Applied Surface Science 660 (2024) 159955

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Applied Surface Science

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Full Length Article

Quantitative construction of variable modulus interfacial layer between

aramid fibers and rubber composites utilizing polymerizable deep eutectic
solvents for enhancing interfacial and mechanical properties
Hui Xu a, b, Shenglong Yang a, b, Junxiu Xue a, b, Shaoming Li a, b, Huiguang Bian a, b,
Chuansheng Wang a, b, *
a
College of Electromechanical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, Shandong Province 266061, China
b
National Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Tire Equipment and Key Materials, Qingdao, Shandong Province 266061, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Based on the nanomechanical analysis of aramid fibers and rubber, a variable modulus interfacial layer between
Aramid fiber aramid fibers and rubber was quantitatively constructed using a polymerizable deep eutectic solvents and gra­
Polymer-matrix composites phene oxide. The effect of this variable modulus interfacial layer on the interfacial and mechanical properties of
Interface/interphase
aramid fiber/rubber composites was investigated. The interfacial properties of the composites were significantly
Modulus interfacial layer
improved as the modulus difference between the aramid fibers and the coating became smaller and the inter­
phase increased. A modulus interfacial layer with a platform role was established between high-modulus aramid
fibers and low-modulus rubber. A schematic model of the reinforcement mechanism of the modulus interfacial
layer was proposed. This modulus interfacial layer with a platform in the aramid fiber and rubber composite
facilitated the transfer of stress concentration, inhibited microcrack expansion, and enhanced the interfacial
bonding properties between the aramid fibers and the rubber matrix. The method of constructing the coating is
characterized by fast reactions, minimal pollution, and the ability to be produced continuously and intelligently,
providing a novel approach to modifying aramid fiber and preparing high-performance composites.

1. Introduction alkalis and organic solvents, which cause pollution to the environment
[14,15]. (ii) long reaction time, low reaction efficiency, can not be
Aramid fiber belongs to the aromatic polyamide fibers, is a kind of continuous and intelligent production [16]. (iii) high-energy radiation is
ultra-high strength, high modulus, high temperature resistant organic costly and damaging to the fiber itself [17]. (iv) According to our
high-performance fibers, at the same time with acid and alkali resis­ nanomechanical analysis of aramid fibers and rubber, aramid fibers and
tance, light weight and other excellent properties, as the front-runner of rubber matrix, there is a huge modulus difference between the interface
the new materials revolution, is the materialization of new equipment, region is easy to cause stress concentration, affecting the efficiency of
the formation of subversive new capabilities of the strategic key mate­ stress transfer from the matrix to the fiber. Therefore, we can improve
rials, is one of the choices for the lightweight of the structural material the mechanical properties of aramid fiber/rubber composites if we can
materials in the field of high-end equipment, but also in the field of simply, quickly, non-pollutingly, continuously and intelligently
rubber reinforcement of the future is not a choice [1,2]. However, the construct a modulus interfacial layer with a platform effect between
chemical inertness of AF and the high crystallinity of the surface result in high-modulus fibers and low-modulus rubber, and understand its rein­
poor interfacial adhesion between the fibers and the rubber matrix, forcement mechanism.
limiting the exerting efficiency of fibers performance [3,4]. At present, In recent research reports, many researchers have added inorganic
chemical modification of aramid fiber surface [5–8], surface coating nanomaterials (e.g., SiO2 [16], graphene [18], carbon nanotubes [19],
[9–11] and high-energy physical modification [12,13] are very effective zinc oxide [20], zinc chloride [21], and other nanoparticles [22,23]),
in improving interfacial adhesion, but the following problems inevitably organic macromolecules (polydopamine [24], polyethyleneimine [25],
exist in the treatment process: (i) the use of a large number of acids, latex [26], and polysiloxanes [27], etc.), and organic–inorganic

* Corresponding author at: College of Electromechanical Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, Shandong Province 266061, China.
E-mail address: wangcs07@[Link] (C. Wang).

[Link]
Received 21 January 2024; Received in revised form 16 March 2024; Accepted 20 March 2024
Available online 21 March 2024
0169-4332/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H. Xu et al. Applied Surface Science 660 (2024) 159955

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the fabrication process and cross-linking reaction of the AF surface coating.

