GROUP ASSIGNMENT OF HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
RAYA UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
GROUP ASSIGNMENT OF HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
PREPAREDBY:
Group member: ID NO
Abdushukur Wabela Dawd 04791/12
Zeyinedin Mishoro 05736/12
Sintayehu Nurilgn 05545/12
Taresa Damte 05580/12
Yohannes Amare 05702/12
SUBMITTED TO Mr. Mesala
Tuesday April 23, 2024
Maichew Tigray Ethiopia
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Table of Contents
1 THE GONDRIAN PERIOD AND ZEMENE-MESAFINT ..................................................................... 1
1.1 The Gondrian period (The revival of the Christian kingdom) ............................................................ 2
1.1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Architecture of developments during gondarian period ............................................................... 3
1.1.3 Trade & Urbanization during gondarian period ........................................................................... 3
1.1.4 Political Developments during gondarian period ......................................................................... 4
1.1.5 Major Achievements of the Gondarine ........................................................................................ 4
1.2 (The Era of Lords) The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855) ..................................................... 5
1.2.1Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Zemene-Mesafint and peasants ................................................................................................. 6
1.2.3Zemene-Mesafint and trade ....................................................................................................... 7
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................. 8
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1 THE GONDRIAN PERIOD AND ZEMENE-MESAFINT
1.1 The Gondrian period (The revival of the Christian kingdom)
1.1.1 Introduction
Established in 1636 by Emperor Fasilides as the permanent capital of the Ethiopian Empire near
Axum and Lalibela, Gondar became a commercial and religious center, with Ethiopian traders
called Jeberti, and experienced a period of renewed stability in the Solomonic dynasty. The
Gondarine period saw numerous innovations, including the development of Christian
iconography. The earliest style of art lasted until the early 18th century and was noted for its
warmth of color, careful finish and richness of design. Gondar possessed favorable trade routes
leading south of the Blue Nile and to northwestern regions like Massawa and Sudan. Gondar also
became renowned for the architecture of the imperial palaces, collectively known as Fasil
Ghebbi.
Among ten emperors ruled during the “Gondarian” period, the kingdom achieved its glory during
the reigns of its first three successive emperors: Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667 –
1682) and Iyasu I (r.1682 – 1706).
The Gondarine emperors initially enjoyed a leisurely lifestyle, unlike their predecessors.
However, during the reign of Iyasu I, the court of Gondar experienced internal political
instability, which became known as "Byzantine politics." This period was marked by intrigues,
short-lived monarchs, assassinations, coups d'état, and the poisoning of kings by those vying for
power. The instability began with the assassination of Iyasu the Great, orchestrated by a faction
led by his son, Takla-Haymanot. Takla-Haymanot was crowned before his father's death but was
later assassinated by Tewoflos. Tewoflos, too, met a similar fate at the hands of Yostos, who was
also poisoned. Dawit III succeeded Yostos but fell victim to poisoning as well, leading to his
replacement by Bakkaafaa. Bakkaafaa attempted to establish stability with the support of his
Oromo warriors and his influential queen, Mentewab of Quara.
