Week 01: Site Investigation – I

CV3013: Foundation Engineering

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Dr Yi Yaolin
Office: N1-1C-94
Email: yiyaolin@[Link]
Phone: 6790-6309
Course Outline

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Recommended Text

Knappett, J.A. and Craig, R.F., “Craig’s Soil

Mechanics” 8th edition, Spon Press, 2012

3
Assessment

• Continuous Assessments (two quiz, 40%): 1st includes Site Investigation

and Foundation Design, details will be announced later by Prof. Leong

• 1 Exam (60%)
o 4 Questions
o CLOSED-BOOK
o Formulas and charts provided

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Learning Objectives

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

• Explain the purpose and importance of site

investigation.

• Evaluate the design soil parameters.

• Describe the failure modes of retaining walls and

foundation supports.

• Explain the design philosophy and the process involved

in a foundation project.

• Design simple foundation systems.

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Week 01: Topics

Overview

Subsurface
exploration or drilling
Planning and In-situ testing
requirements methods
Soil sampling and Geophysical
laboratory testing methods
Groundwater
monitoring

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Topic 1: Overview
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Why Site Investigation (SI)?

Leaning Tower of Pisa was built atop inadequate

foundation, and on very soft silty soil. Primary cause of tilt
was a fluctuating water table which would perch higher
on the tower’s north side, causing the tower’s
characteristic slant to the south. (Burland et al. 2003)

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Purpose and Tasks of Site Investigation

To obtain sufficient information about the ground so as to:

Purpose Enable safe and economic foundation design
Avoid difficulties during construction

1 Determine sequence, thickness, lateral extent of soil

strata and, if applicable, bedrock elevation
2 Obtain soil samples for identification, classification and
lab testing
3 Perform in-situ tests to assess ground/soil characteristics Tasks
in field
4 Determine location of ground water level and artesian
condition
5 Check for ground contamination
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Soil Profile and Soil Stratum
Soil profile

It’s the simplified representation of a vertical section

through subsoil that shows the thickness and sequence
of individual stratum.
Description of soil profile
Simple or regular
Nearly parallel strata
Erratic
Irregular boundaries, strata of varying thickness

Stratum
It is the relatively well-defined layer of soil which is in
contact with other layers of conspicuously different
characteristics.

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Origin Influences Soil Structures
Most natural soil deposits:
• Residual soil formed by in-place weathering
• Glacial deposit
• Wind-laid deposit

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Origin Influences Soil Structures

Deposit formed in standing water body

River-channel deposit
Flood-plain deposit
Delta deposit
Shore deposit

Floodplain
Shoreline

Uplands, Alluvial Lower delta plain

Channel
Upper delta plain Delta front
0 1 2 kilometers Lower delta plain wetlands Prodelta
Levee 12
Origin Influences Soil Structures
Deposits likely to have a fairly regular structure:

Flood-plain
Wind-laid deposits

Those formed in large body of standing

water at considerable distance from shore

Others soil types are likely

Consistency Relative Grain size
to be distinguished by large density
and erratic variations in:
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Residual Soil

Jurong Formation

Highly Variable

Faults

Source: Courtesy of Assoc Prof Leong Eng Choon, College of

Engineering, Nanyang Technological University
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How to Check Subsoil Conditions?

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How to Check Subsoil Conditions?

Drilling of boreholes in Conduct tests in the Collect soil samples from

the ground borehole (in-situ tests) different depths for
laboratory tests

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Topic 2: Planning and Requirements
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Planning a Site Investigation
Different phases of site investigation

Project assessment Detailed planning Synthesis of data

Laboratory testing
and office/desk study of SI task and interpretation

Field reconnaissance Subsurface exploration Groundwater

or site visit or drilling, sampling exploration and
and in-situ testing monitoring

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Planning a Site Investigation
Different phases of site investigation

Project assessment Detailed planning Synthesis of data

Laboratory testing
and office/desk study of SI task and interpretation

Field reconnaissance Subsurface exploration Groundwater

or site visit or drilling, sampling exploration and
and in-situ testing monitoring

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Desk Study

Is done before any actual SI work is

started on site. To collect and collate available
To get a preliminary understanding of relevant information.
probable soil conditions and special
features of geological significance. To assist in planning field works.
To gather different types of information
through maps (geological + topological), To analyse existing borehole
aerial photographs, satellite images. logs and other SI reports from
previous projects.

