Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

College of Applied Sciences

Department of Geology
Engineering Geology (CEng 2112) (Cr. Hr. 2)
For Civil Engineering 2nd Year Students
By
Belachew M. , ([Link] Geological Engineering)

June, 2022
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Chapter 2. Minerals, Types of Rocks, Their Formation And Geological
Structure
(By Belachew Moges, MSc.) July, 2022

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 2.1 Minerals
2.1.1 Definition of minerals and its properties
A) Definitions of minerals ❖ To others “a mineral is a valuable natural
❖ For Geologist Mineral is material obtained from the earth”.
1. Minerals are natural - they form without any human A few exceptions to the mineral definition are

intervention. (1) precious gemstones like diamond can be

synthetically produced under controlled
2. Minerals are inorganic – they are not derived from living
laboratory condition.
organisms.
(2) Coal, petroleum etc. are typical organic
3. Minerals are pure – they have a definite chemical
substances that are considered as minerals
composition.
(3) Asphalt, mercury, petroleum natural gas
4. Minerals are solid - they are firm; don't droop, melt or are semisolids, liquids and gas respectively,
evaporate under normal conditions. but they are considered as minerals.
5. Minerals are crystalline – their atoms are arranged in
distinct patterns (crystalline structure). 3
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 B) Composition and formation of minerals
Formation of Minerals: it can be formed:
Elements:
✓From the solidification (crystallization) of
▪ Basic building blocks of
minerals silicate melts on cooling (when temperature
▪ Over 100 are known (92 lowers below the melting point)
naturally occurring)
✓By the precipitation of crystals from water
Atoms:
▪ Smallest particles of matter solution
▪ Retains all the characteristics of ✓By sublimation from vapor phase
an element
✓From re-crystallization of other solids during
alteration and metamorphic processes

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 C) Identification of minerals Physical properties of minerals: Determined
by observation or performing a simple test.
❖ We can distinguish minerals by various Several physical properties are used to identify
physical, chemical and/ or optical hand samples of minerals.
characteristics. ✓ Color
❖ Since chemistry is not important in the ✓ Streak (color at its powdered form)
field, most minerals are identified in ✓ Hardness (resistance to being scratched)
the field by their physical properties. ✓ Crystal form (internal geometric
arrangement of the atoms that make
up the crystal structure)
✓ Cleavage (tendency of the minerals to
break along weak zones)
✓ Fracture (irregular broken surface)
✓ Luster (surface shininess – a bright and
shiny condition)
✓ Density (m/v) Specific gravity etc.
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(a) Color:
▪ Generally unreliable for mineral Quartz
identification (SiO2)
▪ Often highly variable due to exhibits
slight changes in mineral a variety
chemistry
of colors
▪ Exotic colorations of certain
minerals produce gemstones

(b) Streak: Color of a mineral in its powdered form

Streak is obtained on an unglazed porcelain plate

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(c) Hardness:
❖ Resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching
❖ All minerals are compared to a standard scale called the
Mohs scale of hardness
❖ Moh’s scale relates the hardness of minerals with some
common objects, such as fingernails, copper pennies, a steel
knife blade, and glass.

(d) Crystal form:

✓ External expression of a mineral’s internal structure
✓ Often interrupted due to competition for space and
rapid loss of heat

Cubic crystals
of pyrite

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(e) Cleavage:
▪ Tendency to break along planes of weak
bonding
▪ Produces flat, shiny surfaces
▪ Described by resulting geometric shapes:
(i) number of planes, and
(ii) angles between adjacent planes

