Probability and Statistics - BMAT202L

Module 1 - Introduction to Statistics

Aarthy B

Division of Mathematics,
School of Advanced Sciences,
Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai.

February 1, 2024

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Outline

1 Introduction

2 Measure of central tendency

3 Measures of Dispersion

4 Moments- Skewness - Kurtosis

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Introduction

Statistics is a mathematical science including methods of collecting,

organizing and analyzing data in such a way that meaningful conclusions
can be drawn from them.

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Types

Descriptive statistics is a branch of statistics that is concerned with

describing the characteristics of the known data. Descriptive statistics
provides summaries about either the population data or the sample
data.
Apart from descriptive statistics, inferential statistics is another
crucial branch of statistics that is used to make inferences about the
population data.

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Types

Descriptive statistics Inferential statistics

It is used to describe the charac- It is used to draw inferences
teristics of either the sample or about the population data from
the population by using quanti- the sample data by making use
tative tools. of analytical tools.
Measures of central tendency Hypothesis testing and regres-
and measures of dispersion are sion analysis are the types of in-
the most important types of de- ferential statistics.
scriptive statistics.
It is used to describe the char- It tries to make inferences about
acteristics of a known dataset. the population that goes beyond
the known data.
Measures of descriptive statis- Measures of inferential statistics
tics are mean, median, variance, are z-test, F -test, linear regres-
range, etc. sion, ANOVA test, etc.

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Types of Descriptive statistics

Measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion are two

types of descriptive statistics that are used to quantitatively
summarize the characteristics of grouped and ungrouped data.
When an experiment is conducted, the raw data obtained is known as
ungrouped data. When this data is organized logically it is known as
grouped data.
To visually represent data, descriptive statistics use graphs, charts,
and tables.

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Types of Descriptive statistics

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Measure of central tendency

In descriptive statistics, the measures of central tendency are used to

describe data by determining a single representative central value. The
important measures of central tendency are given below:
Mean
Median
Mode

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Mean

The mean can be defined as the sum of all observations divided by the
total number of observations. The formulas for the mean are given as
follows: P
xi
i
Ungrouped data mean: x̄ = n
P
fi xi
i
Grouped data mean: x̄ = P
fi
i

where xi is the i th observation, fi is the corresponding frequency, n is the

sample size.

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Mean

Assumed Mean Method:

1 X
x̄ = a + fi di
N
i
P
where di = xi − a is called the deviation of xi from a and N = fi .
Method:
P
fi ui !
i
x̄ = a + P ×h
fi
i

xi −a
where ui = h and h is the class height.

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Types of Mean

Arithmetic Mean
Geometric Mean
Harmonic Mean

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Arithmetic Mean

Arithmetic mean is the ratio of sum of all the observations to the total
number of observations.
If x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , xn , then the A.M. is defined as:
x1 + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn
A.M. =
n
Weighted Arithmetic Mean:
P
wi xi
i
A.M = P
wi
i

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Geometric Mean
Geometric mean of a series containing n observations is the nth root of the
product of the values.
If x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , xn , then the G.M. is defined as:
1 √
G .M. = (x1 × x2 × x3 × · · · × xn ) n or n x1 × x2 × x3 × · · · × xn

For individual observations:

P
 log xi 
i
G .M. = Antilog
n
For Discrete series:
P
 fi log xi 
i
G .M. = Antilog P
fi
i

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Geometric Mean

For continuous series:

P
fi log mi !
i
G .M. = Antilog P
fi
i

Weighted Geometric mean:

P
wi log xi !
i
G .M. = Antilog P
wi
i

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Harmonic Mean
Harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the average of reciprocals.
If x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · , xn , then the H.M. is defined as:
n
H.M. =  
1 1 1
x1 + x2 + ··· xn

For individual observations:

n
H.M. = P  
1
xi
i

For Discrete series:

P
fi
i
H.M. = P  
fi
xi
i

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Harmonic Mean

For continuous series:

P
fi
i
H.M. = P  
fi
mi
i

Weighted Harmonic mean:

P
wi
H.M. = Pi  
wi
xi
i

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Relationship between A.M, G.M and H.M

If all the items are equal, that is, if x1 = x2 = x3 = · · · = xn , then

A.M = G.M = H.M
If all the items are not equal, then A.M > G.M > H.M
In general, A.M ≥ G.M ≥ H.M

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Relationship between A.M, G.M and H.M

Theorem
When there are only two items, A.M × H.M = G.M2

Proof:
Let a and b be two items. Their
a+b
A.M. =
2

√
G .M = a×b

2
H.M = 1 1
a + b

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Relationship between A.M, G.M and H.M

a+b 2
A.M × H.M = × 1 1
2 a + b
a+b 2ab
= ×
2 a+b
= ab
= G .M 2
√
∴ G .M = A.M × H.M

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Median

The median can be defined as the center-most observation that is

obtained by arranging the data in ascending order. The formulas for the
median are given as follows:
Ungrouped data (if n is odd):
 th
n+1
term
2

Ungrouped data (if n is even):

[( n2 )th term + ( n2 + 1)th term]

2

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Median

Grouped data:

( n2 ) − c
 
l+ ×h
f

where l is the lower limit of the median class given by n2 , c is the

cumulative frequency, f is the frequency of the median class and h is the
class height.

