Dark Patterns are interfaces that are TRIAL”. You willingly offer your credit card
carefully designed to intentionally confuse details and created a trial account. After the
users to follow a path different from the free trial, the company secretly converts
one they wanted to take. They are your trial account to a regular paid account
deliberately designed to neglect the user’s and deducts a fee every month from your
needs and rather reach a company’s bank account. Most of us can certainly
objectives (Cieplinska, 2019). For instance, relate to this. Companies use this to convert
clicking fake buttons or unwittingly their leads to paying customers. They make
extending payment. Apart from these, tech it so easy to sign up for an account, make
companies design their product in a way the fine prints unnoticeable. Everything is
that its users easily become addicted to it. aligned to the laws. The worst part is — they
According to Fagerstrom (2018), businesses make it difficult for their users to terminate
that are using dark pattern design are only the subscription.”
concerned with designing their products to

24 Source:[Link]
10clouds/5-common-ux-dark-patterns-interfaces-designed-to-
trick-you-61fdede9718c
 154

Image 11:4: Example Credit card-required free trial

2. Signing you up for promotion emails before sending them any marketing
automatically material. Customers can uncheck the box
and reject such mails but most times the
“If you check the promotion part of your
text is so small, most customers would not
mails after signing up to Jumia or Amazon,
notice their option and once they click on
you will understand this well. The new
Check Out, the company would get one
European GDPR requires that businesses
more email on their ever-growing mailing
must obtain their users’ explicit consent
list.”

Image 11:5: Example automatic email sign up

 155

3. Misleading Popup your solution is void of any form of dark

Sometimes, while surfing through the web, pattern design. From the above examples of
a phone advert may just pop up on your dark design patterns, you have seen how
screen. It requires you to “Sign Up” but the bad those designs are to users. What can
“No, thanks button” is rarely visible. In you do to make your design ethical? Put this
order to get rid of this pop-up message, question at the back of your mind when
most visitors give in their email addresses. A trying to design a product for your users. As
better and ethical design should have a an ethical designer, you should focus on a
clearly visible “No, thanks” button right product that gives your users a better
next to the “Sign-Up” button. experience.

Conclusion Key words

In conclusion, VFB is useful in providing Requirements, Dark pattern design, Value

instructions for developing your projects. It fulfillment Blueprint, Personal Journey
will also help to provide information about
your product. This will enable other people Problem sets
coming into contact with the project to
1. Create a VFB for your project?
understand it. Furthermore, with the
2. What are user requirements?
knowledge you have obtained about user
3. How will you practice ethical design
requirements, you can go ahead to specify
in your business venture?
the set of deliverables you want for your
4. Differentiate between functional
system. Remember to let your users
and nonfunctional user requirements?
prioritize their requirements so that you do
not design something they will not value.
This will also be a great time to ensure that
 156

CHAPTER 12: WIREFRAMING AND PROTOTYPING

design thinking process. Prototyping is the
Chapter Description fourth stage of the design thinking process.
At the end of this chapter, one should be After the ideation stage, you have a lot of
able to define prototyping, understand the ideas and you may like to pursue some of
prototyping process, gain insights on how these ideas. Prototyping is the process of
they can design a prototype, understand producing an early, less expensive, and
why it is important to come out with a simpler version of the product in order to
prototype for the final product and, be able reveal any problems with the current
to differentiate between a wireframe and a design.
prototype. Additionally, one will learn and Closely linked to prototyping; wireframing.
get to explore the various tools used for A wireframe creates the structure and
wireframing either manually or using online backbone of your entire project making it
apps/tools. Also, one will understand what easier to, later on, build individual parts. In
to keep in mind while wireframing or simple terms, a wireframe is a low-fidelity,
prototyping. How can team members in simplified outline of your product stripped
different locations prototype or wireframe? of any visual design or branding features.
This chapter introduces the topic of remote Wireframes can be compared to skeletons;
prototyping which is suitable for such team they loosely shape the final product thereby
members. Finally, one will understand giving you a fair idea of how the final
which kind of venture or project needs a product will be. A wireframe is like a
prototype or wireframe. And which tools blueprint in the design process that should
will be favorable in developing such a not be skipped, just as you would not build
prototype or wireframe. a house without a blueprint (Yadav, 2019).

Introduction Prototype

Imagine after your intensive research A prototype is a simple experimental model

process, you design an amazing product and of a proposed solution used to test or
send it to the market absolutely positive validate ideas, design assumptions and
that it is going to satisfy the needs of your other aspects of its conceptualization
users only to realize that they do not like quickly and cheaply so that the designer/s
the product features. That will be a lot of involved can make appropriate refinements
time and resources wasted! This loss would or possible changes in direction.
have been avoided by Prototyping. A common characteristic of most
Remember we saw prototyping in the prototypes is tangibility. They can take so
many different forms. They can be just
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about anything. Examples could be simple Importance of Prototyping