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Use of Aerial Photographs
Insights concerning the geology of a site can often be gained by a study of aerial photographs.
Experts can give valuable insights on surface geology.
Valuable inferences about subsurface conditions are based on geomorphic interpretation.
Features of landslides, sink holes may be detected from aerial photographs.
Previous river courses may be detected. Aerial photographs

2017
2001 21
Geological Map of Singapore (PWD, 1976)
Formation
Kallang
Old alluvium
Yishun
Jurong
Bukit Timah
Gombak Norite
Sajahat

0 5 10 km
NTU Campus

Generalised geological map of Singapore and soil sampling locations (modified from Pitts, 1984) 22
Planning a Site Investigation
Different phases of site investigation

Project assessment Detailed planning Synthesis of data

Laboratory testing
and office/desk study of SI task and interpretation

Field reconnaissance Subsurface exploration Groundwater

or site visit or drilling, sampling exploration and
and in-situ testing monitoring

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Site Reconnaissance/Survey

The site

Topography and orientation

Levees and marshy ground indicate
Access problems site is liable to periodical flooding

Vegetation and rock outcrops The site

Overhead and underground utilities

Unusual features The site

• Landslides
Crown hole collapse
• Streams and springs
• Sinkholes The site Caverns of
abandoned mines
Performance of surrounding buildings
History of site 24
Visit to site and surrounding areas, on foot
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Planning a Site Investigation
Different phases of site investigation

Project assessment Detailed planning Synthesis of data

Laboratory testing
and office/desk study of SI task and interpretation

Field reconnaissance Subsurface exploration Groundwater

or site visit or drilling, sampling exploration and
and in-situ testing monitoring

25
Detailed Planning

How many boreholes are to be dug?

How deep should the boreholes What is the type and frequency
be? of sampling?

What is the type and What are the type of laboratory

frequency of in-situ tests? tests required?

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Scope and Procedure of Ground Investigation

Depending on the type of project and Number and location of boreholes and in-
nature of subsoils, an investigation may situ tests such as CPT soundings should
involve all or a combination of: be planned to:

• Boreholes and trial pits • Obtain basic geological

• Undisturbed and disturbed soil structures / stratigraphy
sampling • Detect significant irregularities in
• In-situ tests such as SPT, FVT and the subsurface conditions
CPT etc. • Ensure that greater the variability
• Ground water monitoring of the ground conditions (more
erratic), greater the number of
• Geophysical methods
boreholes required

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Spacing of Boreholes

No hard-and-fast rule exists for determining the number of borings which are to
be advanced.
For most buildings, at least one boring at each corner and one at center should
provide a start.

Approximate spacing of boreholes

Type of project Spacing (m)
Spacing can be increased or decreased, Multistory building 10 – 30
depending on the condition of the subsoil. If
various soil strata are more or less uniform One-story industrial plants 20 – 60
and predictable, fewer boreholes are needed Highways 250 – 500
than in non-homogeneous soil strata. Residential subdivision 250 – 500
Dams and dikes 40 – 80
ASCE (1972)

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Spacing of Ground Investigation Points

Borehole or in-situ sounding locations

Eurocode 7, Part 2: 2007

Type of construction Spacing of investigation points
High-rise and industrial structures Grid pattern, at spacing of 15-40 m
Large-area structures Grid pattern, spacing < 60 m
Linear structures (e.g. roads, Along route, spacing of 20-200 m
railways, retaining wall etc.)
Special structures (e.g. bridges, 2-6 investigation points per
chimneys, machine foundations etc.) foundation
Dams and weirs 25- to 75-m spacing, along relevant
sections

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Spacing of Boreholes

How many borings are required and where should they be made?
150 m

90 m

BCA’s advisory note

1 boring every 300 m2 Therefore, 45 borings over 13,500 m2
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Phased Ground Investigation

For large and complex project, the SI should preferably be conducted in phases.