Fluorite, halite, and calcite all exhibit perfect cleavage

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Common cleavage directions 8
(f) Fracture:
Conchoidal
Absence of cleavage when a mineral is broken fracture
(g) Luster:
▪ Appearance of a mineral in reflected light
▪ Two basic categories:
- Metallic
- Nonmetallic (h) Specific Gravity:
▪ Other descriptive terms include vitreous, silky, or earthy ▪ Weight of a mineral/weight of an equal
volume of water
▪ Average value = 2.7
(i) Other properties:
▪ Magnetism
▪ Reaction to hydrochloric acid
▪ Malleability
▪ Double refraction
▪ Taste
▪ Smell
Galena (PbS) displays metallic luster
▪ Elasticity
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 2.1.2 Types of Minerals B). Based on their origins/genesis (processes of
Nearly 4000 minerals have been named
formation):
➢ Minerals can be classified into various categories
based on various parameters: i). Primary minerals (those formed directly from cooling of
A) Based on their Economic Importance magma, for example olivine) and
B) Based on their origins/genesis (processes of ii). Secondary minerals ( those that are formed from
formation):
secondary processes such as sedimentation and metamorphism,
C) Based on their importance to the naming of rocks:
for example Malachite).
D) Based on their chemical compositions:
C). Based on their importance to the naming of rocks:
i). Essential minerals ( those whose presence or absence
A. Based on their Economic Importance:
affects the naming of a rock, for example Quartz in Granite
Economic minerals (those explored for their economic
rocks that is to be a granite rock it must have quartz, feldspar,
importance, for example Au, Ag, Cu, Fe etc) mica as essential minerals) and
Rock forming minerals (those minerals which are ii). Accessory minerals (those whose presence or absence do
constituents of rocks, for example the silicate minerals). not affect the naming of the rock, for example Zircon in
granite).
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D). Based on their chemical compositions:
Minerals are classified according to their chemical
& mineralogical composition in to
✓ Native elements ,
✓ Sulphates , Elemental abundances in continental crust
✓ Oxides,
✓ Carbonates,
✓ Halides (NaCl),
✓ Sulphides,
✓ Phosphates,
✓ Arsenides and
✓ Silicates.
Rock-forming minerals:
✓ Common minerals that make up most of the rocks
of Earth’s crust
✓ Only a few dozen members
✓ Composed mainly of the 8 elements that make up
over 98% of the continental crust 11
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 2.1.3 Mineral Groups
I. Silicates:
✓ Most important mineral group (ii) Nonsilicate minerals
✓ Comprise most rock-forming minerals ✓Typically divided into classes based on anions
✓ Very abundant due to large % of silicon and ✓Comprise only 8% of Earth’s crust
oxygen in Earth’s crust ✓Often occur as constituents in sedimentary rocks
✓ Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron
✓ Fundamental building block
✓ Four oxygen ions surrounding a much smaller
silicon ion
Reading assignment: What are the
different types of silicate groups?

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 2 .2 Rocks
2.2.1 Definition of Rocks And Rock Cycle
Rock: solid mixture of two or more minerals.

The way one kind of rock (sedimentary,

igneous, or metamorphic) can turn into
another kind of rock.

2.2.2 Types of Rocks

1. Igneous Rock
2. Sedimentary Rock
3. Metamorphic rock
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1. Igneous Rocks
Igneous rock is defined as any rock that has cooled from molten rock.

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Magma - Liquid rock under the ground. Magma evolves as the hotter minerals
crystallize and settle to the bottom of
Lava - Liquid rock above the ground. the magma chamber
Intrusive Igneous Rocks - Rocks that cool
from a melt below the ground.

Extrusive Igneous Rocks –Rocks that cool

from a melt above the ground.

The nature of magma: consists

three components:
✓ Liquid portion = melt
✓ Solids, if any, are silicate minerals
✓ Volatiles = dissolved gases in the melt, Crystallization of magma:
including water vapor (H2O), carbon ❖ Cooling of magma results in the systematic arrangement of
dioxide (CO2), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). ions into orderly patterns.
❖ The silicate minerals resulting from crystallization form in a
predictable order (texture, size and arrangement of mineral
grains).