sketches or storyboards used to illustrate a
proposed experiential solution, rough paper 1. To back up early research
prototypes of digital interfaces, and even
You may be wondering why you need to do
role-playing to act out a service offering an
a prototype when you already did research
idea. They need not to be complete
at the early stages of design thinking. The
products: You can choose a part of your
truth is research carried out at the early
solution and prototype it (like testing the
stages of your Design Thinking project does
steering wheel of a car alone) to test that
not inform you enough in order to create
specific part of your solution.
the optimal solution. Irrespective of
whether you have researched thoroughly
Prototyping comes in here to provide a set
and gathered a large body of information,
of tools and approaches for properly testing
or whether your ideation sessions have
and exploring ideas before too many
resulted in what many perceive as a mind-
resources get used. Most people can trace
blowing solution, testing is still important
the art of prototyping back to childhood, we
for success. Design teams may become too
replicated real-world objects with simple
focused on the research artefacts they have
materials such as paper, card, and
gathered during the earlier phases of
modelling clay or just about anything else
exploration thereby creating a bias towards
we could get our hands-on. This is the same
their ideas. Creating and testing your
as the early rough prototypes we come up
prototypes can reveal assumptions and
with at the early stages of testing (Dam &
biases you have towards your ideas and
Siang, 2019).
uncover insights about your users that you
can use to improve your solutions or create
“If a picture is worth a thousand words,
new ones (Dam & Siang, 2019).
then a prototype is worth a thousand
meetings.”
(Kelley, 2018). 2. To Empathise, Define, Ideate, and
Test
Prototypes can take two dimensions: You can and should prototype at various
stages of the design thinking process.
1. Quick and rough - Usually used for
Prototyping can serve as an ideation
early-stage testing.
method since it allows you, as well as users,
2. Fully formed and detailed- This is
to explore alternative solutions.
commonly used for pilot trials or testing
This is because prototypes are physical
towards the end of the project (Dam &
representations of your solutions, and thus
Siang, 2019).
prototyping allows you to think by doing.
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“Thinking by doing” helps in deriving more Design Thinking Bootcamp Bootleg Toolkit
value from research, ideation, testing lists bias towards action as one of the
among others (Dam & Siang, 2019). essential mindsets for Design Thinking.
“Design thinking is a misnomer; it is more
Purposes of prototypes: about doing than thinking. Bias toward
doing and making over-thinking and
● Exploring and Experimentation meeting.”– d. school
Prototypes can be used to explore
problems, ideas, and opportunities within a With design thinking, you cannot over
specific area of focus and test out the analyze or over think the problem because
impact of little and progressive or radical it requires that you investigate each
changes (Dam & Siang, 2019). assumption through active testing, instead
● Inspiring and Motivating of theoretically thinking it through.
Prototypes help you to sell new ideas, Controlled experiments help to prove or
motivate internal or external stakeholders disprove your assumptions (Dam & Siang,
to buy-in or agree with your idea, or inspire 2019).
markets toward radical new ways of
thinking and doing (Dam & Siang, 2019). Creative Serendipity
● Engaging, Testing, and Experiencing In their book Creative Confidence, David
You can use prototypes to engage with end- and Tom Kelley, founders of international
users or stakeholders, in a manner that design firm IDEO discuss the importance of
opens you up to deeper revelations, insights cultivating creative serendipity. They
and more valuable experiences, to inform encourage the adoption of approaches that
design decisions going forward (Dam & help create an epiphany-friendly
Siang, 2019). environment within oneself. What happens
● Learning and Understanding is this: when you deeply immerse yourself
Prototypes can help you better understand within your subject of interest, you open up
the complexities of a problem, product, or opportunities for happy accidents. The
system by physically engaging with them Kelleys bring out instances of people who
and identifying what makes them work or made breakthroughs not by thinking
fail (Dam & Siang, 2019). through solutions but by trying things and
figuring them out. One of the best ways to
learn about the positive and negative
How Prototyping Works
dynamics of your solution is to take physical
Bias Towards Action action, by experimenting with and exploring
components of the potential solutions.
Prototyping helps you bring your ideas into
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a tangible plane, which will help you and the form of sketches on a napkin, role-
your team to see and discuss the playing or anything that allows turning your
advantages and disadvantages, to learn ideas into tangible and testable (Dam &
from users’ feedback, and to create Siang, 2019).
opportunities for creative serendipity
(Kelley & Kelley, 2013). Types of Prototyping
There are basically two types of
Learning by Doing
prototyping.
According to Dam & Siang (2019), Design
Thinking allows you to explore unknown
Low Fidelity Prototyping
possibilities and uncover unknown insights.
As a result, design thinking emphasizes the This involves using an incomplete model of
importance of learning using activities that the final product with just a few features
increase the learning potential of the team. that will be found in the final product. It
It will help you boost action-oriented may be made out of materials not intended
learning by experimenting and exploring for the finished product like wood or paper.
the proposed solutions in order to Examples of low fidelity prototypes are
understand what problems may exist with storyboarding, Sketching, card sorting, and
the assumptions behind those solutions. As wizard of Oz. Low fidelity prototyping has
such, your team can iterate rapidly, the following advantages
modifying your test models and moving you ● It is easy to make.
closer and closer to the goal. ● It is inexpensive.
● Enables the designer to get an
The Take-Away overall view of the product using minimal
time and effort.
Sometimes we forget to establish a
● Users find it easier to interact with a
connection between our ideas and the user
low fidelity prototype.
and only focus on brainstorming, planning
and implementing our ideas. We then
Disadvantage
realize that the assumptions upon which we
Since Low fidelity prototyping lacks more
based our solutions might have been
features of the final product, it may not
wrong. This leads to significant wastes of
properly inform the designer (Dam & Siang,
time and resources. Prototyping helps
2019).
prevent this. Prototyping quickly, and
frequently, is the best way to test your
High Fidelity Prototyping
assumptions, learn about users, and
improve on your ideas. Prototypes can be in High fidelity prototyping involves using a
prototype that has most of the features and
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functionality of the final product. It allows Do not place too much value on your
users to interact with the prototype in a prototype so that it becomes difficult to
similar way they will interact with the final change its features or discard it when
model. An example of a high-fidelity necessary. Remember it is just a prototype
prototype could be creating a 3D model of a and not a final version of the product. It is
car (Dam & Siang, 2019). subject to changes and even thrashing. To
High fidelity prototyping is advantageous in avoid this, it will be better to start with
that cheap and fast prototypes. Preferably low
● It is engaging because users can fidelity prototypes. This reduces the
have a feel of exactly what the final product chances of you putting a lot of value on the
will look like, and the designer will be able prototype.
to judge how well it meets the wants,
needs, and expectations of the user. Avoid wasting time on pitching your
● It also allows the designer to get prototype
feedback with a high level of validity and Avoid explaining a lot when presenting your
applicability. prototype. If you have to explain a lot of
High fidelity prototyping is disadvantageous things about your prototype, your user will
in that not be interacting well with the product
● because you will be interrupting their
It is expensive to create.
interaction. As a result, you will not be able
● Coming up with a high-fidelity
to get the insights that you had to get from
prototype is time-consuming (Dam & Siang,
the user's interaction with the prototype. If
2019).
you find out that you have a lot of
explaining to do about your prototype, then
What to Avoid During Prototyping? that should already tell you that the
Avoid diving into the first promising idea prototype has issues. Have a bias towards
you come up with during prototyping. action, instead of telling them what to do,
Test many options within your idea, do not create a prototype that allows them to do
throw away any ideas until you have tested what they want to do.
them. This gives you room and inspiration
to create more ideas or merge a few Avoid Prototyping without a purpose
solutions into a better and more successful Even though the overall objective of
one, by testing alternative ideas and making prototyping is to test the viability of a
quick and dirty prototypes. product when it is important to ask yourself
“Why am I creating this prototype” during
Avoid getting too attached to your prototyping. Have a purpose. It may be to
prototype. test an assumption, test the usability of
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your product or some other purpose. the process because it gives you the
Having a purpose for your prototype opportunity to see exactly what your final
informs you about what kind of prototype product will look like. If you cannot build
you will be making. your prototype on your own, you may seek
professional help to do it. Remember it is
Stages of Prototyping okay to make mistakes and correct them
along the way.
Now that you are all warmed up to build
your prototype, find below some steps you
can follow to help you come up with a good
Remote Prototyping
prototype This refers to creating prototypes by teams
who are in different locations and are not
Create a sketch of your concept on paper able to meet physically. Working remotely
Sometimes, you may get amazing ideas but has become the new norm because of the
because you failed to write them down, you COVID19 pandemic. Team members who
realize that you later forget what you had in are in their respective homes because of
mind or maybe you will not be able to situations like COVID19 can prototype by
remember all about it at a later date. It is following the steps below.
therefore important to visualize your ideas ● After coming up with the idea for
on paper. It gives you room to put down as your prototype. Discuss and assign among
many ideas as you want and at a faster team members who will be responsible for
pace. building the various parts of the prototype.
● Each team member should
Develop a virtual prototype physically build the assigned part of the
Now that you have your paper prototype, prototype and take pictures to share with
transfer and create a digital sketch of the the group.
same concept. A digital representation of ● Photoshop all the images of the
your prototype makes it look more real and
different parts of the prototype together to
makes it easier for you to have a better
create a complete design. Use platforms
view of what the final prototype will look
like; online collaborative tools like Google
like. You could do this by sketching your
Slides, Mural and Miro, design online tools
prototype on the computer or creating a 3D
like SolidWorks and AutoCAD and also,
print of it.
remote applications like TensorFlow for
JavaScript using Lego Mindstorms and
Build a physical prototype
TechViz. These platforms can both be used
Now you are ready to build your physical
on laptops and mobile phones if given
prototype. This is the most exciting part of
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access to the camera, accelerometer and ● If you want to easily make changes
other sensors. to your wireframe, then it is advisable to
draw it with paper and a pencil, or at a
whiteboard. This helps you to make early
adjustments after feedback is given.
WIREFRAMES ● Paper-prototypes can help you test
with end-users at every stage of ideation
Similarly, to a prototype, a wireframe is a
and design because it is easier and cheaper
low-fidelity, simplified outline of your
to make changes at this stage than changes
product stripped of any visual design or
whose necessity is first discovered after
branding features.
coding is underway.
● After using paper wireframes,
The three main Purposes of progressing to software wireframes enables
Wireframes you to keep track of more detailed actions
● Presents the information that will be (Allabarton, 2019).
expected on the page
● Gives an outline of the structure and Deciding on your Wireframe Process
layout of the page Different UX designers approach the task of
● Conveys overall direction and wireframing in different ways. Some use
description of the user interface online apps or tools while others draw by
(Fanguy,2018). hand. Most times, the decision to either use
hand or online apps and tools depends on
Examples of Wireframes requirements of a particular approach and
not the UX designer’s individual preference
It will be helpful to look at some examples
(Allabarton, 2019).
of wireframes before you start designing
your own wireframe. This will give you
Below are steps different designers
some inspiration for your own wireframes
structure the wireframing process from
and also open you up to a variety of ways of
design to implementation (Allabarton,
creating them. Some people draw their
2019):
wireframes by hand, others feel more
comfortable using software like
1. Wireframe - Interactive Prototype -
InvisionApp, or Balsamiq. You should
Visual – Design
choose whichever works for you. However,
2. Sketch – Code
keep the following in mind when deciding
3. Sketch - Wireframe - Hi-Def
on your wireframe creation process
Wireframe - Visual – Code
(Allabarton, 2019):
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4. Sketch - Wireframe - Visual -Code ● The intended user and business