Preliminary phase Detailed phase

• Modest scale aimed primarily to • More extensive and carefully planned

obtain general characteristic of • Additional boreholes at strategic
site and subsoil data locations
• Guide planning of detailed • Soil samplings, both disturbed and
investigation phase undisturbed
• In-situ testing, both for profiling and
correlations with laboratory tests

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Phased Ground Investigation

150 m

90 m

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

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Depth of a Borehole

Depends on the type, Must extend below all soft/weak strata

size and complexity which have inadequate shear strength or
of project will give rise to significant settlement

Must include all strata likely to If rock is encountered, borehole

affect or be significantly affected by should extend by at least 3 m into
the structures and its construction rocks to confirm that bedrock (not
boulder) has been reached

BCA requirement for building of >=10 storeys:

Building supported by piles, the depth of the borehole should be greater of:
(a) more than 5 m into hard stratum with SPT blow count equal to or more than 100
(b) more than 3 times the pile diameter beyond the intended pile toe termination

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Depth of a Borehole

Depth of a borehole should extend to a depth where intensity and distribution of stresses
induced in the subsoil by proposed construction is appreciable.

B BI BII B = width of footing or

width of building
1.5B depending on how load
1.5B' is transmitted to soil

1.5B"

Most boreholes should concentrate within 1.5B but should perform a few deep ones which
penetrate into the underlying hard stratum.
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Depth of a Borehole

Estimate initial vertical effective stress ( ’0) with depth.

Determine net increase in effective stress ( ’)

under a foundation with depth.

Determine depth (D = D1) at which effective

stress increase ’ is equal to q/10 (q =
estimated net stress on foundation).

Determine depth (D = D2) at which ’/ ’0 = 0.05.

’
Determine depth (D = D3) which is the distance
from lower face of foundation to bedrock (if
encountered).
Depth ASCE (1972)

Choose the smallest of D1, D2, and D3.

= +
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Depth of Borings

0 is calculated from ground surface to required depth.

is calculated from lower face of foundation.
2:1 method is usually used to estimate .
P P ASCE (1972)

1
D B 2
2 D
1
2
1
B+D

P P P P
= = = =
Area at depth (D) 2
4×
A B + D × (L + D) B+D
P = the load applied on the foundation (KN) P = the load applied on the foundation (KN)
A = the area of the stress distribution at depth (D) A = diameter of the foundation (m)
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Depth of Borings
Check locations of underground utilities, services and tunnels.

Hitting something very

hard at this point, is it a
boulder, a rock, or
something else?

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Cost of Ground Investigation
Cost depends on
Type of project Location Extent of site Nature of subsoil strata

Chapman (2008): Penny wise, pound foolish

A 6-storey office building in Central London with a
project cost equal to £30M.
SI cost is typically within 0.1 to 2%
of total project cost. Hence, to The SI cost was halved from 45K to 22.5K. This led to a
reduce the scope of an SI for poorer foundation design due to less available ground
financial reason alone is never information which carried a cost of 210K.
really justified.
If project completion was delayed by more than a month
due to unforeseen ground conditions (which happens in
~20% of projects), the associated cost could have
exceeded 800K in lost rent and re-design.

Good SI should reduce vulnerability to unforeseen ground condition. 38

Cost of Ground Investigation

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Problem of Less Boreholes

Borehole 1 Borehole 2

Bedrock elevation
linearly interpolated
from two boreholes

Actual

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Problem of Less Boreholes

Rock!

Surprises can be costly!

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Surprises from Linear Interpolation

Design Actual

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
A B A B

Fill

Weak rock

Hard rock

Level of hard rock Hard rock

conjectured from Actual level of
bore holes A and B hard rock
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Problem of Too Many Borings

SI will take a
Expensive
long time
Tight
schedule
affects quality

43
Planning a Site Investigation
Different phases of site investigation

Project assessment Detailed planning Synthesis of data

Laboratory testing
and office/desk study of SI task and interpretation

Field reconnaissance Subsurface exploration Groundwater

or site visit or drilling, sampling exploration and
and in-situ testing monitoring

44
Topic 3: Subsurface Exploration or Drilling
CV3013: Foundation Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Methods of Subsurface Exploration

Intrusive methods
o Exploratory trenches and trial pits
o Shafts and headings
o Percussion boring
o Mechanical augers Different Phases of SI
o Wash boring Desk study
o Rotary drilling Site visit
In-situ testing methods Detail planning
Geophysical methods Drilling, in-situ testing and sampling
Laboratory testing
Groundwater monitoring
Interpretation

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Trial Pits

Soil removed by excavator is limited to a depth of 4 - 5 m.