Table 1
Rubber compound composition.
Component Content(phr)

NR 100
ZnO 5
SAD 2
Silica 35
TBBS 0.7
S 2.25

combinations (2D nanomaterials combined with 2D nanomaterials

through branched macromolecules or couplers[28–31]) onto the surface
of aramid fibers by means of chemical modifications and coatings, to
form a reinforced structure on a certain scale, which is helpful in
improving the interfacial properties of aramid fiber/rubber composites.
Therefore the introduction of nanomaterials and/or polymers to design
the interfacial layer to control the interfacial modulus is essential to
balance the modulus difference between aramid fibers and rubber. The Fig. 2. FTIR spectra of AF, AF-PDES, AF-PDES-GO-2, AF-PDES-GO-4, AF-PDES-
optimal modulus matching of the interfacial layer between aramid fibers GO-6 and AF-PDES-GO-8.
and rubber matrix is conducive to improving the interfacial bond
strength of aramid fiber/rubber composites. However, the optimal
modulus matching between aramid fibers and rubber matrix has not yet contribute to establishing a solid theoretical foundation for industrial
been achieved, and the interfacial properties of aramid fiber and rubber production.
composites have to be further improved.
In our previous study, we conducted nanomechanical characteriza­ 2. Materials and methods
tion of aramid fiber, rubber and their composite interfaces. We
confirmed that a coating constructed on the surface of aramid fibers 2.1. Materials
using polymerizable deep eutectic solvents (PDES) contributed to the
enhancement of interfacial properties in composites. Building upon AF (Linear density: 1100 dtex, Tenacity at break: 19.8 cN/dtex,
these findings, we employed a PDES to dissolve graphene oxide and Elastic Modulus: 94.2 GPa) was purchased from Yantai Taihe New Ma­
polymerized monomers, and quantitatively constructed a variable terial Co. Ltd. Choline chloride (ChCl), acrylic acid (AA) and
modulus interfacial layer with a platform role between aramid fibers photoinitiator-2959 were purchased from McLean Biochemical Tech­
and rubber through solution dip-coating with UV-initiated curing. The nology Co. Polyethyleneimine (PEI) with a molecular weight of 1800
modulus interfacial layer was characterized by nanomechanical analysis was purchased from McLean Biochemical Technology Co. Graphene
using Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and Atomic Force Micro­ oxide (GO) was purchased from Qingdao Huagao Graphene, Young’s
scopy (AFM). The influence of the variable modulus interfacial layer modulus 700 GPa. Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) with a
with platform role on the mechanical properties of composites was molecular weight 200 was purchased from Maclean Technology Co.
investigated through H pull-out test and dynamic thermo-mechanical Natural rubber (NR) was obtained from Hainan Natural Rubber Industry
analysis test. The obtained experimental results will further advance Group Co. Ltd. Zinc oxide (ZnO), stearic acid (SAD), Silica, accelerator
the application of AF in the realm of high-performance tires and TBBS and sulfur (S) were all commercial industrial grade chemicals with

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H. Xu et al. Applied Surface Science 660 (2024) 159955

Fig. 3. Wide-scan XPS spectrum of different AF (a), N1s high-resolution XPS element spectra of different AF (b), O1s high-resolution XPS element spectra of different
AF (c), and C1s high-resolution XPS element spectra of (d) AF, (e) AF-PDES, and (f) AF-PDES-GO-6.