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 A). Igneous textures Types of igneous textures
(a) Aphanitic (fine-grained) texture:
Texture is used to describe the overall ✓ Rapid rate of cooling
appearance of a rock based on the size, ✓ Microscopic crystals
shape, and arrangement of interlocking ✓ May contain vesicles (holes from gas bubbles)
minerals. (b) Phaneritic (coarse-grained) texture:
Factors affecting crystal size: ✓ Slow cooling

(i) Rate of cooling: ✓ Large, visible crystals

(c) Porphyritic texture:
▪ Slow rate = fewer but larger crystals
✓ Minerals form at different temperatures
▪ Fast rate = many small crystals
✓ Large crystals (phenocrysts) are embedded in a matrix of
▪ Very fast rate forms glass smaller crystals (groundmass)
(ii) % of silica (SiO2) present (d) Glassy texture:
(iii)Dissolved gases ✓ Very rapid cooling of lava
✓ Resulting rock is called obsidian
(e) Pyroclastic texture:
(f) Pegmatitic texture:
✓ Fragmental appearance produced by violent volcanic eruption.
▪ Exceptionally coarse grained
✓ Often appear more similar to sedimentary rocks
▪ Form in late stages of crystallization of
granitic magmas 16
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Aphanitic texture Phaneritic texture Porphyritic texture

Glassy texture

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 B). Igneous Compositions
Granitic versus basaltic
Igneous rocks are composed primarily compositions
of silicate minerals: (i) Granitic composition:
(a) Dark (or ferromagnesian) silicates ▪ Light-colored silicates
➢ Olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica ▪ Termed felsic (feldspar and silica) in
(b) Light (or nonferrous magnesian) silicates composition
➢ Quartz, muscovite mica, and feldspars ▪ High amounts of silica (SiO2)
▪ Major constituent of continental crust

Other compositional groups (ii) Basaltic composition:

(iii) Intermediate (or andesitic) composition ▪ Dark silicates and calcium-rich
▪ Contain 25% or more dark silicate minerals feldspar
▪ Associated with explosive volcanic activity ▪ Termed mafic (magnesium and iron)
in composition
(iv) Ultramafic composition ▪ Higher density than granitic rocks
▪ Rare composition that is high in magnesium and iron ▪ Comprise the ocean floor and many
▪ Composed entirely of ferromagnesian silicates volcanic islands
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 Silica content
✓ as an indicator of composition
✓ Exhibits a considerable range
in the crust from 45% to 70%

Silica content influences magma

behavior:
✓ Granitic magmas = high
silica content and viscous
✓ Basaltic magmas = much
lower silica content and
more fluid-like behavior

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Bowen’s reaction series

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 C) Naming of Igneous Rocks
(a) Granite: (b) Rhyolite:
✓ Phaneritic ✓ Extrusive equivalent of granite
✓ Over 25% quartz, about 65% or more feldspar ✓ May contain glass fragments and vesicles
✓ Very abundant - often associated with mountain building ✓ Aphanitic texture
✓ The term granite includes a wide range of mineral ✓ Less common and less voluminous than
compositions Note: a to d are acidic rocks. granite

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(c) Obsidian
✓ Dark colored
✓ Glassy texture

(d) Pumice
✓ Volcanic
✓ Glassy texture
✓ Frothy appearance with numerous voids
✓ Pumice is very glassy and sharp, with
countless vesicles.

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(e) Andesite (f) Diorite
✓ Volcanic origin ✓ Plutonic equivalent of andesite
✓ Aphanitic texture ✓ Coarse grained

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 (g) Basalt (h) Gabbro
✓ Volcanic origin ✓ Intrusive equivalent of basalt
✓ Aphanitic texture ✓ Phaneritic texture consisting of pyroxene and
✓ Composed mainly of pyroxene and calcium- calcium-rich plagioclase
rich plagioclase feldspar ✓ Significant % of the oceanic crust
✓ Most common extrusive igneous rock
Note: Basalt is basic in composition

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(i) pyroclastic rocks
▪ Composed of fragments ejected during a volcanic
eruption
▪ Varieties:
– Tuff = ash-sized fragments
– Volcanic breccia = particles larger than ash

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 D). Engineering considerations of igneous rocks
1. The use of igneous rocks as aggregate in Portland cement concrete can cause
problems.