goals when interacting with this page?
Which Tools Are Best for ● How can the content be organized
Wireframing? to support these goals?
● Where should your main message
According to Allabarton (2019), there are so
many free tools for creating wireframes and and logo go?
● What should the user see first when
prototypes. Try out as many as you can to
find the ones that will work for you. arriving at the page?
Remember you can also use a pen and ● Where is the call to action?
paper. Below are examples of these tools ● What will the user expect to see in
certain areas of the page? (Allabarton,
UXPin 2019).
It has a wide range of functionalities and
facilitates the creation of responsive Filling in The Details
clickable wireframes directly in your
Now that you have got blocks of your
browser.
wireframe in place, it’s time to key in the
details. We would advise working from top
InVision
to bottom and then left to right.
It allows you to get feedback straight from
It is also important to define the following
your team and users through clickable
elements in your wireframe:
mock-ups of your site design.
● Usability conventions, such as
[Link] putting the navigation at the top next to
Provides you with the technology to create your logo, having a search box on the top
wireframes quickly within your browser, the right, and so on.
online version of pen and paper. ● Spacing and layout.
● The hierarchy of the information:
Building the Blocks of Your What’s more important than what?
● What are your calls to action?
Wireframe
● Images: Where and what size?
If you are wireframing with an online tool,
● Trust-building elements: What do
the same principle applies, get the blocks of
you need to build trust in your customers
your wireframe on the page first before
and where would be the best place to put
thinking about anything else.
these elements? (Allabarton, 2019).
To do this, think about:
 164

Key principles of wireframing the public, unlike the wireframe which is

most often used by the designer (Hannah,
● The wireframe should provide clarity
2019).
on what the what that site page is about,
what the user can do there, and if it
satisfies their needs.
Conclusion
● Easy navigation through the How you prototype/wireframe or what you
wireframe. The calls to actions should be choose as your prototype/wireframe
clear on your wireframe as it will help users depends largely on the kind of venture you
build confidence about your brand. are operating or on the kind of project you
● Avoid too much noise on your are working on. Most times, your
wireframe. It can be distracting to have too prototype/wireframe will provide you with
much information, copy, links among others valuable insights which will go a long way to
(Allabarton, 2019). inform the features of the final product.
When in doubt about any feature of your
desired final product, make it part of the
Difference between a wireframe and
prototype/wireframe to test it. Remember
a prototype
not to limit yourself to any tools, try as
If you have already done prototyping, you many as possible to achieve a good
might be tempted to think that there is no prototype/wireframe for your idea. While
difference between a wireframe and a doing this, keep in mind the needs of your
prototype. Both of them are parts of the user.
design process but they are not the same.
They both serve unique and distinctive Key Words
purposes in the design thinking process.
The difference often stems from how much Prototyping, Prototype, Low-fidelity, High-
they resemble the final product (Fanguy, fidelity, wireframing, wireframes,
2018). A wireframe is a skeleton of your
final product. It is the base that provides Problem Sets
you with a general idea of what you are
1. What do you understand by the
building. A wireframe makes it easier to
terms prototyping and wireframing?
transition to a prototype. Prototypes, on
2. Do you think prototyping and
the other hand, are a more visual
wireframing are important or not and why?
representation of your final product. Think
3. What do you understand by the
of them as nearly formed bodies with
phrase “If a picture is worth a thousand
moldable skin and facial features. They are
words, a prototype is worth a thousand
not the final product but may be shown to
pictures?”
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CHAPTER 13: BUSINESS MODEL CANVAS (BMC) AND

MINIMUM VIABLE PRODUCT (MVP).
companies with a lot of funding and well-
Introduction
established identities also failed at
By this stage, you have developed a BMC launching products because they used
and have been able to or trying to figure wrong approaches in taking new products
out if it makes money (or is sustainable if it to the market (Blank, 2005).
is a social venture) or not. If not, you have
been able to innovate your business to find Business Model
the optimum revenue over cost. Now, you
The Business Model refers to how firms
are ready to test the underlying create/deliver/capture value. Imagine you
assumptions for your VFB and the BMC you start growing tomatoes and you want to
have made from the start. innovate a business model selling tomatoes
Here, the emphasis is on identifying directly to consumers bypassing retailers or
assumptions across the VFB and canvas and wholesalers. Which of the business models
developing a set of hypotheses for the will you be able to apply to yourself from
assumptions. This is relevant because other businesses? There are several
bringing a new product to the market is business models like; Direct sales model,
always risky. You do not want to waste time Loyalty business models, Monopolistic
and money building a product no one will business model, Multi-level marketing
want to buy. So, to reduce the risk, you can business model, Bricks and Click Business
first develop a minimum viable product model, Online auction business model,
(MVP) to test your assumptions. Professional open-source model,
Subscription business model among others.
The process of developing an MVP and
The concept of Business model focuses on
testing it to reduce risk is couched in a
“how” How will you sell your tomatoes?
broader concept of Customer Development
Which of the business models or
developed by Steve Blank, Silicon Valley
combination of business models are you
educator and serial entrepreneur. Blank
going to acquire to the selling of tomatoes?
realized how, not just start-ups, but big
 166

How will you differentiate yourself from customer needs, future services and the
others? model itself. You do this by iteration.

The mission- why Example

The model- how Taking an example of Koko King in
The plan- what? Ghana. From having Hausa koko in a normal
rubber bag, Koko King brought a new
You have to step outside the box and bring packaging to Hausa koko. It helped to target
the how that creates value for your a different set of customers who would not
customers. Steven Blank came up with the consume the one in the rubber bag. For
Business model. According to Blank, (2005), example, the guy in the picture below
when you’re a startup you have a lot of would most likely not buy the one in the
unknowns, you can run straight to business rubber bag because it would be disastrous if
plan, you need to develop a business it spills on him.
model, test it, validate the unknowns about

Image 13:1: Hausa Koko

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Image 13:2: Business Model Canvas25

The Business model Canvas has 9 building than the cost structure. After validating
blocks as seen in the above image. These 9 your BMC, you now have the data to
Building blocks were developed by Alex develop the Business plan. The Business
Osterwalder. These blocks can help you plan structure is provided by Business
design any business model. A good BMC is Model Canvas (Cowan, 2017).
one where the revenue streams are higher

25 Source: [Link]
 168

Image 13:3: Business Model Canvas for Social Impact 26

innovation related to the business model

Innovating the Business Model canvas. Usually, what comes to mind when
Canvas most people hear about innovation is
changing the features of a product or
Talking about the business model canvas, it
service to fit current market trends.
is important to look at the 10 types of