PEGDA and photoinitiator-2959 were added to PDES and stirred at

Table 2
80 ◦ C for 10 min to form a clear solution. The amounts of PEGDA and
AF, AF-PDES and AF-PDES-GO-6 carbon-containing functional groups for
photoinitiator-2959 were 1 % of the molar amount of AA, respectively. It
FWHM.
is uniformly applied to the AF surface, and the coating thickness must be
HO-C = O N-C = O C-OH/C-O-C C-N C–C controlled within a certain range. Then, the photopolymerization was
AF / 1.54 / / 1.04 triggered under a UV light source at a wavelength of 365 nm with a UV
AF-PDES 1.03 1.54 1.19 1.75 1.04 irradiation time of 10 s. The modified AFs were named AF-PDES, AF-
AF-PDES-GO-6 1.03 1.54 1.19 1.75 1.04
PDES-GO-2, AF-PDES-GO-4, AF-PDES-GO-6 and AF-PDES-GO-8. The
fabrication process and cross-linking reaction mechanism of the AF
surface coating are shown in Fig. 1.
a purity of 99.9 %.
2.3. Preparation of AF-PDES-GO-x/NR composites
2.2. Preparation of quantitative modulus interfacial layer
According to the rubber recipe in Table 1, the rubber was kneaded in
ChCl and AA were dried before the experiment to exclude the effect a dense refiner at 100 ◦ C for 10 min. Sulfur and accelerator were added
of moisture in the air on the experiment. ChCl, AA and PEI were dosed in last in the opener and mixed quickly at a lower temperature. After
molar ratios of 1:2:0.5, respectively. ChCl and AA were stirred at 80 ◦ C testing the vulcanization curve, the prepared rubber mixture was cut
for 30 min to form a clear and transparent solution, after which PEI and into rubber strips with a width of 10 mm, placed in a mold, the AF were
GO was added in batches and stirred at 80 ◦ C for 30 min until a clear placed between the two rubber strips, and a 50 g weight was hung on the
solution was formed. GO accounted for 0 %, 2 %, 4 %, 6 %, and 8 % of end. The prepared samples were vulcanized at 150 ◦ C and 15 MPa for 15
the total weight of the coating, named PDES, PDES-GO-2, PDES-GO-4, min. After vulcanization, the samples were placed for 24 h and then
PDES-GO-6, and PDES-GO-8, respectively. subjected to H pull-out test.

Fig. 4. (a) TG curves and (b) DTG curves of AF, PDES-GO-4, AF-PDES, AF-PDES-GO-2, AF-PDES-GO-4, AF-PDES-GO-6 and AF-PDES-GO-8.

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H. Xu et al. Applied Surface Science 660 (2024) 159955

Fig. 5. TEM images of (a) AF-PDES-GO-6 and AFM images of (b) GO.

2.4. Characterization hydrogen bonding crosslinking network [10,33]. In addition, the

stretching vibration at 2937 cm− 1 was attributed to -C–H in methyl
Synthesized AF-PDES-GO-x chemical structures were measured by groups, and a small amount of methyl groups appeared on the AF-PDES
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR, IS50, Thermo Scientific, and AF-PDES-GO-x surfaces compared to the untreated AFs, demon­
CN). The surface elements and chemical composition of AF and AF- strating the successful construction of PDES and PDES-GO-x coating on
PDES-GO-x were detected by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, the AF surfaces.
ESCALAB 220i-XL). The thermogravimetric analysis (TG, 209F3, XPS was used as a surface analysis technique to examine the surface
NETZSCN, heating up speed 10 ℃/min) was used to determine the mass elements of the AF samples. Fig. 3 displayed the wide-scan and high-
fraction of modified AF accounted for by PDES-GO-x after processing. resolution spectra of AF, AF-PDES, and AF-PDES-GO-6. The wide-scan
And static bond strength of vulcanized rubber and AF cord after modi­ XPS profiles of the different AF samples were shown in Fig. 3a. AF-
fication were tested by universal testing machine (INSTRON, 3365B) PDES and AF-PDES-GO-6 showed signals of Cl, C, N and O near
according to the standards GB/T 2942–2009. The AF surface 197.09, 284.8, 402.17, and 532 eV, respectively, whereas AF showed no
morphology and surface chemical composition were characterized using signal of Cl near 197.09 eV, indicating that the PDES and PDES-GO-x
field emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM, SU8000). The sam­ coating were successfully constructed on the AF surface. The C1s
ple AF-PDES-GO-6 was embedded into epoxy resin, which was then cut spectra of AF-PDES (Fig. 3e) and AF-PDES-GO-6 (Fig. 3f) appeared to
into ultrathin sections. Cross-sectional views of AF-PDES-GO-6 was have three extra signals at 288.9 eV (HO-C = O), 286.5 eV (C-OH/C-O-
analyzed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM, JEM2100). The C), and 285.8 eV (C-N) as compared to the C1s spectra of AF (Fig. 3d),
surface morphology of GO and modified AF were characterized by which originated the reactive functional groups on the surface of AF-
atomic force microscopy (AFM, MicroNano D-5A). AFM (Model icon, PDES, which indicated that PDES was successfully constructed on the
Bruker, Germany) was used to determine the Young’s modulus in the AF surface. And after the addition of GO, the amount of C-OH on the
interior microdomains of the composite materials. In DMT modulus surface of AF-PDES-GO-6 increased significantly and the amount of HO-
mode, the surface was scanned in contact mode to obtain micro-zone C = O decreased, which was due to the large amount of C-OH and HO-C
Young’s modulus values. Dynamic mechanical property analysis of AF- = O on the surface of GO. However, due to the addition of GO, the
PDES-x/NR was measured by dynamic thermomechanical analyzer content of acrylic acid in the coating decreased, which ultimately led to
(DMA, EPLEXOR-150 N, GABO, Germany). DMA test selects stretch the decrease in the amount of HO-C = O in the coating. The FWHM of
mode, and the scanning temperature range was − 65 to 65℃. The static AF, AF-PDES and AF-PDES-GO-6 carbon-containing functional groups
stress was 70 N, the dynamic stress was 60 N, the static strain was 5 %, are shown in Table 2. Compared with AF, the N1s spectra (Fig. 3b) and
the dynamic strain was 0.25 %, the heating rate was 2 ℃/min, and the O1s spectra (Fig. 3c) showed signal peaks at 401.8 eV (NH/NH2) and
frequency was 10 Hz. 532.19 eV (C-OH), respectively. This further indicated that the PDES
and PDES-GO-6 successfully constructed coating on the AF surface. The
3. Results and discussion AF surface was enriched with active functional groups such as hydroxyl,
carboxyl and amino groups, as well as large molecular weight PEI, which
3.1. Surface structure and elemental analysis of modulus interfacial layer improved the interfacial adhesion between AF and NR.