✓ In some instances fine - grained siliceous materials have caused volume expansion.
✓ The alkali-silica reaction problem can be alleviated by using low- alkali cements or non-reactive aggregates,
or by adding pozzolans to the concrete mix.
✓ The reactive igneous rocks include those that contain volcanic glass with a composition ranging from
Rhyolite through Andesite (Acidic volcanic rocks).
✓ Basaltic glass contains too little silica to be reactive.
✓ Pyroclastic rocks containing glass with a high silica composition also can be reactive (Eg. Tuff, Volcanic
breccia, Obsidian, and Pumice).

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2. Very coarse grained igneous rocks are undesirable for use as aggregates for
construction.
▪ With increasing grain size, abrasion resistance is reduced, and the rock is less
suitable for use as a base course (road base), concrete aggregate, or source of
riprap (large stone used for slope protection along rivers and sea coasts).

[Link] presence of certain minerals in igneous rocks makes the rock undesirable for some
engineering uses.
▪ Zeolite minerals are undesirable in aggregates that will be exposed to the weathering
process.

4. In foundations for engineering structures such as dams, bridge piers, and underground
installations, weathered igneous rock and/or any other rock is to be avoided.
▪ Excavation must extend through this material into sound rock.

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5. Dimension stone includes rock used for tombstones and monuments plus facing
stone for buildings.
▪ Igneous rocks are commonly used for this purpose because of their resistance to
weathering, and spalling of the surface must be avoided when selecting the
proper building stone.
▪ Strong, fresh and unaltered igneous rocks yield the most suitable materials.
▪ Common, unweathered and unaltered course grained varieties are selected for
building stone: these range from Granite to Gabbro.

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2. Sedimentary Rocks

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 A). Introduction
Formed by compaction of clasts, a chemical ➢Sedimentary rocks are formed from deposit of
precipitate, or and evaporative residue. materials/ sediments (“sedo” meaning to settle or sit
✓ Clast – A particle of a rock.
down) and distinguished from other rock types by
✓ Chemical precipitate – a fine powder that comes
out of solution. the layering or stratification characteristic.
✓ Evaporative residue – a fine powder left over when
water with minerals dissolved in it evaporates. ➢Sedimentary rocks are formed by consolidation
and cementation of sediments deposited under
water.

➢Sedimentary rocks also include the rocks formed

by accumulation of chemically precipitated or
organically derived material.

✓ Sedimentary rocks contain information about what

earth surface environments were like in the past.
➢Sedimentary rocks are important for economic
considerations because they may contain important
fossil fuels (Coal Petroleum and natural gas),
Sources of iron, aluminum, and manganese
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 c). Lithification and Diagenesis:
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks Lithification:
✓is a process by which soft and loose sediments are
The formation of sedimentary rocks takes place in three converted into hard and firm rocks.
stages: ➢During this process many physical and chemical changes take
a) Weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks, place within the sediments. Such changes are called the
b) Sedimentation, and diagenetic changes and the process is described is diagenesis.
c) Lithification and diagenesis. Diagenesis = chemical, physical, and biological changes that
take place after sediments are deposited, occurs within the upper
few kilometers of Earth’s crust.
a). Weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks:
The diagenesis includes three processes:
✓ During weathering and erosion, the pre-existing (i) compaction,
rocks and their constituent minerals are broken (ii) cementation, and
down. (iii) recrystallization.
✓ The material thus produced is called the “sediment”. (i) Compaction:
The sediments are usually transported and deposited ✓compaction occurs when the weight of overlying layers
in areas of accumulation by the action of water or compresses the sediments below. As the grains of sediments are
less frequently by glacial or wind action. pressed closer and closer together, there is considerable
reduction in pore space and volume.
✓ During transportation, the sediments are roughly
✓Fine grained sediments, such as clays are consolidated more
sorted and deposited according to size. effectively by this process.
b) Sedimentation: The process of accumulation of (ii) Cementation: when water circulates through the pores of
sediments at a site of deposition is called coarse grained sediment, dissolved mineral matter is precipitated
“sedimentation”. The material carried in solution b/n the grains which causes cementation.
precipitates and accumulates. It is the intermediate The most common cementing materials are silica, calcium
stage in the formation of sedimentary rocks. carbonate, iron oxides and clay minerals.
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 (iii) Recrystallization:
Recrystallization is the development of more
stable minerals from less stable ones.
➢although most sedimentary rocks are lithified by
compaction, cementation or a combination of both,
some are consolidated chiefly by the recrystallization
of their constituents.