26 Source: [Link]
 169

However, it goes way beyond that. There It is therefore important for small
are several aspects of an organization that businesses to innovate its business models
needs innovation as the organization to be able to make profit to sustain the
progresses. Focus on innovating only some business and also to innovate all other
core parts of the business may lead to aspects of the business.
business failure. In response to this, Doblin
consultancy came up with the ten- ● Network
innovation framework. This framework The focus here is on the business creating
helps to ensure that innovation cuts across connections that can help the company
all aspects of the business and not just take advantage of some resources that
some of its core elements. These ten other firms or partners can offer.
innovations can be divided into three which Globalization and the internet have made it
include possible for people and businesses to
● Configuration collaborate beyond barriers of distance and
● Offering time. Now, firms can tap into the processes,
● Experience technologies, channels, products and
brands of other firms to improve on their
innovations.
Configuration
This type of innovation is related to the core ● Structure
activities of the business. Elements of Another important aspect of the
configuration makeup the backend of the organization that needs innovation is the
innovation process and act like the organizational structure. Organizational
foundation of the business. It involves structure involves everything from
innovating the internal elements of the organizational design, competencies and
business and its business model. There are assets to incentives and management
four types of innovation under structures. A business has to continually
configuration. improve on its internal assets and human
resources to create more value. The way a
● Profit Model business will innovate its organizational
structure will depend on the nature of the
This is one of the most important business and the goal the business seeks to
components of an innovation especially for- achieve.
profit making companies. Usually, firms
acquire a cost when providing goods and ● Process
services to customers. Also, innovation This type of innovation focuses on
requires that a business incurs certain costs. improving the internal processes of the
 170

company to create more value. Such the flow of activities within the firm. This
processes may include activities relating to will improve the firm's ability to provide
supply chain and logistics. Improving a better goods and services and also help the
firm's internal processes helps to speed up firm scale up and grow faster.

Image 13:4: Types of innovation under configuration27

There are two types of innovation under

Offering offering.
This type of innovation has to do with the
products or services the business is offering. ● Product Performance

27 Image10:4,10:5,10:6 Source: Visual [Link]

 171

This is what comes to mind first when This type of innovation is mostly for
people hear about innovation. It involves products that cannot be used alone. That is,
improving the ability of a product or service complimentary products and services. The
to provide value to its target market. focus of this type of innovation will be to
continually improve the businesses’
● Product system offerings, so that products that are
complementary to one another work well
together to provide value to the customer.

Image 12:5: The types of innovation under offering

A service refers to the non-visible

Experience components of an offering. A business may
The innovation types under experience, be focused on offering a product service or
have to do with the customer experience. A a tangible product. Even if the business is
business has to pay careful attention to offering a tangible product, it will require
innovations that involve customer that the business offers some kind of
experience because the experience of each service to ease the customer's engagement
customer will be subjective hence the with the product. Whatever the kind of
business has to make sure that they are service may be, it will be important for the
satisfying every member of the target business to continually improve on their
market when innovating. There are four service offering to guarantee satisfaction in
types of innovation under experience. the customer experience. Chances are that,
● Service if a business offers a mediocre product but
with a better customer experience, the
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customer is likely to be satisfied. Some competitors. Innovating a brand means

service innovations include free trials or looking for ways to position a company and
after sales services. its products as the best in the consumer's
mind relative to that of the competitors. A
● Channel business can improve its brand through
Channel has to do with how the product or advertising, design, corporate social
service will get to the final consumer. It is responsibility, co-branding among others.
part of the innovation process that will
connect the final product or service to the ● Customer Engagement
final consumer. It may be physical channels Customer engagement has to do with how
like wholesalers and retailers or maybe customers feel about using a product or
digital channels. The channel type will service. What customers want from a
depend on the product or service being product may go beyond just functional
offered. Businesses have to continually needs. The focus here will be on finding
improve their channels to make sure that ways on making the user experience
consumers receive the final products or memorable. For example, a business may
service through the best possible means. decide to customize a product feature to
suit a particular kind of customer. This may
● Brand leave the customer happy after using the
This has to do with the perceptions product and they may want to use it the
customers or consumers have about a next time they need it.
company or its products relative to that of

Image 13:6: Types of Innovation under experience

 173

adopters see and at least resonates with a

number of them, sometimes pay you money
The ten types of innovation prove that for, and start to give you feedback on.”
innovation in a business goes way beyond
improving just the core product or service A minimum viable product allows the
the business is offering. Innovation has to business to test some of the assumptions it
cut across every part of the organization to made on its BMC. In effect, a minimum
ensure sustainability and also provision of viable product can serve as a type of
maximum value to consumers. prototyping. The MVP tests for the
following on the BMC.
What does the Minimum Viable
Product Test on the Business Model Feasibility
The MVP allows the business to test if the
Canvas?
current capabilities of the business allow
As we would see subsequently, the business to develop and roll out a new
product or idea into the market. Feasibility
A Minimum Viable Product is “that product tests if the business idea adds value to the
which has just those features and no more business or if it will strain the resources of
which allow you to ship a product that early the business to develop. If the solution adds
 174

more value to the business then it is

feasible but if it requires that there be a Identify assumptions on the BMC (a
strain on the resources of the business, minimum of 9 as there are 9 blocks)
then the solution is not feasible. Remember that all the building blocks of
the BMC are based on assumptions. It is
Desirability therefore important to identify the key
Here, you ask yourself the question, is this assumptions embedded in each block of the
what my customer really needs? Here the BMC. After identifying these key
MVP tests if the product or service or assumptions then you can proceed to the
solution you are offering really solves their next stage of the MVP testing protocol.
problems. Most times, people develop
solutions that they feel are nice for the Develop hypothesis on the assumptions
customer to have or that they think people After identifying the key assumptions on
will like. However, people are looking for the BMC, the next step is to develop
solutions that meet a particular need and if hypotheses on assumptions for MVP
that need is not met, then the solution the testing. This involves identifying specific
business is providing is not desirable. hypotheses for testing those assumptions
(better if it's one to one). This will help
Viability validate the key assumptions made in the
Viability tests if the solution or business BMC.
idea is sustainable. A viable solution has to
be sustainable the moment it is developed Develop metrics for testing the hypothesis
and in the nearest future. The MVP gives After developing a hypothesis, the next step
the business an opportunity to test if the is to test the hypothesis and validate
solution being developed will still have the assumptions. This step involves developing
same impact it has now and in the future. metrics that will validate or invalidate the
hypothesis. This can be done by developing
It is not enough to test only one of these key performance indicators based on the
components. The sweet spot exists at the assumptions tested and the hypothesis
intersection between these three points. An developed.
MVP must validate all these three
components of the BMC. Develop the MVP for conducting the test
The last stage of the MVP testing protocol
MVP testing Protocol will be to develop the actual MVP and take
it out to the customer to validate all
There are four steps involved in testing the
assumptions about the solution on the
MVP
BMC.
 175

Customer Development and The Flow Under the Customer Development model
of Thought are what Blank outlines as the four steps to
Epiphany. These include Customer
Customer development allows a business to Discovery, Customer Validation, Customer
discover and validate the right market for a Creation and Company Building.
business idea or solution. It is a four-step
process that enables the business to build In this chapter, we will briefly discuss the
the right product features that solve Customer Development model, what an
customers’ needs, test the correct model MVP is, why we use it, how to build one,
and tactics for acquiring and converting the various kinds there are, and then learn
customers, and deploy the right from great examples on how MVPs have
organization and resources to scale the been used by reputable companies to
business. validate business concepts.
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Image 13:7: Example 1

Auntie Muni Waakye

Auntie Muni’s product, Waakye (brown rice and beans), is a staple for the country. Although
the product consists of boiling rice and beans, some variants may include tomatoes, chilli
pepper, other spicy ingredients and fish, prawn or meat. As Auntie Muni described her
product: “I tried the white rice for about three months, but it did not sell well. The customers
complained that they ate white rice in their homes and, therefore, did not patronize that.”
From the above, it is evident that Waakye is a popular Ghanaian food not particularly often
eaten at home, as it requires some special preparation. Indeed, Waakye can be eaten anytime
of the day – either as breakfast or lunch and sold by vendors on the streets in big and small
cities alike in Ghana. It has been hailed by the United Nations (African [Link]), as a
combination that can help stamp out malnutrition from the world! Waakye is rich in protein,
essential vitamins, magnesium, and other micronutrients for a healthy lifestyle. It is also a low-
fat meal, too much oil is not included during preparation. Like any other food, if prepared in a
clean environment and eaten within minutes or a few hours of preparation, it will remain a
healthy choice in terms of bacterial contamination.