The FTIR spectra of AF, AF-PDES and AF-PDES-GO-x samples are

presented in Fig. 2. It is evident that the stretching vibration peak at 3.2. Mass fraction and microscopic morphology of the modulus interfacial
1623 cm− 1 was the -C = O of the amide group and has shifted from the layer
typical 1700 cm− 1 to a lower wave number [32]. Similarly, the
stretching vibration peak at 3383 cm− 1, representing –OH, has shifted To further confirm the successful construction of the coating on the
from the usual 3450 cm− 1 to a lower wave number. These shifts indi­ AF surface and determine the coating mass fraction, we characterized it
cated the presence of a hydrogen bonding cross-linkage network in both using TG. From the DTG curves in Fig. 4(b), it was evident that AF
AF-PDES, and AF-PDES-GO-x. The stretching vibration peak at 1723 exhibited a decomposition peak at 570 ◦ C, PDES and PDES-4 displayed a
cm− 1 corresponds to -C = O in –COOH and has shifted from the typical decomposition peak at 285 ◦ C, and AF-PDES-GO-x exhibited a decom­
1770 cm− 1 to a low wave number, further confirming the existence of a position peak at each of 285 ◦ C and 570 ◦ C. This observation suggested
that PDES-GO-x has been successfully constructed as a coating on the AF

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H. Xu et al. Applied Surface Science 660 (2024) 159955

Fig. 6. SEM and AFM images of AF with various surfaces: (a) AF, (b) AF-PDES, (c) AF-PDES-GO-2, (d) AF-PDES-GO-4, (e) AF-PDES-GO-6 and (f) AF-PDES-GO-8.

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H. Xu et al. Applied Surface Science 660 (2024) 159955

Fig. 7. Micro morphologies and C element distribution in cross-section of composites: (a) AF/NR, (b) AF-PDES/NR, (c) AF-PDES-GO-2/NR, (d) AF-PDES-GO-4/NR,
(e) AF-PDES-GO-6/NR and (f) AF-PDES-GO-8/NR.