➢Chemically formed rocks, such as limestones,

dolomites, salt and gypsum are the examples of the
rocks consolidated by recrystallization.

Figure 1.1. Lithification of sand grains to become sandstone.

(A) Loose sand grains are deposited with open pore space
between the grains.
(B) The weight of overburden compacts the sand into a tighter
arrangement, reducing pore space.
(C) Precipitation of cement in the pores by ground water binds
the sand into the rock sandstone, which has a clastic texture.
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 B). Types of sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are classified into two on the basis of
their mode of formation (source of the material).
a) Detrital sedimentary rocks
These are: The chief constituents of detrital rocks include:
a. Clastic (detrital) rocks:- transported sediment ▪ Clay minerals
as solid particles or Sedimentary rocks formed ▪ Quartz
from compacted clasts (particles of rock).
▪ Feldspars
b. Non-clastic (non-detrital) rocks or chemical
rocks – sediment that was once in solution or ▪ Micas
Sedimentary rocks formed from compacted Particle size is used to distinguish among the
precipitates or evaporate residues. various rock types

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Depending upon the size of constituent grains, the Types of detrital sedimentary
clastic rocks are classified into three groups:
rocks
1). Rudaceous (Coarse Grain Clastic) Rocks:
Common detrital sedimentary rocks:
✓These rocks are formed by accumulation of bigger rocks
fragments such as gravels , pebbles and boulders.
(i) Shale
✓ If the grains are rounded, the rock is called ✓ Mud-sized particles in thin layers that are
conglomerate and if the are angular, the rock is termed as commonly referred to as laminea
breccia. ✓ Most common sedimentary rock
2). Arenaceous (Medium Texture Clastic) Rocks:

✓These rocks are composed almost entirely of sand

grains.
✓When individual grains are rounded, the rock is
called sandstone, and grit if the grains are angular.
3). Argillaceous (Fine Texture Clastic) Rocks:

✓These rocks are made up of very fine grained

sediments.
✓Shale and mudstone are typical argillaceous rocks
which are composed of clay-sized sediments.
Shale with plant remains
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 (ii) Sandstone (iii) Conglomerate and breccia
✓ Composed of sand-sized particles ✓ Both are composed of particles greater than 2mm in
✓ Forms in a variety of environments diameter
✓ Quartz is the predominant mineral
✓ Conglomerate consists largely of rounded gravels;
often has a similar appearance to “concrete”
✓ Breccia is composed mainly of large angular
particles and fragments, which have not been
rounded

Quartz sandstone
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 b) Non-clastic (non-detrital) rocks or chemical
➢ Non-clastic rocks include those sedimentary rocks which (i) Carbonate Rocks:
are formed by chemical precipitation of minerals from ✓ Limestones and dolomites are the most abundant carbonate rocks.
water or by accumulation of remains of animals and plants ✓ They are formed by the chemical precipitation of calcium
➢ They are classified into two groups: carbonate from sea water.
(a) Limestone
1. Chemically formed rocks and
Most abundant chemical rock
2. Organically formed rocks. Composed chiefly of the mineral calcite
1) Chemically Formed Rocks: limestone includes, fossiliferous limestone, micritic
limestone, oolitic limestone and travertine
✓ These rocks are formed when mineral matter in solution is b) Dolostone:- Typically formed secondarily from limestone
precipitated from water, usually because of changes in
water temperature or in the chemical content of water.

✓ On the basis of composition, the chemically formed rocks

are classified as follows.