The example above is an excerpt from could be transferred to white rice - which
research conducted on Auntie Muni, the was not the case. She only found out it was
famous Ghanaian Waakye seller. The not a good idea after selling the rice and
research found that, despite her popularity, stew for three months. She could have run
Auntie Muni could not sell her white rice as a smaller and less involving experiment to
much as she sold her waakye. She probably test her assumptions about white rice
assumed that her popularity with waakye before starting to sell in large quantities.
 177

Image 13:8: Example 2

Adinkra Pastries; Barima Osei Mensah

Barima Osei Mensah explained that his initial plan was to produce class rings, graduation rings
engraved with one’s school, graduation year, name, and other information. He indicated that they
were popular in the US, something he felt he could replicate in Ghana, “but it did not take off”.

“I made a lot of effort but because it’s not our culture, it was difficult for people to buy into the idea,”
he said of the failed ring business. According to him, his next option was “to try something else, which
was a restaurant in 2011 at Kumasi, but it was not doing so well so I decided to start a pastries outlet
in front of it with the hope that it would be able to attract people to the restaurant”, adding: “When
we started with the pastries, I used to go to the market to sell myself with some boys. During that
stage people were laughing at me, some family members did not support the idea because I was going
to the market to sell. It really didn’t bother me because I knew what I was aiming at. I was focused.”
Mr. Mensah has aspirations of establishing assorted pastries outlets across the country in the next
few years.

The article above depicts the journey of Mr. restaurant but one sold at almost every
Barima Osei, which includes instances traffic light to people in traffic. One can say
where he may have used the customer that if Osei had taken advantage of the
development process and instances where customer development model it might have
he did not. Osei wanted to start by making saved him from some of the losses involved
graduation rings. He was at the first stage of in starting the previous businesses which
the development process, where there was did not flourish.
no market for his product. He attempted a
restaurant business, which also failed. Building a Minimum Viable Product
Neglecting the customer development The proposed right approach when it comes
process, he mostly jumped right into the to validating products or testing
company building when he got a new idea. assumptions about a business model is
His current business, which is the Adinkra usually to build a Minimum Viable Product.
Pastries was aimed at attracting people to
his restaurant. Adinkra Pastries is now a According to Thompson. T. (2013), in an
successful business, not as a product in a article on Building Your Minimum Viable
 178

Product, when creating an MVP, Selling a product even before it has been
entrepreneurs choose between built is the classic of validating MVPs. This
experiments that can validate or invalidate involves selling the idea to potential
their assumptions about a business model. customers to see if they would be willing to
pay for the product. If customers pay the
Thompson further explains that, if the
entrepreneur today to deliver a solution a
entrepreneur’s MVP is a worse version as
month from now, and they can build a
compared to the final product, success
profitable business from that revenue,
validates the idea. However, failure does
according to Thompson, the company has
not necessarily invalidate it. On the
been validated. However, the failure of this
contrary, if the MVP offers a better
test does not invalidate the business model.
experience, then failure invalidates the
This is a great way to check if the product
business model and success does not
has any real demand.
necessarily validate it.
For the second approach, Invalidating
Unfortunately, entrepreneurs usually pick
MVPs, involves the use of a better product
the wrong kind of MVP. They tend to
than the final business model, so failure
choose validating MVPs, even though most
means the business model is doomed but
businesses fail because they spend too success is inconclusive (Thompson, 2013).
much time solving the wrong problem,
which is what MVPs are designed to This category includes many “concierge
MVP” approaches, where the entrepreneur
prevent.
builds a better product at an unsustainably
high cost by customizing it for every
The Two Kinds of MVPs customer. Where its potential customers
The first approach employs validating MVPs are unable or unwilling to pay a realistic
with a worse product than what the final long-term price for the improved product,
version will be, such that success proves the this means the business model has failed
model, but failure is inconclusive.28 and it is time to move on.

28 [Link]
viable-prod
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Image 13:8: Example 3

#1 Concierge MVP
Instead of providing a product, you start with a manual service. But not just any service! The service
should consist of exactly the same steps people would go through with your product.

Koko King; Albert Osei

“Hausa koko caught my eye because it was a basic thing to cook and deliver to customers. It was also
something that I loved, and I used to buy it every morning, just like everyone else. So it struck me that
this was something that we could do. We could change it and make it better. I am sure I was not the
first or only person to think that. I believe thousands of people have looked at Hausa koko and thought
that the delivery could be improved. So, I think the most important thing I did, was to try it; it was to
have a go and see whether the market was ready.” In October 2007, Koko King was registered.
November to January 2008 was spent on market and production research. A firm believer in
standards, Mr. Osei had to be sure that he would be available to deliver and exceed the current
standards in the market. The result was the assembling of a three-man team – a cook, a
driver/salesman and the King himself operating out of a backyard that they had fitted out to fit the
required health and safety standards. Soon, it was time to actually hit the market.
“We did a trial at Millicom from an ice chest in an open car booth. We didn’t have branded cups, then.
We did that for a month, selling at a cedi for a cup and some bread. We saw the interest in Tigo.
People were buying it. We’d sell 20-30 cups a day. From there we moved to Amal Bank [now Bank of
Africa] at Adabraka. That took off, too and they referred us to other companies, and we moved on
from there.” Koko King was born and it has never looked back.
Naturally, the early years were challenging. Mr. Osei says the company only broke even sometime
into its third year. This has required perseverance that he believes is critical to the survival of not only
his business but businesses, generally. “There is a strong desire to make it work so we find solutions
to all the issues. Our mission is to build a brand. We didn’t come to it with the view to just sell koko;
we knew we were building a complete brand.

Which approach should you use first?

It makes business sense for start-ups with
significant market risk to run an invalidating something better than the final product and
MVP first, to test whether customers will people do not want it means the solution
buy a better product. An invalidating MVP is will not survive in the market. However, if
a better version of the final product. This people approve of an invalidating MVP,
gives the business the opportunity to test then it means there is hope for that solution
all the features of the solution and more. If or business idea in the market.
the idea is not accepted in the market, it
means doom. If you are currently offering In some cases, especially when product
performance results from scale, as in multi-
sided platforms, where the value
 180

proposition depends entirely on network entrepreneur should be building it in the

effects, it becomes nearly impossible to run first place, and, more importantly, whether
an invalidating MVP first. In this case, it is it is solving a problem other people find
critical to define failure from the outset. worth paying for.
Thompson explains failure as the
He further points out that MVP tests are
entrepreneur’s inability to convince early
designed not only with the aim of
adopters to buy the product, which is a
answering technical questions about the
reasonably good product yet an inferior
product, but also to test basic business
version. This process usually takes much
hypotheses about the viability of the
more time than an equally effective
market it exists in. For example, a company
invalidating MVP.
wants to see if unmanned drones would be
valuable for collecting data on crop health.
Testing a Minimum Viable Product
This may be considered as a technically
Christopher Bank, a Growth Lead at UXPin, viable project, but the MVP could ultimately
the UX Design App, writes about the 15 fail because it does not test the viability of
ways to test your minimum viable the business by verifying the market and
product29. In this article, he explains that, company capabilities (Bank, 2014).
though the MVP provides a means to test
hypotheses as a starting point, it does not Depending on the type of product the
imply that it is easy to build. The idea entrepreneur is building, the MVP could be
behind this exercise is not to see if the complex or simple, ranging from vague tests
product can be built in terms of technical (For example, AdWords tests) to early
feasibility, rather, it is to see whether the prototypes. Testing begins once hypotheses
are ready.