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Mode

The mode is the most frequently occurring observation in the data set.
The formulas for the mode are given as follows:
Ungrouped data: Most recurrent observation
Grouped data:
 
(fm − f2 )
L+ ×h
(fm − f1 ) + (fm − f2 )

where L is the lower limit of the modal class, h is the class height, fm is the
frequency of the modal class, f1 is the frequency of the class preceding the
modal class, f2 is the frequency of the class succeeding the modal class.

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Problem 1

The mean of marks obtained by 30 students of Section A of class X is 4,

that of 35 students of Section B is 50. Find the mean marks obtained by
65 students in class X.

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Problem 1 Contd.

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Problem 2

The mean of 6 observations was found to be 40. Later on, it was detected
that one observation 82 was misread as 28. Find the correct mean.

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Problem 3

The following data represents the weekly wages of the employees. Find the
mean weekly wages of the employees.

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Problem 3 Contd.

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Problem 3 Contd.

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Problem 4

Calculate the mean daily wage from the following distribution by using
Step deviation method.

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Problem 4 Contd.

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Problem 4 Contd.

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Problem 5

Find the geometric mean of 3, 6, 24, 48.

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Problem 5 Contd.

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Problem 6

Calculate the geometric mean for the data given below:

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Problem 6 Contd.

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Problem 7

Compute the geometric mean of the following series:

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Problem 7 Contd.

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Problem 8

Calculate the weighted geometric mean:

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Problem 8 Contd.

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Problem 9
Find the Harmonic Mean for the following individual data: 6, 15, 35, 40,
900, 520, 300, 400, 1800, 2000.

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Problem 9 Contd.

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Problem 10

Calculate the Harmonic Mean from the following data:

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Problem 10 Contd.

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Problem 11

Calculate the Harmonic Mean for the following data:

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Problem 11 Contd.

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Problem 12

Calculate the weighted Harmonic Mean:

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Problem 12 Contd.

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Problem 13

The arithmetic mean of two observations is 127.5 and their geometric

mean is 60. Find their harmonic mean. Also obtain the observations.

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Problem 13 Contd.

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Problem 13 Contd.

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Problem 13 Contd.

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Problem 14

Determine Median for the following observations in a data set: 15, 17, 26,
11, 8, 20, 22, 14 and 23.

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Problem 15

The following data has marks for 10 students: 25, 27, 36, 21, 18, 30, 22,
24, 13 and 28. Calculate the Median marks.

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Problem 16

Calculate the median from the given data.

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Problem 16 Contd.

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Problem 17

The following table contains information about the marks scored by

students in a class. Calculate the median of marks.

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Problem 17 Contd.

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Problem 17 Contd.

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Problem 18

The number of goals scored by a football team in 12 matches are:

1, 2, 2, 3, 1, 2, 2, 4, 5, 3, 3, 4

What is the modal score?

Solution:
Just by looking at the data, we find the frequency of 2 is 4 and is more
than the frequency of all other scores. So, mode of the data is 2, or modal
score is 2.

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Problem 19

Find the mode of the data:

9, 6, 8, 9, 10, 7, 12, 15, 22, 15

Solution:
Arranging the data in increasing order, we have

6, 7, 8, 9, 9, 10, 12, 15, 15, 22

We find that the both the observations 9 and 15 have the same maximum
frequency 2. So, both are the modes of the data.

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Problem 20

Calculate the value of mode for marks obtained by the students from the
table below.

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Problem 20 Contd.

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Measures of Dispersion

In descriptive statistics, the measures of dispersion are used to determine

how spread out a distribution is with respect to the central value. The
important measures of dispersion are given below:
Range
Variance
Standard Deviation
Quartile Deviation

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Range

The range can be defined as the difference between the highest value and
the lowest value. The formula is given as follows:

Range = H − S

where H is the highest value in the data and S the lowest value in the data.

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Variance

The variance gives the variability of the distribution with respect to the
mean. The formula for the variance are given as follows:
Ungrouped data sample variance:
X (xi − x̄)2
s2 =
n−1
i

Ungrouped data population variance:

X (xi − x̄)2
σ2 =
n
i

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Variance

Grouped data sample variance:

X fi (mi − x̄)2
s2 = P
( fi − 1)
i
i

Grouped data population variance:

X fi (mi − x̄)2
σ2 = P
( fi )
i
i

where x̄ is the mean, mi is the midpoint of the i th interval, xi is the i th

data point and n is the number of observations.