(i) Carbonate rock,

(ii) Evaporite rock,

(iii) Ferruginous Rocks and

(iv) Siliceous Deposits:

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(ii) Evaporite rock: (iii) Ferruginous Rocks:
✓Evaporation is the major process involved in the ✓This group includes those rocks which are formed by the
chemical precipitation of iron oxides.
deposition of chemical precipitates. ✓ Such rocks contain a high proportion of iron-bearing
✓ The salt deposits formed by the evaporation of saline minerals such as siderite, hematite, chamosite and pyrite.
✓ Iron-stone is an example of ferruginous rocks.
lakes are called the evaporites. (iv) Siliceous Deposits:
✓The principal minerals of these deposits are chlorides ✓Siliceous rocks are formed when silica is precipitated from
water.
and sulfates of Na, K, Mg and Ca. ✓ Examples of such deposits are flint, chert, jespar and
✓Rock-salt, gypsum (used for drywall, aspirin, Vitamin C agate.
Chert:Composed of microcrystalline quartz
tablets; ), anhydrite and potash (used for fertilizer) are by Varieties include flint and jasper (banded form is
far the most abundant minerals of evaporites. called agate)

Agate is a form of
banded chert
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(2) Organically Formed Rocks:
✓ These rocks are composed mainly of remains of animals or plants.
✓ Rocks containing organic matter belong to this group.
✓ These rocks also called the carbonaceous rocks. E.g., coal
Coal:- Different from other rocks because it is composed of organic material.
– Stages in coal formation (in order): Plant material, Peat, Lignite, Bituminous and Anthracite.

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Summarized classification of sedimentary rocks

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 C). Engineering considerations of sedimentary Rocks

1. Certain sedimentary rocks can be involved in the alkali- 4. Sedimentary rocks used as dimension stone for the
facing of buildings should be non-staining and resistant
silica reaction problem in Portland cement concrete.
to weathering effects.
Eg. Chert. ▪ High - purity, clastic limestones have proven
durable; clayey carbonates and quartz
2. Limestone and dolomite provide the best sedimentary
sandstones may be subject to spalling.
aggregates for construction materials. ▪ Quartz sandstones are used for flagstone walls.
▪ Siltstone, shale, quartz sandstone, and
5. Limestones, dolomites, and evaporite deposits can
conglomerate are generally not acceptable. exhibit an irregular soil - rock interface in their
weathering profiles.
3. Coarse - grained limestones abrade too severely to be
▪ Pinnacles (of rock) and pipes (of soil) are
used for aggregates for construction. common.
▪ Care must be taken to ensure that heavy
▪ Such rock participles lose gradation owing to a
structures are founded completely on solid rock.
reduction in particle size.

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6. Sinkholes and underground conduits in limestones 8. Conglomerates are basically weak sedimentary rocks
and dolomites must be recognized and properly dealt because they are poorly cemented and highly porous.
with when founding buildings in these terrains. ▪ Water movement through this rock removes the
▪ Changes in the existing ground surface or cement and increases permeability.
of sub- surface drainage by construction ▪ When encountered in dam abutment and
should be evaluated with great care. foundations, conglomerates require special
treatment to increase their strength and reduce
7. When water is impounded behind a dam, if permeability.
limestone lies at the rim or within the reservior area,
careful consideration is required. 9. Sedimentary rocks containing anhydrite are problematic to
▪ The presence of solution channels in the engineering structures such as dams, highways, and tunnels
limestone that extend to another surface because the mineral will alter to gypsum in the presence of
drainage area will lead to leakage unless the water, yielding an increase in volume and considerable stress
channels are filled by grouting or other on the structure adjacent to it.
techniques. ▪ The presence of anhydrite must be recognized and
steps taken to reduce its effect.

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Engineering importance of some sedimentary rocks
Conglomerates:
✓Are undesirable at the site of foundation of major civil engineering and hydraulic structures.
✓This is because of their incomplete cementation, Compositional heterogeneity of grains and roundness of the
grains.

Sandstone:
✓ Siliceous sandstone: It is best to be used as building stone, site of foundation, road stone, railway ballast, and for
tunneling.
✓ This is because, the grains are angular and quartz in composition, and well cemented.
Argillaceous sandstone:
✓ It is not desirable because clayey matter on contact with water forms weak and lubricating matter that causes
a slippery base.
Shale:
✓Is unsuitable as construction material.
✓This is because of their fine-grained nature and incompetent nature.