29 Accessed Nov 21st, 2017

[Link]
minimum-viable-product/
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Ways of testing your MVP

1. Customer Interviews
Customer interviews are a good way of testing and validating your MVP. It involves
getting customer views on the problem your product is trying to solve through a series of
unscripted interviews with your customers (Blank, 2005).

Image 13:8: Search Execution Diagram30

2. Landing Pages
When visitors and potential customers pages. However, they can be used to test a
interact with a product for the first time, product. For example, Joel Gascoigne, a
the first thing they set eyes on is the landing successful entrepreneur and CEO of Buffer,
page. It is a means through which the fleshed out his first landing page and used
business can offer explanations about that to gauge demand for various features
product features to potential customers and price plans, rather than to build up a
and have them sign up. Usually, people mailing list. This was as easy to do as adding
mistake a landing page for email sign up an extra page between the features page

30 Source: Steve Blank (2005)

 182

and the signup form; the interstitial page The objective of testing an MVP is validated
showed a pricing table, and the visitors learning, so collecting visitor analytics with
could select the plan that appealed to tools like Google Analytics, Kissmetrics or
them. These extra clicks not only showed CrazyEgg is the most important part of
the visitor’s interest in the product, but also operating a landing page. Also, an effective
gave the team real-world data on what kind value-proposition and call to action
of pricing would be appropriate for the contribute towards attaining this objective
market. (Bank, 2014).

Image 13:9: Buffer Landing page

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3. A/B Tests
When changes are made to a product, it is important for the business to find out if these
changes were effective. This is exactly what A/B tests do. It is also used to compare and
contrast the results of versions of your product. Analytics tools can be used to test how
potential customers react to the changes made to the MVP. This helps the business make
customer-desired improvement to the product or service (Bank, 2014).

Image 13:10: A/B Tests 31

4. Ad Campaigns
These can be used to run market through running low-fidelity tests on your
validation surveys. Social media platforms target customers. This will help in gathering
like Facebook can aid in narrowing down data and testing your hypothesis (Bank,
the demographics of your target customers. 2014).
With this, you can find out the most
appealing features of your products

31 Source: Smashing Magazine

 184

5. Fundraising. 6. Explainer videos

Kickstarter and Indiegogo are some “If a picture is worth a thousand words,
of the Crowdfunding websites that provide then a video demonstrating your products
a great platform for running MVP tests. The user experience is worth a million.”
contributions to the campaigns show the
interest the people have toward that Dropbox used an explainer video to validate
particular product/service. This does not the market and sell their MVP. The 3-
only help in validating your MVP, but it also minute video explained Dropbox’s intended
helps with fundraising for product functionality. This resulted in having 70,000
development (Bank, 2014). sign ups overnight (Bank, 2014).

Image 13:11: Explainer video32

7. Concierge MVPs
This involves delivering a customized person service to female college students
product or service to a selected group of where anyone could try the dress on before
customers. An example of this is illustrated renting them. This validated its riskiest
below. hypothesis that women would rent dresses
and served as a great concierge MVP that
Rent the Runway tested its online dress
rental business model by providing an in-

32 Source: [Link]
 185

put the business in front of customers and

got the feedback.

Image 13:12: Rent the Runway

8. Digital Prototypes
This involves demonstrating the user 9. Paper Prototypes.
experience digitally. Digital prototype MVPs Paper Prototypes are similar to Digital
can either be screenshot previews, low- Prototypes, except these are physical.
fidelity sketches or “dummy” applications. These are sometimes in the form of
Platforms like UXPin allow you to digitally sketches on paper or paper cut-outs.
collaborate with your team on building These can be used by anyone however for
ideas. advanced product development, this
technique may not be the best.
 186

Image 13:13: Paper prototypes33

Application: Let's Apply the concept

They need to be tested. The variety of MVP
Developing assumptions from VFB and
tests show us that we can be very
BMC for MVP testing
successful in creating and running great
As noted at the beginning of this chapter, experiments for the test. In the following
you have built a VFB and a BMC and they section, we provide practical steps to help
both look good. However, all of your you get started in applying these concepts.
building blocks and the connections
between them are assumptions! Some
backstage employee actions in the VFB Developing hypothesis on Assumptions for
might be assumptions that you may find are MVP testing
not feasible or could be done differently.
Once assumptions have been developed,
The channels you identified in your BMC
the team needs to identify specific
may actually not effectively help you reach
hypotheses for testing those assumptions
the customer segments identified. Hence
(better if it’s one to one). Doing this will
these assumptions do need to be tested.
help the team validate the key assumptions.

33 Source: [Link]
 187

The following are hypothesis formats from than average ratings for the extent to which
Eric Ries who created the Lean Start-up they agree to the way the problem is
Methodology. captured.
Basic hypothesis format: This should be the - Running Speed boat with personal trainers
format used by FDE teams will result in at least 75% identifying client
[Specific and repeatable action] will result schedule management as their #1 or #2
in [expected measurable outcome] anchor.
Examples: - Telecommuters playing Buy a Feature with
- More than 60% of the potential users in our MVP feature list will result in free VOIP
the identified user group will provide more calling being purchased in all games.

Advanced format: This format should be less used by FDE teams

We believe that __________________________
We’ll know this is true when __________________________
We’ll know this to be false when _________________________________

Example:
We believe amateur multirotor buyers value their drones as camera accessories
We will know this to be true when photography features are central to >80% Product Box
pitches.
We will know this to be false when photography is central to fewer than 50% of Product Boxes
or more than 2 Product Boxes do not reference photography at all

Developing Metrics for Evaluating Hypotheses Tests on Assumptions for

MVP testing
After developing hypotheses, it's time to test them. To test them, the team needs to develop
metrics that will help validate or invalidate hypotheses. The team can develop their own
metrics or key performance indicators based on the hypothesis developed. The appendix
following the Summary provides examples and ideas you could pull from to develop your
metrics.
 188

Summary The top KPIs We Use for Sales

● Conversion rate – the ratio of people
In summary, according to Thompson’s
who convert from the total number of
article on “Building a Minimum Viable
proposals we sent out.
Product”, MVPs have two main goals:
learning what problems the entrepreneur
● New leads per month – how are our
should be solving and driving risk out of the
lead generation efforts going? Do we need
current (hypothetical) business model by
to diversify our lead sources? Are we
testing fundamental assumptions.
getting too many unqualified leads? Are our
The focus here is mostly on the second goal lead prospectors doing a good job? This will
but invalidating MVPs also tends to be more help give some insight to questions like
effective at the first, since those “better” that.
initial products tend to resemble concierge
MVPs that sacrifice unit cost and scalability ● Total bookings or revenue (broken
for performance and flexibility. These tests out by “New Business,” “Add-On Business,”
substitute human labour for technology, or “Renewal Business.”)– sales cures all.
and the human component means we can How is your sales team doing in terms of
gather more information from potential meeting quota? How is your upsell process
customers about their problems and our looking? Is your product so good that
potential solutions. customers are consistently renewing?

