The Endocrine

System
Brain and Behaviour

1
Unit covers,

◼ Hormones and behaviour, Mechanism of action and effects,

Major endocrine glands, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Adrenal,
Pancreas, Pituitary, Gonads. Hormones of the Hypothalamus.
Impact of chemicals on brain and behaviour, psychoactive
drugs, addiction and brain

2
3
4
5
 Endocrine glands
◼ A group of secretory cells that release
their products, chemical signals called
hormones, usually into the circulation.
The secretions never pass through ducts
◼ Pituitary
◼ thyroid
◼ parathyroid
◼ adrenaline glands
◼ Pancreas
◼ Gonads
◼ Hypothalamus
◼ Endocrine influences on behaviour

6
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: IN BRIEF
◼ The endocrine system is made up of the endocrine glands that secrete
hormones
◼ Although there are eight major endocrine glands scattered throughout the
body, they are still considered to be one system because they have similar
functions, similar mechanisms of influence, and many important
interrelationships
◼ Some glands also have non-endocrine regions that have functions other
than hormone secretion
◼ For example, the pancreas has a major exocrine portion that secretes
digestive enzymes and an endocrine portion that secretes hormones
◼ The ovaries and testes secrete hormones and also produce the ova and
sperm
◼ Some organs, such as the stomach, intestines, and heart, produce hormones,
but their primary function is not hormone secretion
7
INTRODUCTION: WHAT ARE
HORMONES?
◼ Hormones are your body's chemical messengers.
◼ They travel in your bloodstream to tissues or organs.
◼ They work slowly, over time, and affect many different processes,
including:
◼ Growth and development
◼ Metabolism - how your body gets energy from the foods you eat
◼ Sexual function
◼ Reproduction
◼ Mood
◼ Endocrine glands, which are special groups of cells, make hormones. The
major endocrine glands are the pituitary, pineal, thymus, thyroid, adrenal
glands, and pancreas. In addition, men produce hormones in their testes and
women produce them in their ovaries

8
MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION

◼ Each hormone has receptors that are found on the cell membrane of the
target organ
◼ Once the hormone bind to its designated receptor, a series of actions are
initiated to release secondary messengers inside the cell. These secondary
messengers are responsible for relaying information to the nucleus or other
organelles
◼ Based on their structure, receptors are of different types:
◼ Internal receptors– they can be either nuclear or cytoplasmic. Nuclear
receptors are found on the nuclear membrane while the cytoplasmic
receptors are found in the cytoplasm of the cell. These receptors are for the
steroid hormones.
◼ External receptors– These are the transmembrane receptors which are
embedded in the lipid layer of the cell membrane. These receptors are for
the protein ones.

9
Conti…

◼ The mechanism of action hormone can be of two types: First, where the
receptors are fixed and the second, where the receptors are mobile
◼ Fixed Receptor Mechanism:
◼ This mechanism of action hormone is seen in the protein hormones such as
Adrenaline, insulin, ADH, TSH etc.
◼ Since they are water soluble, they cannot pass through the cell membrane
as it is made up of a lipid layer. So, they bind to their extracellular
receptors present on the membrane.
◼ Once the protein hormone binds to the receptor, a series of reactions occur
beginning with the production of adenyl cyclase enzyme.
◼ This enzyme leads to the production of cyclic AMP (adenosin
monophosphate) or cAMP which is the secondary messenger. This cAMP
can now enter the cell and cause the effect it was meant to bring about.

10
Conti..

◼ Mobile Receptor Mechanism:

◼ This kind of mechanism is seen in the steroid hormone that is
insoluble in water. They are made up of fats and therefore can
freely cause the lipid layer of the cell membrane.
◼ Their receptors are intracellular and not extracellular like those
for the protein ones.
◼ The intracellular receptors can be floating in the cytoplasm, on
the nuclear membrane or inside the nucleus. For this reason,
their receptors are known as mobile receptors.
◼ Summary Video:Endocrine System: How Hormones Work?
([Link])

11
Hormonal Actions-Video

12
The Pituitary Gland (The Hypophysis)

◼ Considered as the ‘Maestro Gland’

because it releases various hormones
that control all the major endocrine
glands of the body.

◼ It’s formed of two anatomical and

functional parts:
1. The Adenohypophysis (Anterior Pituitary)
2. The Neurohypophysis (Posterior Pituitary)

13
14
Fig.4: Blood supply of the pituitary gland.
15
Anterior Pituitary
o Has three types of cells:
1. Acidophils
2. Basophils
3. Chromophobes (unstained cells)
o The synthesis and release of hormones of the anterior pituitary
are controlled by:
1. Releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus.
2. Feedback regulation.
o Hypothalamic hormones made by neurosecretory cells
transported by axons to hypophyseal portal system.
o Anterior pituitary hormones act on other endocrine glands.