From around 1728 to 1768, Queen Etege Mentewab and her brother Walda Le'ul dominated the
political landscape of the Gondarine court. They held significant influence during the reigns of
Iyasu II and Iyoas. However, after Walda Le'ul's death, Mentewab faced a challenge from her
daughter-in-law Wabi/Wubit Amito, supported by her brothers Brillee and Luboo. In response,
Mentewab sought the assistance of Ras Micka'el Sehul of Tigray. Following Mentewab's death,
Iyoas asked Ras Micka'el to return to Tigray, but he refused and instead killed Iyoas himself. Ras
Micka'el then installed Yohannes II on the throne, but when Yohannes II showed discomfort, he
was also killed, and Takla-Haymanot II, Ras Micka'el's son, took power. This marked the
beginning of the Era of Lords or Zemene Masefent, which lasted from 1769 to 1855
((Wikipedia)
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1.1.2 Architecture of developments during gondarian period
One of the most iconic works of Gondarine architecture was a royal complex known as Fasil
Ghebbi and 44 churches that were built around Lake Tana including Adababay Iyasus, Adababay
Tekle Haymanot, Atatami Mikael, Gemjabet Mariyam, Fit Mikael and Qeddus Abbo. Fasilides
was also credited with building seven stone bridges including the Sebrara Dildiy bridge over the
Blue Nile. Fasilides contributed a new church at the Cathedral of Church of Our Lady Mary of
Zion at Axum, named "Old Cathedral" which stands next to the newer cathedral built by
Emperor Haile Selassie. According to legend, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church would
be constructed by the name of letter "G". As a result, the Emperor behind Fasilides often built
stone castles in Gorgora, Gomange, Guzara and Gannata Iyasus. After becoming aware of the
fact, the scenario of urban life in Ethiopia was conceptualized by building more royal camps with
replacement of semi-itinerants royal tents to stone and mortar.
The arrival of the Portuguese in the mid-16th century also influenced the architecture style in the
Gondarine era, primarily through the building fortress and defense castles. During Roman
Catholic state administration under Susenyos, he employed Arab, Gujarati (brought by the
Jesuits) and their masonic style with local masons, such as Beta Israel. Turkish architecture also
influenced Gondarine architecture through Ottoman incursions, which further increased the
prevalence of defense buildings and castles in the area. The style continued to prevail in
Fasilides' reign through the Gondarine period and the 17th and 18th century, and went on to
influence 19th century design ((Wikipedia)
Painting
Painting With a wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood, ornaments, weapons
and other accessories especially, the churches built by Queen Mintwab were known by beautiful
paintings, cross and an art works.
Literature
Literature The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of manuscripts.
Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies, and
many other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also produced. Gondar is also known for its
traditional medicine, music and poetry.
1.1.3 Trade & Urbanization during gondarian period
Trade &Urbanization In the early days. Gondar was a commercial center that connected long
distance trade routes of the southern region with Massawa and Matama in the Ethio-Sudan
border. Gold and salt were used as the currency in the market. The appearance of daily market
was known. 121 With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of foreign communities
like Indians, Greeks and Armenians. Its total number of population reached 60,000-70, 000. In
addition to its political and commercial importance it served as religious center of Christians,
Muslims and Bete-IsraelJewish. Mainly, it served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church
(residence of the abun & Ichege) until the mid of 19th Century. Many of Orthodox churches
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served as education centers (known by excellence in teaching aqwaqwam), liturgical chanting
was centered at Gondar.( [Link]
zemne-mesafint)
1.1.4 Political Developments during gondarian period
The period of Gondar began from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle when the political center
of Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar area. Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at
Enfranz in 1571. Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar in such places
as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo. Gondar was founded in 1636 when Fasiledas established
his political seat there. Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three successive
emperors: Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706). Among the
major reforms during these periods were the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion,
and the establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to solve problems stemming from power
rivalry. Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis
Alem. His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system, introduced a system of land
measurement in Begemder, taxes, and customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the leadership of his own son,
TekleHaymanot, ushered in political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning of
reigning monarchs. Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of his father and was
in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708. Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by Yostos, who was
also poisoned in 1717 and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was poisoned and replaced by
Bakafa in 1721. Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his followers History of
Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1012) 105 and his wife Etege Mentewab until he was
incapacitated in 1728. The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement of the Oromo
in Imperial politics and the army as will be discussed shortly. From 1728 to 1768, Etege
Mentewab together with her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul (1732-1767) dominated the