Limestone:
✓ massive ones used as building stone and as railway ballast. Limestone also used as foundation rock if there is no
karstific feature or cavernous structures.

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3. Metamorphic Rocks

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A) Definitions: B). Metamorphic Settings
Metamorphic rocks:-
❖ Contact or thermal metamorphism – driven by a rise in
➢ Are rocks that have been formed by temperature within the host rock.
metamorphism of pre-existing igneous, ❖ Hydrothermal metamorphism – chemical alterations
metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks, by from hot, ion-rich water.

heat and pressure without melting. ❖ Regional metamorphism:

➢Orthometamorphic rocks that have been ✓ Occurs during mountain building

originated from igneous , Example : Gneiss ✓ Produces the greatest volume of

metamorphic rock
➢Para metamorphic rocks that have been
✓ Rocks usually display zones of contact
originated from sedimentary rocks,
and/or hydrothermal metamorphism
Examples Quartzite, Marble

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Two principal types of contact metamorphism

Regional metamorphism occurs when rocks are squeezed

between converging plates during mountain building.

Hydrothermal metamorphism
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❖ Progressive regional metamorphism: from low grade (slate); to high grade (gneiss)
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 C). Agents of Metamorphism
(a) Heat (b) Pressure and differential stress
✓ Most important agent. ▪ Increases with depth.
✓ Recrystallization results in new, stable ▪ Confining pressure applies forces equally in all directions.
minerals. ▪ Rocks may also be subjected to differential stress which is
✓ Two sources of heat: unequal in different directions.
✓ Contact metamorphism – heat from magma.
✓ An increase in temperature with depth due to
the geothermal gradient.

Regional metamorphism caused by differential stress

associated with mountain building
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 Elongated Pebbles
▪ Differential stress causes mechanical rotation and elongation of
constituent minerals and clasts.

(c) Chemically active fluids

▪ Mainly water with other volatile components.
▪ Enhances migration of ions.
▪ Aids in recrystallization of existing minerals.
Sources of fluids:
- Pore spaces of sedimentary rocks.
- Fractures in igneous rocks.
- Hydrated minerals such as clays and micas.
(d) Parent rock (the importance of parent rock):
▪ Most metamorphic rocks have the same overall
chemical composition as the parent rock from which
they formed.
▪ Mineral makeup determines, to a large extent, the
degree to which each metamorphic agent will cause
change.
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 D). Metamorphic Textures
▪ Texture refers to the size, shape, and
arrangement of mineral grains.
▪ Foliation – any planar arrangement of
mineral grains or structural features within a
rock.
▪ Examples of foliation:
➢ Parallel alignment of flattened mineral grains
and pebbles.
➢ Compositional banding.
➢ Slaty cleavage where rocks can be easily split
into thin, tabular sheets.
Foliation can form in various ways including:
▪ Rotation of platy and/or elongated minerals.
▪ Recrystallization of minerals in the direction Foliation resulting from directed stress
of preferred orientation.
▪ Changing the shape of equidimensional
grains into elongated shapes that are
aligned. 50
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Types of foliated textures: (b) Schistosity
(a) Slaty cleavage ✓ Platy minerals are discernible with the unaided eye and exhibit a
✓ Closely spaced planar surfaces along which rocks planar or layered structure.
split ✓ Rocks having this texture are referred to as schist.
✓ Can develop in a number of ways depending on
metamorphic conditions and parent rock

Garnet-mica schist

51
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 (c) Gneissic
➢ During higher grades of metamorphism, ion migration
results in the segregation of minerals.
➢ Gneissic rocks exhibit a distinctive banded appearance.
c) Non foliated Rocks
✓ Those metamorphic rocks that lack foliation are referred to as
non foliated.
✓ Develop in environments where deformation is minimal
✓ Typically composed of minerals that exhibit equidimensional
crystals.

(d) Porphyro-blastic textures:

Large grains, called porphyro-blasts, surrounded by a fine-grained
matrix of other minerals.