16
 Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary
Hormone Target
Growth Hormone (GH) Several
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Thyroid gland
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Adrenal cortex
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Ovaries and Testes
Leutinizing Hormone (LH)
Prolactin Breast

17
Secretions from the anterior
pituitary gland…
Growth Hormone
(GH): essential for
the growth and
development of
bones, muscles, and
other organs. It also
enhances protein
synthesis,
decreases the use of
glucose, and
promotes fat
destruction.
Secretions from the anterior
pituitary gland…
Adrenocorticotropin
(TRŌ pun) (ACTH):
essential for the
growth of the
adrenal cortex.

Thyroid-Stimulating
Hormone (TSH):
essential for the growth
and development of the
thyroid gland.
 Secretions from the anterior
pituitary gland…
Follicle-Stimulating
Hormone (FSH): is a
gonadotropic hormone.

It stimulates the
growth ovarian
follicles in the female
and the production of
sperm in the male.
Secretions from the anterior
pituitary gland… Luteinizing
Hormone (LH): is a
gonadotropic
hormone
stimulating the
development of
corpus luteum in
the female ovarian
follicles and the
The yellow corpus luteum production of
remains after ovulation; it testosterone in the
produces estrogen and male.
progesterone.
Secretions from the anterior
pituitary gland… Prolactin (PRL):
stimulates the
development and
growth of the
mammary glands
and milk production
during pregnancy.

The sucking motion of the

baby stimulates prolactin
secretion.
Secretions from the anterior
pituitary gland…
Melanocyte-stimulating
hormone (MSH): regulates skin
pigmentation and promotes
the deposit of melanin in the
skin after exposure to sunlight
Posterior Pituitary
◼ Does not synthesize hormones.
◼ Releases the following hormones:
1. Oxytocin
2. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) = Vasopressin
◼ Contains:
1. Nerve endings
2. Astrocyte-like cells called Pituicytes.
◼ Cell bodies of neurons in the hypothalamus synthesize these
hormone. They’re then transported through axons in the
hypothalamo-hypophysial tract to the nerve endings in the
posterior pituitary. Here they remain stored. When need arises,
they’re released from the nerve endings to pass into blood.

24
Fig.5: Hypothalamo-hypophysial tract.

25
Secretions from the posterior lobe
of the pituitary gland…
Antidiuretic
Hormone (ADH):
stimulates the
reabsorption of
water by the
renal tubules.
Hyposecretion
of this hormone
can result in
diabetes
insipidus.
Secretions from the posterior lobe
of the pituitary gland…
Oxytocin: stimulates
the uterus to contract
during labor, delivery,
and childbirth
(parturition). A
synthetic version of
this hormone, used
to induce labor, is
called Pitocin. It also
stimulates the
mammary glands to
release milk.
The Hypothalamus
◼ Part of the diencephalon of the brain.
◼ Located inferior to the thalamus, known as the control center

◼ It’s a major link between the nervous and the endocrine

systems.

◼ It’s connected to the pituitary gland by blood vessels and

nerve fibers (infundibulum).
◼ It secretes a number of releasing hormones that control the
secretions of the pituitary gland.
◼ Also releases oxytocin and vasopressin (ADH)
29
The Thyroid Gland Fig.6: The thyroid gland.

◼ A butterfly-shaped gland located inferior to larynx

◼ Formed of:
1. Two lobes (right and left) that extend from the
thyroid cartilage to the level of 5th tracheal
cartilage. They’re related to the:
• Common carotid artery and internal jugular vein
• External and recurrent laryngeal nerves
2. Isthmus: a mass of thyroid tissue that connects the two lobes.
Located opposite the 2nd, 3rd and 4th tracheal rings.
3. A Pyramidal lobe may sometimes be present extending superiorly
from the isthmus.
◼ The gland is highly vascular. It’s supplied by the superior and inferior
thyroid arteries.

30
 Pyramidal lobe

Fig.7: Anatomy of the thyroid gland. 31

Histology of the thyroid gland
◼ The thyroid gland consist of numerous
spherical structures called the thyroid
follicles.
◼ The follicles are lined by epithelial cells (the follicular cells) that
range from squamous (flat) to columnar (tall) according to activity
(the more active cells are larger).
◼ Within each follicle there is a lumen into which the thyroid hormones
are secreted.
◼ The thyroid gland is unique in that it’s the only endocrine
gland in the body that stores its hormones outside the cells.
◼ Between the follicles, there’s another type
of cell, called the parafollicular or C-
cells, that secrete the hormone calcitonin.