Gondarine court politics. Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and
Iyoas (1755-69). Following his death in 1767, Etege Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito,
her daughter-in-law from Wollo. To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal
court, Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was politically astute
and militarily powerful. Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation but refused to return
to Tigray although demanded by Iyoas. This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his
replacement by an old man Yohannes II by Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and
put his son TaklaHaymanot II (1769-77) on power. This marked the onset of the period of
Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).( (surafel Gelgelo and Deressa Debu and Dereje Hinew, 2021)
1.1.5 Major Achievements of the Gondarine
Period Gondar became the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art, and crafts
for more than two centuries. The first three kings were successful not only in political affairs but also in
cultural developments. Gondar had great influence on the country’s cultural developments. This enabled
Gondar to repeat the splendors of Aksum and Lalibela. The cultural achievements of the period led some
writers to describe Gondarine period in history as Ethiopian Renaissance. Architecture: when Gondar
served as a permanent capital, for about one hundred fifty years, Ethiopian kings built significant secular
buildings like castles, bridges, residences, bath, library, towers, fortifications and churches of various size
and shapes. In the city’s compound, in addition to the most impressive building known as Fasil Gemb,
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there are different palaces corresponding to Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa and
Regent Queen Mentewab. The Gondarine style of architecture may have started before the reign of
emperor Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle at History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module
(Hist.1012) 106 about 1586, as could be seen from his palace at Guzara near Enfranz. The architectural
styles of Fasiledas castle usually have two strides and almost square, circular domed corner towers. Not
only castles, but the building of bridges are said to be predate the reign of Fasiledas. Emperor Sartsa-
Dengel is said to have built a very fine bridge near his palace at Guzara, and Emperor Susenyos likewise
erected a bridge over Blue Nile at Alata. (Surafel Gelgelo and Deressa Debu and Dereje Hinew
and Meseret Worku, 2020)
Painting: this period is known as for the production of a wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts and
on wood, ornaments, weapons and other accessories. The churches built by Queen Mentwab were known
for their beautiful paintings, cross and art works. Literature: The Imperial and provincial scriptoria
produced a great number of manuscripts. Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of
Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies, many other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also produced.
Gondar is also known for its traditional medicine, music and poetry. Trade and Urbanization: Gondar was
a commercial center that connected long distance trade routes of the southern region with Massawa and
Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan border. Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange. Daily markets
were commonly held in the city. With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of foreign
communities like Indians, Greeks and Armenians. The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000 population. In
History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1012) 107 addition to its political and commercial
importance, it served as religious center of Christians, Muslims and Bete-Israel. Besides, it served as the
center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church until the middle of the nineteenth century. Many of the Orthodox
churches which served as education centers, known for their excellence in teaching aqwaqwam, liturgical
chanting were centered at Gondar. (surafel Gelgelo and Deressa Debu and Dereje Hinew, 2021)
1.2 (The Era of Lords) The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
1.2.1Introduction
The combinations of the two Amharic word Zemene-Mesafints (Zemen refers a certain period
of time or it is equivalent to an English word era and Mesafint literal meaning English word
prince) has a literal meaning of era of princes or it refers to the Biblical “the era of Judges”.
Apart to this, even the princes were not in actual position of political power rather the political
power was in the hand of different regional lords. The exact time of the beginning of the
Zemene-Mesafint is not reached on consensus by scholars. However, most scholars in their
different books and writings remark that the period from the assassination of king Iyoas in 1769
by Ras Michael Sehul (the collapse of the monarchy) up to 1855 is known as Zemene-Mesafint;
while, others argued that it started when Ali seized power in 1784 by defeating Emperor Tekle-
Giorgis at Aferawnat and continued up to 1855. (Surafel Gelgelo and Deressa Debu and
Dereje Hinew and Meseret Worku, 2020)
Between 1769 and 1771 Micheal Sehul became king maker. However, he was soon opposed by
the regional warlords of Gojjam, Wollo and Lasta who organized a common alliance against him.
They defeated him at the battle of Sabrakussa in 1771 and force him to go to Tigray. He ruled
over Tigray for the next nine years until his death in 1780. (surafel Gelgelo and Deressa Debu
and Dereje Hinew, 2021)
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After the defeat of Michael Sehul, chaos and disorder continued until the coming to
power of Ali Gwangul (Ali I) from the Yeju Oromo family. Ali I founded a new ruling dynasty
known as the Yeju Dynasty or the Warra Sheh in 1786. This dynasty dominated the politics of
norther Ethiopia in the name of the puppet kings of Gonder until important centers of political
power were the territories of the present day Gojjam, Gonder, Tigray and Wollo.