As a result, you should usually begin your

● A common mistake is to use
company with an invalidating MVP. Then, if
bookings and revenue interchangeably, but
it is inconclusive, you should switch gears
they aren’t the same thing.
and focus on MVPs that validate your
Bookings is the value of a contract between
business model.
the company and the customer. It reflects a
Metrics to Inspire you contractual obligation on the part of the
customer to pay the company.
Revenue is recognized when the service is
The following are KPIs for sales, not so
actually provided over the life of the
much for MVP testing, but has a number of
subscription agreement. How and when
examples from which MVP test metrics
revenue is recognized is governed by GAAP.
could be drawn.
Letters of intent and verbal agreements are
neither revenue nor bookings.

● Number of qualified sales

opportunities per month – generating leads
 189

is nice, but you need to have qualified leads customers, or are you able to close large
that fit your ideal customer profile. deals? Of course, this depends on the
market you are targeting (SMB vs. mid-
● Total dollar amount of new qualified market vs. enterprise).
pipeline generated – is your prospecting Is it growing (and especially not shrinking)?
team generating enough revenue potential If it’s growing, it means customers are
in the pipeline? paying you more on average for your
product over time. That implies either your
● Gross Profit product is fundamentally doing more
While top-line bookings growth is super (adding features and capabilities) to
important, investors want to understand warrant that increase or is delivering so
how profitable that revenue stream is. much value to customers (improved
Gross profit provides that measure. functionality over alternatives) that they are
What’s included in gross profit may vary by willing to pay more for it.
company, but in general all costs associated
with the manufacturing, delivery, and
support of a product/service should be The Top KPIs We Use for Operations
included. ● Net promoter score – though there
So be prepared to break down what’s is a lot of debate on the viability of this
included in — and excluded — from that metric, it’s a good feeler on whether
gross profit figure. customers are overall satisfied/dissatisfied
with our services. Of course, you need to be
surveying and talk to your past/current
● Total Contract Value (TCV) vs. customers to get feedback as well.
Annual Contract Value (ACV)
TCV (total contract value) is the total value ● Revenue churn – what % of revenue
of the contract and can be shorter or longer we lost for the month. Keep in mind that
in duration. Make sure TCV also includes each industry varies so this is very general.
the value from one-time charges, There are all kinds of churn — dollar churn,
professional service fees, and recurring customer churn, net dollar churn — and
charges. there are varying definitions for how churn
ACV (annual contract value), on the other is measured. For example, some companies
hand, measures the value of the contract measure it on a revenue basis annually,
over a 12-month period. Questions to ask which blends upsells with churn. Investors
about ACV: look at it the following way:
What is the size? Are you getting a few Monthly unit churn = lost customers/prior
hundred dollars per month from your month total
 190

Retention by cohort from product revenue (vs. from services).

Month 1 = 100% of installed base Why? Services revenue is non-recurring, has
Latest Month = % of original installed base much lower margins, and is less scalable.
that are still transacting Product revenue is what you generate from
It is also important to differentiate between the sale of the software or product itself.
gross churn and net revenue churn — ARR (annual recurring revenue) is a
Gross churn: MRR lost in a given measure of revenue components that are
month/MRR at the beginning of the month. recurring in nature. It should exclude one-
Net churn: (MRR lost minus MRR from time (non-recurring) fees and professional
upsells) in a given month/MRR at the service fees.
beginning of the month. ARR per customer: Is this flat or growing? If
The difference between the two is you are upselling or cross selling your
significant. Gross churn estimates the actual customers, then it should be growing, which
loss to the business, while net revenue is a positive indicator for a healthy business.
churn understates the losses (as it blends MRR (monthly recurring revenue): Often,
upsells with absolute churn). people will multiply one month’s all-in
bookings by 12 to get to ARR. Common
● Client churn – what % of clients we mistakes with this method include: (1)
lost for the month counting non-recurring fees such as
hardware, setup, installation, professional
● Gross Margins (broken out by services/ consulting agreements; (2)
“Team” and “Overall”) – what’s our overall counting bookings (see #1).
margin? What are the margins per team?
● Month-on-month (MoM) growth
● Revenue Growth Rate – calculating Often this is measured as the simple
revenue growth rate is helpful for any average of monthly growth rates. But
business but it’s not that helpful when you investors often prefer to measure it
look at things on a month to month/week asCMGR (Compounded Monthly Growth
to week basis because things can be highly Rate) since CMGR measures the periodic
variable in such a short amount of time. growth, especially for a marketplace.
Instead, we calculate a growth rate over a Using CMGR [CMGR = (Latest Month/ First
6-month period. To do this, we use a Month) ^ (1/# of Months) -1] also helps you
formula for calculating compound growth benchmark growth rates with other
rate. companies. This would otherwise be
difficult to compare due to volatility and
Investors more highly value companies other factors. The CMGR will be smaller
where the majority of total revenue comes
 191

than the simple average in a growing company. They will also take into account
business. the rate at which your revenues and
expenses grow as monthly burn may not be
● Active Users a constant number.
Different companies have almost unlimited
definitions for what “active” means. Some ● Gross Merchandise Value (GMV) vs.
charts don’t even define what that activity Revenue
is, while others include inadvertent activity In marketplace businesses, these are
— such as having a high proportion of first- frequently used interchangeably. But GMV
time users or accidental one-time users. does not equal revenue!
Be clear on how you define “active.” GMV (gross merchandise volume) is the
total sales dollar volume of merchandise
● Burn Rate transacting through the marketplace in a
Burn rate is the rate at which cash is specific period. It’s the real top line, what
decreasing. Especially in early-stage the consumer side of the marketplace is
startups, it’s important to know and spending. It is a useful measure of the size
monitor burn rate as companies fail when of the marketplace and can be useful as a
they are running out of cash and don’t have “current run rate” measure based on
enough time left to raise funds or reduce annualizing the most recent month or
expenses. As a reminder, here’s a simple quarter.
calculation: Revenue is the portion of GMV that the
Monthly cash burn = cash balance at the marketplace “takes”. Revenue consists of
beginning of the year minus cash balance the various fees that the marketplace gets
end of the year / 12 for providing its services; most typically
It’s also important to measure net burn vs. these are transaction fees based on GMV
gross burn: successfully transacted on the marketplace,
Net burn [revenues (including all incoming but can also include ad revenue,
cash you have a high probability of sponsorships, etc. These fees are usually a
receiving) – gross burn] is the true measure fraction of GMV.
of amount of cash your company is burning
every month. ● Unearned or Deferred Revenue …
Gross burn on the other hand only looks at and Billings
your monthly expenses + any other cash In a SaaS business, this is the cash you
outlays. collect at the time of the booking in
Investors tend to focus on net burn to advance of when the revenues will actually
understand how long the money you have be realized.
left in the bank will last for you to run the As we’ve shared previously, SaaS companies
 192