Sides must always be supported, unless sloped at a safe angle.

When the side is below the water table, dewatering is necessary, resulting in increased costs.

Back hoe
With the help of trial pits, soils can be visually examined.

They are easy to obtain for disturbed and undisturbed

samples.
Trial pits are suitable for all types of soil. They are
especially useful for gravelly soil where boreholes may Trial Pit
Clay 1-2 m width
be difficult. 2-4 m depth

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Trial Pits
Stratigraphy and Finds
Layer Soil Soil Colour Finds Chronology
L1 Sandy soil Gray 7.5YR 5/1 Modern Rubbish (filled soil) 1980s
L2 Sandy soil Pinkish white 7.5YR 8/2 Modern rubbish (filled soil) 1980s
L3 Sandy soil Reddish yellow 7.5YR 7/6 Modern rubbish (filled soil) 1980s
L4 Sandy soil Gray 7.5YR 6/1 Modern rubbish (filled soil) 1980s
L5 Loamy soil Reddish yellow 5YR 6/6 Nil (original decomposed soil)
L6 Loamy soil Reddish yellow 5YR 6/8 Nil (original decomposed soil)
L7 Loamy soil, with Light red 2.5YR 6/8 Nil (original decomposed soil)
some
decomposed bed
rock texture

Test Pit Wall Photograph Test Pit Wall Drawing

Western Wall Section Western Wall Section Drawing

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Shafts and Headings

Deep pits or shafts are usually done by hand excavations.

The sides are supported by timbering.

Headings or adits are excavated horizontally from the

bottom of the shafts or from the surface into hillside.

They are unlikely to be done below the water table.

It is very costly and justified only in investigations for

very large structures, such as dams, in case the
ground conditions cannot be ascertained adequately
by other means.

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Percussion Boring

Sheaf
Cable

Road wheels
Winch unit Derrick
Power unit

Casing

Knappett & Craig 2012

Shell 50
Percussion Boring

Shell Clay cutter Chisel

Used for coarse-grained soils.

It is a heavy steel tube fitted with flap or clack valve at the lower end.

Below the water table, percussive action of the shell loosens the soil and
produces slurry in the borehole. Above the water table, slurry is
produced by introducing water into the borehole. Slurry passes through
the clack valve during downward movement and is retained by valve
during upward movement.

When full, the shell is raised to the surface to be emptied.

In cohesionless soils, borehole must be cased to prevent collapse. Shell

Knappett & Craig 2012

51
Percussion Boring

Shell Clay cutter Chisel

Used for fine-grained soils.

It consists of an open steel tube with a cutting shoe and a retaining ring
at the lower end, used in a dry borehole.

Percussive action of the tool cuts a plug of soil which eventually fractures
near its base due to the presence of the retaining ring. The ring also
ensures that soil is retained inside the cutter to be raised to the surface.

Clay cutter
Knappett & Craig 2012

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Percussion Boring

Shell Clay cutter Chisel

Used to break small boulders, cobbles and hard strata.

It is aided by the additional weight of a sinker bar if necessary.

Chisel

Knappett & Craig 2012

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Percussion Boring

[Link] 54
Percussion Boring

Source: [Dando Drilling]. (2015, May 19). Dando 4000 Cable Percussion Rig [Video file]. Retrieved from
[Link] 55
Percussion Boring

Borehole diameters range from 150 to 300 mm. Sheaf

Maximum borehole depth is generally 50-60 m. Cable

It can be employed in most types of soil, including

those containing cobbles and boulders. Road wheels
It is extremely difficult to detect thin soil layers Winch unit Derrick
Power unit
and minor geological features.
The rig is extremely versatile and can normally be
fitted with a hydraulic power unit and attachments Casing
for mechanical augering, rotary core drilling and
in-situ testing (for e.g. SPT).
(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) Percussion boring rig, (b) shell, (c) clay cutter and (d) chisel

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Mechanical Augers

Hand augers: depths of ~5 m, rotated and

pressed down by means of T-handle
• Iwan or post-hole auger; diameters go up
to 200 mm
• Small helical auger; diameters of ~50 mm
Used if hole requires no support and if coarse
materials are absent.
Auger must be withdrawn at frequent intervals
(a) (b)
for removal of soil.