The Yeju dynasty strengthen its power during its strongest ruler Ras Gugsa(r.1803-1825).
The two successive Tigrayan rulers, Ras Walda Sellase of Indarta(r.1790- 1816) and Dejazmach
Sabagdis(r.1822-1831) resisted Gugsa’s power in the north. But he tried to neutralize them
through marriage relations and diplomacy. Moreover, Gugsa’s military and diplomatic skills
helped him to exercise his power over the lords of Gojjam, Wollo, Lasta, Semen, Wagara and
Dambya. Following the death of Gugsa in 1825, the Yeju dynasty met strong challenges from
semen and Tigrai. Semen was defeated by Gugsa’s son and successor Ras Yemam(r.1825-1828).
Yemam was succeeded by Ras Marye in 1821. However, Dajjach sabagadis of Tigray decided to
bring the Yeju political domination to an end. This led to the battle the two rivals, Ras Marye and
Dejjazmach Sabagadis were killed but final victory went to the Yeju dynasty. The ruler of the
Yejju lords during the battle of May Aslamay. The Yejju Poltical dominance over Northen
Ethiopia continued for the next two decades under Ras Ali Alula or Ali II(r.1831-1853).
The different regionally based northern Ethiopian warlords of the Zemene Mesefanit
fought against each other for various objectives. Firstly, they wanted to expand their territories at
the expense of their neighbors, because large territory means large human and material resources.
Secondly, they wanted to have the title Ras Bitweded so as to become guardians of the weak
Gondarine kings and their courts. They wanted to collect as much tribute as possible in the name
of these weak kings.
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include: absence of effective central government; the
growing power and influence of the regional warlords; the domination of Yejju lords over
other lords in northern Ethiopia; History of Ethiopia and the Horn Module (Hist.1012) 108
rivarly and compeition among regional lords to assume the position of king-maker;
establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political interests; Ethiopian Orthodox Church
was unable to play its traditional role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes; Revival of
foreign contacts that ended the “closed-door” policy. In addition to the above features, there were
developments in terms of literature, arts, architecture etc during the period.
1.2.2 Zemene-Mesafint and peasants
The endless wars of the Zemene Mesafint affected the social and economic life of the peasantry.
The peasants suffered from the frequent wars. The peasants were forced to feed the big armies of
the local and regional lords. The many shiftias (bandits) also forced the peasant, to supply them
food. Therefore, the various groups of dependents of discouraged the peasantry from working
hard and producing surplus production. Moreover, the farmlands of the peasantry often became
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battlefields and their villages were burnt down. Therefore, agriculture which formed the
backbone of peasant economy was depressed in the period of the Zemene Mesafint.
1.2.3Zemene-Mesafint and trade
The continuous wars of the Zemene Mesafint also affected the development of trade. Merchants
could not travel peacefully along the long-distance trade routes due to endless wars and robbery.
Moreover, they were forced to pay heavy taxes at many gates(tax stations) of the different
warlords. The most important items of trade during the Zemene Mesafint were natural products
such ivory, gold and civet. Slaves formed an important element of trading items. War captives, as
a result of feudal wars, increased the supply of slaves who were in high demand in Arabia.
By and large, the continuous wars of the Zemene Mesafint had undermined sense of
nationalism. It was a period of weak national felling as well as national power. (surafel Gelgelo
and Deressa Debu and Dereje Hinew, 2021)
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Bibliography
(Wikipedia. (n.d.). Retrieved from (Wikipedia.
Surafel Gelgelo and Deressa Debu and Dereje Hinew and Meseret Worku. (2020). HISTORY OF
ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (Hist. 102). Addis Ababa,.
surafel Gelgelo and Deressa Debu and Dereje Hinew. (2021). HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
(Hist. 1012). Addis Ababa.
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