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Standard Deviation

The square root of the variance will result in the standard deviation. It
helps to analyze the variability in a data set in a more effective manner as
compared to the variance. The formula is given as follows:
√
S.D = Variance = σ

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Quartile Deviation

Quartile Deviation or Semi-Interquartile Range is the half of difference

between the Upper Quartile (Q3 ) and the Lower Quartile (Q1 ). In simple
terms, Q.D is the half of inter-quartile range. Hence, the formula for
determining Quartile Deviation is as follows:
Q3 − Q1
Q.D =
2
Q3 − Q1
Coeff . of Q.D =
Q3 + Q1

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Quartile Deviation

Ungrouped (n is odd):

n + 1 th
 
Q1 = size of term
4
n + 1 th
 
Q3 = size of 3 term
4

Ungrouped (n is even):

Q1 = median of lower half of the dataset

Q3 = median of upper half of the dataset

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Quartile Deviation

Discrete data:

N + 1 th
 
Q1 = size of term
4
N + 1 th
 
Q3 = size of 3 term
4

Continuous data:
 
N
r 4 −c
Qr = l + ×h
f
where l is the lower limit of the median class given by n2 , c is the
cumulative frequency, f is the frequency of the median class and h is
the class height.

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Mean Deviation

Mean Deviation is the mean of the absolute deviations of the observations

from a suitable central value. This suitable central value can be the Mean,
Median or Mode of any one of the central tendencies of the data.
Mean Deviation about Mean
Mean Deviation about Median
Mean Deviation about Mode

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Mean Deviation about Mean

Ungrouped data:
P
|xi − x̄|
i
n
Discrete data:
P
fi |xi − x̄|
i
P
fi
i

Continuous data:
P
fi |mi − x̄|
i
P
fi
i

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Mean Deviation about Median

Ungrouped data:
P
|xi − M|
i
n
Discrete data:
P
fi |xi − M|
i
P
fi
i

Continuous data:
P
fi |mi − M|
i
P
fi
i

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Mean Deviation about Mode

Ungrouped data:
P
|xi − Z |
i
n
Discrete data:
P
fi |xi − Z |
i
P
fi
i

Continuous data:
P
fi |mi − Z |
i
P
fi
i

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Relative Measures

Coefficient of MD about Mean:

MD about Mean
Mean
Coefficient of MD about Median:
MD about Median
Median
Coefficient of MD about Mode:
MD about Mode
Mode

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Problem 21

Two sections of 10 students each in class X in a certain school were given

a common test in Mathematics (40 maximum marks). The scores of the
students are given below:

The difference between the largest and the smallest scores in section A is
29.
The difference between the largest and the smallest scores in section B is
10.

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Problem 22

Find the mean deviation from the mean of the following data whose mean
is 10:

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Problem 22 Contd.

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Problem 22 Contd.

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Problem 23

Find the mean deviation from the mean of the following distribution whose
mean is 27 marks:

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Problem 23 Contd.

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Problem 23 Contd.

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Problem 24

The daily sale of sugar in a certain grocery shop is given below:

The average daily sale is 78kg. Calculate the variance and the standard
deviation of the above data.

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Problem 24 Contd.

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Problem 24 Contd.

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Problem 25

In a study to test the effectiveness of a new variety of wheat, an

experiment was performed with 50 experimental fields and the following
results were obtained:

The mean yield per hectare is 50 quintals. Determine the variance and the
standard deviation of the above distribution.
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Problem 25 Contd.

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Problem 25 Contd.

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Problem 26

Find the Quartile Deviation for the following:

40, 41, 15, 45, 42, 50, 62, 60, 70, 68.

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Problem 26 Contd.

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Problem 27

Calculate Q.D. and coefficient of Q.D.

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Problem 27 Contd.

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Problem 28

Calculate Q.D. and coefficient of Q.D.

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Problem 28 Contd.

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Problem 29

Calculate range and its coefficient from the following and also find the
Quartile deviation.

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Problem 29 Contd.

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Moments
Moments are the mean of various powers of deviations of the items.
If the deviations are measured from the arithmetic mean, the
moments are called central moments.
If the deviations are calculated from values other than arithmetic
mean, the moments are called raw moments.
In particular, if the deviations are measured from origin (i.e., zero),
the moments are called raw moments about origin.

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Central Moments

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Raw Moments

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To find Central moments from Raw moments

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Skewness

Skewness is the degree of asymmetry or departure from symmetry, of a

distribution.

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Skewness

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Kurtosis

Kurtosis is the degree of peakedness of a distribution.

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Kurtosis

Normal curve for which β2 = 3 and γ2 = 0 is taken as the standard.

It is said to be Mesokurtic.
Frequency curves which are less peaked (β2 < 3 and γ2 < 0) than the
normal curve are said to be Platykurtic.
Frequency curves which are more peaked (β2 > 3 and γ2 > 0) than
the normal curve are said to be Leptokurtic.
The terms mesokurtic, platykurtic and leptokurtic can be recollected
from the terms medium, flat and leap.

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 The End

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