Postal auger Helical auger

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Mechanical Augers

Flight auger: Diameter between 75 and 300 mm

Short-flight augers have a helix of limited length

with cutters below.

They are attached to a steel shaft (kelly bar) and

passes through the rotary head of the rig. The hole
depth is limited by the length of the kelly bar.

An auger is advanced until it is full of soil. It is then

raised to the surface and soil is ejected by rotating Short-flight auger
the auger in a reverse direction. Shorter the helix, Knappett & Craig 2012
more often the auger must be raised.
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Mechanical Augers

Flight auger: Diameter between 75 and 300 mm

Continuous-flight augers have a helix covering the

entire length.

Soil rises to the surface along the helix, obviating the

necessity for withdrawal.

The borehole can go up to depths of 50 m.

It is possible that different soil types may become Continuous-flight auger

mixed as they rise to the surface. It is difficult to Knappett & Craig 2012
determine depths at which changes of strata occur.
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Mechanical Augers

Solid stem auger

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Mechanical Augers

Source: [HWSconsulting]. (2009, Dec 21). Continous Flight Auger Demonstration

[Video file]. Retrieved from [Link] 61
Mechanical Augers

Hollow stem auger: closed at the lower end by a plug

fitted to a rod running inside the stem.

Additional lengths of auger (and internal rod) are added as

the hole is advanced.

At any depth, the plug and rod can be removed which

allows the collection of undisturbed sampling.

Auger performs the function of a casing and can be used

in permeable soils (for example, sands) below water table.

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Wash Boring

Rope

Derrick
Pressure
water
Tub

Drill rod
Casing

Chopping bit
Driving shoe
Water jet at Source: Guidelines for Geotechnical Site Investigations in
high velocity Rhode Island Final Report - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate.
Available from: [Link]
Wash-Boring-System_fig4_237460404 63
Wash Boring

In wash boring, soil is loosened by water and up and down motion of chisel,
washed to the surface by water and allowed to settle in sump.

The borehole is generally cased or stabilised by a drilling fluid.

It is suitable for most soil type, but progress becomes slow if gravel and cobbles
are encountered.

64
Wash Boring

Accurate identification of soil types is difficult. Change in feel of boring tool

and colour of the slurry may be detected when the strata boundary is reached.

It is unacceptable as a means of obtaining soil samples and used only as a means

of advancing a borehole to enable the tube samples to be taken or in-situ tests to
be carried out below the bottom of the hole.

An advantage of the method is that the soil immediately below the hole
remains relatively undisturbed.

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Wash Boring

Source: [NGWATUBE]. (2008, May 22). Bucket auger drilling method [Video file].
Retrieved from [Link] 66
Rotary Drilling

Drilling fluid
It is primarily intended for rock , but can also be used for soils.

Drilling
The coring bit is fixed to the end of the core barrel which is carried fluid and
by drilling rods. cuttings

Water is pumped down hollow rods and passes under high

Drill rod
pressure through small holes inside the bit or barrel. column

Drilling fluid cools and lubricates the drilling tools and then carries
the loose debris to the surface.

The progress is much faster than with other methods. There is a

Rotary
slight disturbance of the soil below the borehole. drill bit

It is not suitable if soil contains a high percentage of gravel-sized

(or larger) particles. Rotary Wash Boring
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Rotary Drilling

Source: [burnz813]. (2013, June 16). Mud rotary drilling [Video file].
Retrieved from [Link] 68
Acknowledgement

The materials for the lecture notes have been

adapted from Prof Teh Cee Ing, Prof Huang An-bin
and Prof Goh Teck Chee.

Their kindness is highly appreciated.

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• Last year exam question?

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