only get to recognize revenue over the term backlog — which would make the business
of the deal as the service is delivered — seem healthier than it truly is. This is
even if a customer signs a huge up-front something we therefore watch out for
deal. So, in most cases, that “booking” goes when evaluating the unit economics of such
onto the balance sheet in a liability line businesses.
item called deferred revenue. (Because the
balance sheet has to “balance,” the ● Downloads
corresponding entry on the assets side of Downloads (or number of apps delivered by
the balance sheet is “cash” if the customer distribution deals) are really just a vanity
prepaid for the service or “accounts metric.
receivable” if the company expects to bill Investors want to see engagement, ideally
for and receive it in the future). As the expressed as cohort retention on metrics
company starts to recognize revenue from that matter for that business — for
the software as service, it reduces its example, DAU (daily active users), MAU
deferred revenue balance and increases (monthly active users), photos shared,
revenue: for a 24-month deal, as each photos viewed, and so on.
month goes by, deferred revenue drops by
1/24th and revenue increases by 1/24th.
A good proxy to measure the growth — and Marketing KPIs
ultimately the health — of a SaaS company ● LTV – the lifetime value of a
is to look at billings, which is calculated by customer. You’ll want to look at this
taking the revenue in one quarter and numbers for all of your marketing channels.
adding the change in deferred revenue
from the prior quarter to the current Lifetime value is the present value of the
quarter. If a SaaS company is growing its future net profit from the customer over
bookings (whether through new business or the duration of the relationship. It helps
upsells/renewals to existing customers), determine the long-term value of the
billings will increase. customer and how much net value you
Billings is a much better forward-looking generate per customer after accounting for
indicator of the health of a SaaS company customer acquisition costs (CAC).
than simply looking at revenue because A common mistake is to estimate the LTV as
revenue understates the true value of the a present value of revenue or even gross
customer, which gets recognized ratably. margin of the customer instead of
But it’s also tricky because of the very calculating it as net profit of the customer
nature of recurring revenue itself: A SaaS over the life of the relationship.
company could show stable revenue for a Reminder, here’s a way to calculate LTV:
long time — just by working off its billing Revenue per customer (per month) =
 193

average order value multiplied by the Unfortunately, CAC metrics come in all
number of orders. shapes and sizes.
Contribution margin per customer (per One common problem with CAC metrics is
month) = revenue from customer minus failing to include all the costs incurred in
variable costs associated with a customer. user acquisition such as referral fees,
Variable costs include selling, administrative credits, or discounts. Another common
and any operational costs associated with problem is to calculate CAC as a “blended”
serving the customer. cost (including users acquired organically)
Avg. lifespan of customer (in months) = 1 / rather than isolating users acquired through
by your monthly churn. “paid” marketing. While blended CAC [total
LTV = Contribution margin from customer acquisition cost / total new customers
multiplied by the average lifespan of the acquired across all channels] isn’t wrong, it
customer. doesn’t inform how well your paid
Note, if you have only a few months of campaigns are working and whether they’re
data, the conservative way to measure LTV profitable.
is to look at historical value to date. Rather This is why investors consider paid CAC
than predicting average life span and [total acquisition cost/ new customers
estimating how the retention curves might acquired through paid marketing] to be
look, we prefer to measure 12 month and more important than blended CAC in
24-month LTV. evaluating the viability of a business — it
Another important calculation here is LTV informs whether a company can scale up its
as it contributes to margin. This is user acquisition budget profitably. While an
important because a revenue or gross argument can be made in some cases that
margin LTV suggests a higher upper limit on paid acquisition contributes to organic
what you can spend on customer acquisition, one would need to
acquisition. Contribution Margin LTV to CAC demonstrate proof of that effect to put
ratio is also a good measure to determine weight on blended CAC.
CAC payback and manage your advertising Many investors do like seeing both,
and marketing spend accordingly. however: the blended number as well as
the CAC, broken out by paid/unpaid. We
● CPA/CAC – the cost to acquire a also like seeing the breakdown by dollars of
typical customer (cost per acquisition or paid customer acquisition channels: for
customer acquisition cost). Same thing here example, how much does a paying
– look at this number for all of your customer cost if they were acquired via
marketing channels. Customer acquisition Facebook?
cost or CAC should be the full cost of Counterintuitively, it turns out that costs
acquiring users, stated on a per user basis. typically go up as you try and reach a larger
 194

audience. So, it might cost you $1 to (This last one is misleading since
acquire your first 1,000 users, $2 to acquire percentages can sound impressive off a
your next 10,000, and $5 to $10 to acquire small base but are not an indicator of the
your next 100,000. That’s why you can’t future trajectory.)
afford to ignore the metrics about volume Order of Operations
of users acquired via each channel. It’s fine to present metrics in any order as
you tell your story.
Individual Teams KPIs When initially evaluating businesses,
Do/say ratio – this is simply the number of investors often look at GMV, revenue, and
things done versus the things we said we bookings first because they’re an indicator
would do. So, if we said we would do 10 of the size of the business. Once investors
things and actually completed 8 of them for have a sense of the size of the business,
a client, it would be 80%. they’ll want to understand growth to see
how well the company is performing. These
Presenting Metrics Generally basic metrics, if interesting, then compel us
Cumulative Charts (vs. Growth Metrics) to look even further.
Cumulative charts by definition always go As one of our partners who recently had a
up and to the right for any business that is baby observes here: It’s almost like doing a
showing any kind of activity. But they are health check for your baby at the
not a valid measure of growth — they can pediatrician’s office. Check weight and
go up-and-to-the-right even when a height, and then compare to previous
business is shrinking. Thus, the metric is not estimates to make sure things look healthy
a useful indicator of a company’s health. before you go any deeper!
Investors like to look at monthly GMV,
monthly revenue, or new users/customers Problem Sets
per month to assess the growth in early-
Using the hypotheses format from Eric Ries
stage businesses. Quarterly charts can be
stated above
used for later-stage businesses or
1. State 2 hypotheses used to test for
businesses with a lot of month-to-month
Problem-Solution fit pulling from what your
volatility in metrics.
stated as your POV.
Chart Tricks
2. State 2 hypotheses used to test your key
There are a number of such tricks, but a few
assumptions during your MVP testing
common ones include not labelling the Y-
3. Research protocol: Please report on the
axis; shrinking scale to exaggerate growth;
assumptions and the rest of the actions on
and only presenting percentage gains
the assumptions.
without presenting the absolute numbers.
 195

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About the Authors
Dr. Gordon Kwesi Adomdza, an Associate Professor of Business
Administration at Ashesi University and Adjunct Professor at
CEIBS Africa. Dr. Adomdza teaches courses that use design-
thinking in the development of innovative new idea concepts and
business models. His pedagogical philosophy of experiential
entrepreneurship leads him to continuously develop learning and
teaching materials that support experiential learning. Dr.
Adomdza encountered design thinking in 2009 working on
projects led by Craig McCarthy at Design Continuum, the
inventors of the award-winning Swiffer cleaner. Hence, prior to
Ashesi University, Dr. Adomdza taught courses that used the design thinking pedagogy he co-
developed with McCarthy, at the D'Amore-McKim School of Business, Northeastern University in
Boston for 7 years. As a researcher, he has written a number of teaching case studies and also
published papers in leading journals exploring the nexus between the entrepreneur and
opportunity, through the lens of the discovery and exploitation process for new ideas and
business models.

Craig McCarthy was the Director, Design Strategy Fidelity

Investments. Carig is a highly effective Design Strategy and
Innovation Leader with extensive multi-industry experience. He
has an exceptional record of success leading multi-functional to
highly profitable results by focused, actionable consumer-led
strategies grounded in consumer insights derived from a deep
understanding of the customer. He is recognized as a
collaborative and creative business partner with excellent
storytelling and problem-solving abilities with executive
presence. He is inspired by a curiosity of people to help clients
understand the world from their customer’s perspective to drive change in how businesses
interact with their customers. Craig is also an adjunct lecturer at the D'Amore-McKim School of
Business, Northeastern University where he teaches a course in innovation, that he co-created
with Dr. Adomdza, and which has grown from an experimental elective to a requirement of all
business majors at the business school. As part of his teaching, he explores design thinking, lean
startup and agile approaches to innovation and implementation.