32
 Fig.9: Histology of
the thyroid gland.

◼ The thyroid hormones include:

◼ Tri-iodothyronin (T3)

◼ Tetra-iodothyronin (T4) = thyroxin

◼ Both these hormones affect the body metabolism.

◼ Both these hormones are controlled by TSH from the pituitary
gland and by feedback mechanism.

33
◼ [Link]

34
The Parathyroid Gland

◼ Embedded in the posterior aspect of the lobes of the

thyroid gland. Each one is surrounded by its own capsule.
◼ They are 4 in number.
◼ Has two types of cells:
1. Chief (Principal) cells: secrete the Parathyroid
Hormone –PTH (parathormone or parathyrin) and
calcitonin (CT) that regulates level of calcium and
phosphate in blood.
2. Oxyphil cells: Function = Unknown !!??

◼ Blood calcium level directly controls secretion of both

calcitonin and PTH.
35
36
Fig.10: Position and histology of the parathyroid gland.
37
The Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands
◼ Two yellowish glands located on the upper poles of the two
kidneys.
◼ The right gland is pyramidal in shape, whereas the left is
crescentic in shape.
◼ They’re related to the 12th rib, the diaphragm and the great
vessels of the abdomen
◼ Each gland is composed of two anatomically and functionally
distinct region:
1. Outer yellow cortex: divided into the zona glomerulosa,
zona fsciculata and zona reticularis-sectretes
corticosteroids
2. Inner brown medulla: a modified sympathetic ganglion that
synthesizes and secretes the hormones epinephrine and
norepinephrine.
38
Fig.11: The suprarenal glands.

39
 Arrangement
Release
of cells
Like spheres Mineralocorticoids

Straight cords Glucocorticoids

Branching
Androgens
cords

Fig.12: The histology of the

suprarenal glands.
40
◼ Mineralocorticoids-eg: aldosterone (salt and water
balance in the body)
◼ Glucocorticoids-Cortisol (stress hormone, acts on
liver, adipose tissues, muscles and pancreas,
increases gluconeogenesis, increases oxygen
supply)
◼ Androgens-testosterone (secreted in small
amount)

41
Pancreas
◼ It is partly exocrine and partly endocrine
◼ Exocrine part (acinar cells) secrets digestive enzymes
◼ Endocrine part (islets of the langerhans) secretes Insulin and
glucagon
❑ Alpha islets-Glucogon
❑ Beta islets- insulin

42
43
Insulin-Glucogon cycle

44
Gonads
◼ Gonads are the female and male reproductive organs.
◼ Testes are the male gonads and ovaries in females.

45
◼ Testosterone (Male) is responsible and essential for increased
growth of bone and muscle, growth of body hair, developing
broader shoulder, voice deepening and growth of the penis.

◼ Estrogens – It is a group of female sex hormones essential for

reproduction and the development of the female reproductive
system. Estrogens are responsible for maturation and growth
of the vagina and uterus, widening of pelvis, breast and the
uterus changes during the menstrual cycle, and increasing
growth of hairs on the body.

◼ Progesterone – These are the hormones whose function is to

prepare the uterus for conception, regulating changes in the
uterus during the Menstrual cycle, ovulation aids, and
stimulating gland development for the production of milk
during pregnancy.
46
Testosterone Effects

Low levels of testosterone, also called low T levels, can produce a variety of symptoms in men,
including:
❑ decreased sex drive
❑ less energy
❑ weight gain
❑ feelings of depression
❑ moodiness
❑ low self-esteem
❑ less body hair
❑ thinner bones

Testosterone levels decline steadily in adult women, however, low T levels can also produce a
variety of symptoms, including:
❑ low libido

❑ reduced bone strength

❑ poor concentration

❑ depression
47
 Effect Estrogen Progesterone
High levels of estrogen are associated with Synthetic progesterone (progestin) has been linked to
cancer (breast and uterine)
an increased risk of certain cancers. increased breast cancer risk.

Estrogen treatments have been known to lower the Progesterone is thought to play a role in regulating
mental health
risk of depression in postmenopausal women. behavior.

Low and high levels of estrogen are linked to Low levels of progesterone have been linked to menstrual
menstrual cycles
menstrual problems. problems.

menopause and premature Low levels of estrogen are linked to menopause and Low levels of progesterone are linked to menopause and
menopause premature menopause. premature menopause.
Estrogen is necessary for preparing the body for
pregnancy Progesterone is necessary for maintaining a pregnancy.
pregnancy.
Progesterone is necessary for conception in a female or
Estrogen is necessary for conception in a female or
conception intersex body. In males, progesterone is necessary for the
intersex body.
production of semen (sperm).

weight gain High levels of estrogen are linked to weight gain. High levels of progesterone are linked to weight gain.