surface. By calculating the residual carbon mass in Fig. 4(a), it was phase. In the pristine AF/NR composites (Fig. 7a), the carbon content
determined that the coating mass accounted for 8.5 %-9% of the decreased significantly from AF to NR. However, after constructed PDES
modified AF mass fraction, and the overall error was within a control­ (Fig. 7b) and PDES-GO-x (Fig. 7c-f) coating on the AF surface, the curves
lable range. Fig. 5 showed the TEM images of the cross-section of sample flattened out, and the interface layer thickness increased from 223.32
AF-PDES-GO-6 and the AFM images of GO, respectively. As shown in nm to approximately 1700 nm, respectively. This indicates that PDES
Fig. 5(b), the thickness of the GO flake layer we used is about 2 nm, and and PDES-GO-x form an interface layer at a certain scale between the
GO was uniformly dispersed in the coating (Fig. 5a), which further composite phases.
demonstrated that PDES and GO together constructed a high- To determine the interphase thickness, modulus platform and
performance composite coating on the AF surface. modulus gradient transition of AF/NR, AF-PDES/NR and AF-PDES-GO-
x/NR composites, we quantitatively characterized the composites
3.3. Surface morphology of AF after quantitatively constructing a using the QNM mode of AFM. Fig. 8 presented AFM images and modulus
modulus interfacial layer analysis of AF/NR, AF-PDES/NR and AF-PDES-GO-x/NR composites. As
can be seen in Fig. 8(a2), the modulus falls off a cliff from AF to NR
Fig. 6(a1-f1) and (a2-f2) showed the SEM images illustrating surface matrix. The modulus gap was large and the interphase thickness was
morphology of the AF after undergoing various treatments. Concur­ only 147.98 nm. In Fig. 8 (a2-f2), it can be seen that with the gradual
rently, Fig. 6(a3-f3) and (a4-f4) showcase AFM images the surface increase of GO content, there was a gradually increasing modulus
morphology of AF post different treatments. From Fig. 6(a1 and a2), it platform between the AF and NR, and the interphase thickness between
was evident that the AF surface appeared smooth, lacking significant the AF and the coating gradually became larger, from 283 nm to 346 nm.
concavity and convexity, with a diameter of approximately 11 μm. The interphase thickness between the coating and NR was large, about
Subsequent AFM surface roughness analysis (Ra) (Fig. 6a3) and step 600 nm, indicating better wettability and diffusivity between the
scanning analysis (a4) revealed that the Ra of the unmodified AF surface coating and NR. The increase in interphase thickness, the presence of a
measured 6.77 nm, and the step scanning curve was rounded and modulus platform and the transition in the modulus gradient will act as a
smooth. However, as demonstrated in Fig. 6(b-f), after constructed by buffer in the process of external stress transfer and improve the effi­
surface coating, AF-PDES, AF-PDES-GO-2, AF-PDES-GO-4, AF-PDES-GO- ciency of stress transfer.
6 and AF-PDES-GO-8 exhibited an increased diameter compared to AF, To further investigate the influence of the modulus interfacial layer
reaching 12 μm-13 μm. With an escalating mass fraction of GO, Ra with a platform role on the interfacial bonding performance of AF/NR
exhibited a trend of initially increasing and then decreasing, reaching a composites, we conducted H pull-out tests to determine the maximum
peak value of 100.26 nm when the GO mass fraction was 6 %. Specif­ force required for interfacial debonding to reflect the influence of the
ically, AF-PDES-GO-6 (Figs. e1 and e2) showcased concave-convex modulus interfacial layer on the interfacial performance of the com­
phenomena resembling riveted structures, enhancing physical entan­ posites. The test results are shown in Fig. 9. Compared with the un­
glement with NR and improving the interfacial bonding properties be­ modified AF, as the size of the modulus interfacial layer approached the
tween AF and NR. modulus of the AF, the maximum force required for interfacial
debonding exhibited a trend of increasing and then decreasing, reaching
up to 20.35 N, marking a notable improvement of 230.4 %. This sug­
3.4. Relationship between modulus interfacial layer and interface gested that the interfacial bond strength of AF/NR composites was
performance closely linked to the modulus interlayer with a platform role between AF
and NR.
As shown in Fig. 7, EDS linear scanning was employed to confirm the In order to further evaluate the influence of the modulus interfacial
distribution of carbon (C) elements in the interface region of the com­ layer with a platform role on the macroscopic mechanical properties of
posites and analyze the microstructure of the fiber-to-rubber interface

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H. Xu et al. Applied Surface Science 660 (2024) 159955

Fig. 8. AFM images of the composites and Young’s modulus variation plots of the composite interfaces: (a1 and a2) AF/NR, (b1 and b2) AF-PDES/NR, (c1 and c2)
AF-PDES-GO-2/NR, (d1 and d2) AF-PDES-GO-4/NR, (e1 and e2) AF-PDES-GO-6/NR and (f1 and f2) AF-PDES-GO-8/NR.

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H. Xu et al. Applied Surface Science 660 (2024) 159955

stress concentration occurred at the fragile AF/NR composite interface.