Gneissic texture created by banding of dark

biotite flakes and lighter colored silicate minerals,
giving the rock a banded, or layered appearance.
Compiled by Belachew Moges 52
 E). Common metamorphic rocks
Slate (left) and phyllite (right), which is more
(i) Foliated rocks wavy and shiny)
(a) Slate
✓ Very fine-grained
✓ Excellent rock cleavage
✓ Most often generated from low-grade
metamorphism of shale, mudstone, or
siltstone
(b) Phyllite
✓ Gradation in the degree of metamorphism
between slate and schist.
✓ Platy minerals not large enough to be identified
with the unaided eye.
✓ Glossy sheen and wavy surfaces.
✓ Exhibits rock cleavage.
✓ Composed mainly of fine crystals of muscovite
and/or chlorite.

Compiled by Belachew Moges 53

 (c) Schist (d) Gneiss
✓ Medium- to coarse-grained ✓ Medium- to coarse-grained
✓ Platy minerals (mainly micas) predominate ✓ Banded appearance
✓ The term schist describes the texture ✓ High-grade metamorphism
✓ To indicate composition, mineral names are ✓ Often composed of white or light-colored feldspar-rich
used (such as mica schist) layers with bands of dark ferromagnesian minerals

Garnet mica schist is a high grade metamorphic

rock where individual plates of shiny mica are
easily visible. The dark red garnet crystals are
called almandine. Compiled by Belachew Moges 54
 (ii) Nonfoliated rocks

(a) Marble (b) Quartzite

✓ Coarse, crystalline ✓ Formed from a parent rock of quartz-rich
✓ Parent rock was limestone or dolostone sandstone
✓ Composed essentially of calcite or dolomite crystals ✓ Quartz grains are fused together
✓ Used as a decorative and monument stone
✓ Exhibits a variety of colors

Quartzite is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock formed

Marble is a crystalline rock from quartz sandstone. It is very hard and resistant,
formed by the metamorphosis and can be taxing on construction equipment.
of limestone 55
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 F). Classifying metamorphic rocks
Remarks:
✓ Any rock can become an igneous rock
if it is melted to a liquid and then is
cooled back into a solid.
✓ Any rock can become a metamorphic
rock if it is changed by heat and
pressure but not melted.
✓ Any rock can become a sedimentary
rock if it is weathered into clasts
(particles) and then the clasts are
compacted.
✓ Any rock can become a non-clastic
sedimentary rock if it is dissolved
in water.
✓ Then the dissolved minerals
could come out of the water by
evaporation or as a precipitate.
✓ And finally the evaporate residue or
precipitate is compacted into rock.

Compiled by Belachew Moges 56

 G). Engineering Considerations of Metamorphic Rocks
1. Foliated metamorphic rocks commonly yields rock 4. Slate, schist, and phyllite are subject to rock over
pieces with elongated shapes when crushed. break during blasting of rock cuts or tunnels because
✓ These rocks could cause mixing problems in of their pronounced rock cleavage.
fresh concrete and directional properties in ✓ High stress concentrations in tunnels may
occur for the same reason.
hardened concrete.
5. The stability of rock slopes is greatly affected by
2. Foliated rocks posses prominent directional
the orientation (attitude) of foliation with respect to
properties. the rock slope direction.
✓ Strength and permeability are affected by the ✓ When foliation dips steeply into an opening,
direction of foliation. rockslides commonly occur. Rock
✓ Care should be taken that loads (from bridges, bolts or tendons may be needed to
dams, buildings, and foundations) are not prevent such failures.
transferred to foliated rock masses in a 6. Marble is subject to the same problems as
direction closely parallel to the foliation. limestone.
3. Metamorphic rocks may be deeply weathered and ✓ Solution cavities and channels may develop,
resulting in similar problems of
the depth to bedrock is quite variable.
leakage of reservoir and collapse of newly
✓ Care must be taken to found heavy structures, or
formed sinkholes.
to located tunnel alignments, in sound
rock whenever possible. 57
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