Low levels of progesterone are linked to poor bone

bone health Low levels of estrogen are linked to poor bone health.
health.
Low levels of estrogen are linked to diminished brain Low levels of progesterone may impair central nervous
brain function
function. system function.

Low levels of estrogen are linked to a lack of In females and some intersex people, progesterone plays a
puberty and secondary development of female secondary sex characteristics. key part in the menstrual cycle. In males and other
sexual characteristics High levels are linked to the development of female intersex people, its presence triggers the production of
secondary sex characteristics. estrogen.

48
Summary…

49
Conti…

50
Hormonal systems

51
52
Summary video

53
Psychoactive drugs, addiction and
brain
◼ What is a drug?
❑ Traditionally, a drug is a therapeutic chemical designed to
have maximal benefits with minimal risks of side effects or
toxicity.
◼ What is a psychoactive drug?
❑ A Drug that can change cognition, behavior and emotions
by changing the functioning of the brain.
◼ Name some psychoactive drugs:
❑ Caffeine, heroin, alcohol, Prozac…etc

54
 Describe some facts about the brain:
* Ultimately the brain responds to, processes, and
initiates all behavior, normal and pathological.

◼ The brain stores each fact, thought, belief, feeling

and emotion that you have ever experienced.

◼ Changes in brain chemistry produced by external

environmental, internal stimuli or drugs affects how
the brain functions and thus effects all of our
behavior and moods.
How do drugs work?
◼ When a psychoactive drug is taken, there is a receptor in the
brain that turns on and the chemistry of the brain is then altered.
It is not necessary to take a drug to alter brain chemistry.

◼ For example, if you get scared, your heart rate, BP, arousal
increases and a receptor in your brain is turned on…it is called
the- Fight or flight response.

◼ Is there a drug that produces the same results? - Yes, cocaine,

also stimulates pleasure receptors
How are drugs classified?:

◼ According to the physiological effect they have

◼ Stimulants, speed up the central nervous
system(CNS).
◼ Depressants, slow down the CNS
◼ Psychoactive drugs alter feelings
◼ Narcotics, are powerful painkillers
◼ Designer drugs try to mimic narcotics or other
drugs:amphetamines, hallucinogens.
 Why do people use drugs?

◼ Medicinal purposes
◼ Recreational/social-decrease tension
◼ Sensation seeking-thrills
◼ Altered states-performance, creativity
◼ Peer pressure
◼ Numb emotional pain, conscious and unconscious
◼ Religious or spiritual practice
◼ curiosity
Addictive Behaviors
Psychological Addiction:
A pattern of compulsive behavior, or habitual use of a drug, indicating
impaired control without physiological signs of dependence.
Behaviors: Compulsive spending, pathological gambling,
internet addiction

Physiological Addiction:
A state of physical need for a drug, characterized by the development of a
withdrawal syndrome (abstinence syndrome) following abrupt cessation
of use of a particular drug.
Tolerance: user needs larger amounts or doses of the drug to
achieve same effect
Drug Use, Misuse, Abuse
Drug: chemical affects psychological and
biological function

Drug Misuse: use of a drug not for the purpose or

in the way that is was intended

Over-the-Counter drug: available for sale without

prescription. Easy to misuse

Prescription Drug: Controlled and regulated, must

be prescribed by a doctor
Psychoactive Drugs

◼ Drugs that act on the brain to affect mental processes

– mood, thought processes, perceptions and behaviors
◼ Some are physically addictive, some are illegal
Caffeine #1 drug of choice

Major classes:
Depressants
Stimulants
Hallucinogens
Psychoactive Drugs
Depressants Stimulants
Lower rate of CNS activity Increase level of CNS activity
Have potential for psychological Have potential for psychological
/physical dependence /physical dependence
◼Barbiturates ◼Amphetamines
❑ Sedatives ❑ Increase heart rate, BP
❑ Tranquilizers ❑ High doses – “rush”
❑ Suppress appetite – diet pills
◼Opiates – highly addictive ❑ Methamphetamines
❑ Narcotics ❑ Amphetamine psychosis
◼ Opium, Morphine,
◼ Heroin, Codeine ◼Cocaine – highly addictive
❑ Tolerance ❑ Crack, free base
❑ Cocaine psychosis
◼Alcohol
Caffeine
◼ Most widely used psychoactive drug
◼ Mild stimulant
◼ For most healthy and non-pregnant adults – moderate
intake of 200-300mg per day poses no significant risk
◼ Effects dose-related