Due to the small interphase region, the stress concentration could only
expand rapidly along the AF surface, and the final H pull-out force was
the smallest, which indicated the lowest interfacial shear strength. From
the SEM image of the AF after the pull-out test in Fig. 11(a), it can be
seen that the surface of the AF was smooth and there was almost no
rubber residue, which proved that the bond failure occured on the sur­
face of the AF. Fig. 11(b) illustrates a schematic model of the interfacial
strengthening mechanism of AF-PDES/NR composites. Since a PDES
coating was constructed on the AF surface, an interfacial layer of about
1.5 μm exists between the AF and the NR, and the modulus of this
interfacial layer was slightly higher than that of the NR. Consequently,
the modulus interfacial layer with a platform role facilitates a uniform
transfer of stresses due to the increase in the interphase region and the
decrease in the modulus difference, keeping the stress concentration
points away from the AF surface. More interestingly, as the modulus of
the modulus interfacial layer with a platform role increase, the stress
concentration point could effectively shifted from the AF surface to the
platform modulus region. As can be seen from the SEM images in Fig. 11
(b and c), the amount of rubber residue on the AF surface after the AF
pull-out test increased gradually with the increased of the modulus of
Fig. 9. Comparison of H pull-out force of AF/NR, AF-PDES/NR, AF-PDES-GO- the modulus interfacial layer, which proved that the bond failure was
2/NR, AF-PDES-GO-4/NR, AF-PDES-GO-6/NR and AF-PDES-GO-8/NR. transferred from the AF surface to the platform modulus region. This
causes microcracks meander in the platform interfacial modulus region,
the composites, we conducted dynamic mechanical property tests on the enhances the interfacial shear strength of the AF-PDES-GO-6/NR
composites, as shown in Fig. 10. If there was good adhesion between the (Fig. 11c) composite.
AF and the NR matrix, the modulus interfacial layer we constructed
should limit the movement of the NR molecular chains and exhibit a 4. Conclusion
high storage modulus (E’). At the same time, the relationship between
the peak value of the loss factor (tan δ max)c of the composite, the peak A modulus interfacial layer with a platform role was constructed
value of the matrix loss factor (tan δ max)m and the interfacial bonding between the AF reinforcement and the NR matrix using a PDES. The
could be expressed as follow: (tan δ max)c = (tan δ max)m - αVf[34]. Where interfacial and mechanical properties of the AF-PDES-GO-x/NR com­
Vf is the volume fraction of the fiber and α is the interfacial adhesion posites were significantly enhanced compared to the AF/NR composites,
parameter. The larger the α, the better the interfacial adhesion. NR was showing a maximum increase of 230.4 % in H pull-out force. The
the matrix, and the α values of the other composites were shown in improved interfacial properties in the AF-PDES-GO-x/NR composites
Table 3 with a fiber Vf of 3.84 %. As shown in Fig. 10(a), before the glass were attributed to gradient shifts in the modulus platform and interfacial
transition temperature, the energy storage modulus of the composites modulus, relieving stress concentration and inhibiting microcrack
showed a tendency to increasing and then decrease with the increase of expansion. The improved interfacial properties ultimately improve the
interfacial modulus. The storage modulus of AF-PDES-GO-6/NR com­
posites was the largest, reaching 6,758.09 MPa, which was in agreement
with the results of the H pull-out test. From Table 3, it can be seen that α
tended to increase and then decrease with the interfacial modulus, and Table 3
the AF-PDES-GO-6/NR composite has the largest α value, indicating that DMA property parameters of different samples.
AF-PDES-GO-6/NR composites has the best interfacial adhesion. Sample E′/MPa Tan δ max α
A schematic model illustrating the interface reinforcement mecha­ NR 2987.98 1.471 /
nism based on a modulus interfacial layer with a platform role is shown AF/NR 3633.19 0.678 20.65
in Fig. 11. Stress concentration points tend to occur at locations where AF-PDES/NR 5335.80 0.563 23.65
AF-PDES-GO-2/NR 5693.50 0.597 22.76
stress transfer encounters high modulus materials. In Fig. 11(a),
AF-PDES-GO-4/NR 6097.83 0.574 23.36
depicting a schematic model of the strengthening mechanism at the AF/ AF-PDES-GO-6/NR 6758.09 0.495 25.49
NR interface, a large modulus difference arises due to the sharp decrease AF-PDES-GO-8/NR 6414.43 0.532 24.45
in modulus at the NR to AF interface. During the H pull-out test, the

Fig. 10. DMA of NR and its composites: (a) storage modulus, (b) tan δ and (c) range reduction diagram for b-chart.

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H. Xu et al. Applied Surface Science 660 (2024) 159955

Fig. 11. Schematic model of interphase reinforcing mechanisms in (a) AF/NR (b) AF-PDES/NR and (c) AF-PDES-GO-6/NR composites.

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